Spatial Referencing: Faculty of Applied Engineering and Urban Planning Civil Engineering Department

Faculty of Applied Engineering and
Urban Planning
Civil Engineering Department
Geographic Information Systems
Spatial Referencing
Lecture 7
Week 5
1st Semester 2012/2013
Spatial Referencing
We know we are somewhere there! but

how can we know where we are?
We are here!!!
Spatial Referencing
For that We need a reference

Earth’s Size and Shape…
It was someday when people thought earth is flat!!
Earth’s Size and Shape…
• The pear-shaped earth was introduced in view of the gravitational influence on
the surface
• And lastly, the potato-shaped earth was introduced to consider the uneven
distribution of masses on the surface of the earth

Spatial Reference System (SRS)
A reference coordinate system is a coordinate

system with well-defined origin and orientation of the
three orthogonal, coordinate axes.
A spatial reference system is a mathematical

abstraction. It is realized (or materialized) by means
of a Spatial Reference Frame (SRF).
Spatial Reference Frame (SRF)
SRF as a catalogue of coordinates of

specific, identifiable point objects, which
implicitly materialize the coordinate axes of
the SRS.
International Terrestrial Reference System (ITRS)
Several spatial reference systems are used in

the Earth sciences. The most important one
for the GIS community is the International
Terrestrial Reference System (ITRS).
The ITRS has its origin in the centre of mass

of the Earth. The Z-axis points towards a
mean Earth north pole. The X-axis is oriented
towards a mean Greenwich meridian and is
orthogonal to the Z-axis. The Y -axis
completes the right-handed reference
coordinate system
International Terrestrial Reference Frame(ITRF)
The ITRS is realized through the International

Terrestrial Reference Frame (ITRF), a
catalogue of estimated coordinates (and
velocities) at a particular epoch of several
specific, identifiable points (or stations).
These stations are more or less

homogeneously distributed over the Earth
surface. They can be thought of as defining
the vertices of a fundamental polyhedron, a
geometric abstraction of the Earth’s shape at
the fundamental epoch
International Terrestrial Reference System and
Frame
GIS user may encounter the following items in
the map legend:
• the name of the local vertical datum
• the name of the local horizontal datum
• the name of the reference ellipsoid and the
fundamental point
• the type of coordinates associated with the
map grid lines
• the map projection
• the map scale
• the transformation parameters from a global
datum to the local horizontal datum.
The geoid
level surface that most closely approximates all
the Earth’s oceans
Every point on the geoid has the same zero height

all over the world.
The geoid
The local vertical datum is implemented through a

levelling network.
A levellingnetwork consists of benchmarks, whose

height above mean sea level has been
determined through geodetic levelling.
The geoid
The local vertical Datum
Historically, the geoid has been realized only
locally, not globally.
A local mean sea level surface is adopted as the

zero height surface of the locality.
The local vertical datum is implemented through a

leveling network. A leveling network consists of
benchmarks, whose height above mean sea
level has been determined through geodetic
leveling.
The users do not need to start from scratch every
time they need to determine the height of a
new point.
They can use the benchmark of the leveling

network that is closest to the point of interest.
The ellipsoid and the horizontal datum
Can we also use the mean sea level surface to
project upon it the rugged Earth topography?
In principle yes, but in practice no. The mean sea level

is everywhere orthogonal to the direction of the gravity
vector. A surface that must satisfy this condition is
bumpy and complex to describe mathematically.
The mathematical shape that is simple enough and

most closely approximates the local mean sea level is
the surface of an oblate ellipsoid.
The ellipsoid and the horizontal datum
The geoid, a globally best fitting ellipsoid
for it, and a regionally best fitting ellipsoid for it,
for a chosen region.
Adapted from: Ordnance Survey of Great Britain.
A Guide to Coordinate Systems in Great Britain
Coordinate Systems and Reference Model
A reference system is then needed

to be “put-on” a model that closely
fits the surface of the earth.
• In geometric geodesy, the earth is
represented by an ellipsoid of
revolution whose dimensions fits
closely the surface of the earth.
• This ellipsoid of revolution is
known as the reference ellipsoid
(other older literature termed this
as “spheroid”).
• The coordinate system and the
reference system are the essential
components of a reference
framework.
Introduction
Geographic Coordinate Systems
Angle from equator: latitude Φ
Angle east of Greenwich: longitude λ
Projected Coordinate Systems
X and Y from a specified origin
Classification of map projections
Above projections are all tangent surfaces; they touch the horizontal
reference surface in one point (plane) or along a closed line (cone and
cylinder) only
Above projections are all tangent surfaces; they touch the horizontal
reference surface in one point (plane) or along a closed line (cone and
cylinder) only
Another class of projections is obtained if the surfaces are chosen to be secant to

(to intersect with) the horizontal reference surface. Then, the reference surface is
intersected along one closed line (plane) or two closed lines (cone and cylinder).
Any map projection is associated with distortions. There is simply

no way to flatten out a piece of ellipsoidal or spherical surface
without stretching some parts of the surface more than others.
Some map projections can be visualized as true geometric

projections directly onto the mapping plane, or onto an
intermediate surface, which is then rolled out into the mapping
plane.
Need for Projection!!
Earth is ellipsoidal while maps are planner
Introduction
Limitations on Projection Systems
Introduction
Different Projection Systems
cone cylinder plane
normal
transverse
oblique
Projection Types
Projection Types
Local Projected Coordinates
http://gaialab.asu.edu/Jordan/Reproject.ph
p
Palestine Grid
Israel Grid
Coordinate Systems
In studying Geometric Geodesy, three coordinate

systems are commonly in use:
1. The Cartesian-Space Rectangular Coordinate

System
2. The Geodetic Coordinate System
3. The Map-Grid Coordinate System
Cartesian-Space Rectangular Coordinate
System
a rectilinear type of
coordinate system on a three-
dimensional surface where the
position of the points is
expressed as coordinates of a
righthanded orthogonal
system whose origin coincides
with the center of the
ellipsoid, XZ-plane defines the
zero meridian and XY plane
defines the equator
Uses (X,Y,Z) as its coordinate

components
Geodetic Coordinate System
(Geographic Coordinate System)
a curvilinear type of coordinate system on three-

dimensional space which uses a an surface to define the
position of point on the earth.
This coordinate system also uses three parameters to

define the position of a point:
1. Geodetic latitude (φ): the angle between the ellipsoid
normal through the point and the equator. (0≤ φ ≤ 90N
or S)
2. Geodetic Longitude (λ): the angle in the equatorial
plane between the zero meridian and the meridian of
the point. (0 ≤ λ ≤180E or W)
3. Ellipsoidal height (h): the distance along the normal
from the surface of the ellipsoid to point P.
Geodetic Coordinate System
Map-Grid Coordinate System
(Projected Coordinate system)
A rectilinear type of coordinate system on a planar
surface where the horizontal position of a point is
defined.
The idea of which is to make the curved surface of
the Earth by some mathematical transformation
(map projection) into a plane.
It uses basically two parameters to define the

position of a point:
1.Northing, N (or y)
2.Easting, E (or x)
• The third component of the position of a point

which is the Elevation becomes an attribute in this
coordinate system

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Faculty of Applied Engineering and

Civil Engineering Department

Geographic Information Systems

We know we are somewhere there! but

For that We need a reference

• The pear-shaped earth was introduced in view of the gravitational influence on

distribution of masses on the surface of the earth

A reference coordinate system is a coordinate

A spatial reference system is a mathematical

SRF as a catalogue of coordinates of

Several spatial reference systems are used in

The ITRS has its origin in the centre of mass

The ITRS is realized through the International

These stations are more or less

Every point on the geoid has the same zero height

The local vertical datum is implemented through a

A levellingnetwork consists of benchmarks, whose

A local mean sea level surface is adopted as the

The local vertical datum is implemented through a

They can use the benchmark of the leveling

In principle yes, but in practice no. The mean sea level

The mathematical shape that is simple enough and

A reference system is then needed

Another class of projections is obtained if the surfaces are chosen to be secant to

Any map projection is associated with distortions. There is simply

Some map projections can be visualized as true geometric

In studying Geometric Geodesy, three coordinate

1. The Cartesian-Space Rectangular Coordinate

Uses (X,Y,Z) as its coordinate

a curvilinear type of coordinate system on three-

This coordinate system also uses three parameters to

It uses basically two parameters to define the

• The third component of the position of a point

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