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    Introduction to GIS and ArcGIS
    Introduction to GIS and ArcGIS
    Introduction to GIS and ArcGIS
    Ebook99 pages1 hour

    Introduction to GIS and ArcGIS

    By Alan Shrake

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    About this ebook

    I wrote this summary for a class I taught.  It is an introduction to GIS and ArcGIS, with fundamental concepts, methods, and applications of GIS in spatial analysis and decision making for real world problems.  Lists of instructions from the textbook were simplified into verbal commands in text form.  

    LanguageEnglish
    PublisherAlan Shrake
    Release dateMar 17, 2019
    ISBN9781386203889
    Introduction to GIS and ArcGIS

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      Book preview

      Introduction to GIS and ArcGIS - Alan Shrake

      Ch. 2: Cartography

      To produce a successful map with GIS, first you need cartographic skills.  Therefore, in this chapter, we will examine the principles and elements of cartographic design. 

      Cartography is the science of mapmaking, with its practices and rules, and also an art, in that one is trying to graph spatial information in a clear and pleasing format, with beauty and creativity.  What’s your cartographic style?

      A cartographic evolution has occurred over millions of years, from hominoids scratching in the ground to Paleolithic and Neolithic cave paintings to the early maps of hydraulic civilizations to the Age of Exploration to our present day.

      According to Automation and Cartography by Tobler, modern GIS was affected by six revolutions in technology (manual, magnetic, mechanical, optical, photochemical, and electronic), in four stages of adaptation (reluctance, replication, full implementation, and, finally, mass appeal).

      Maps are a form of visual communication in which map features are like words in that they convey information to the user, or reader, who has a spatial relationship to the mapped area, therefore the integration of spatial and non-spatial data has to reduce sensory overload by limiting the amount of information presented.

      It is all a communication system of cartographer, map, themes, user speed, output, and design aesthetics, e.g., 8x11 paper is pleasing.

      There are different types of maps. 

      A general map shows many themes together, such as a wall map of the world or a road map.  It is used for planning and reference. 

      A specific map portrays only one or a set of features usually in large scale and fine detail for a special audience.  Examples are geologic, aeronautical, nautical, planimetric, and cadastral maps. 

      A thematic map portrays the distribution of features or relationships, overlaid on a base map for reference. 

      A cartogram displays features sized according to some data set, such as a world population map by country. 

      A topographic map, or topo map, shows changes in elevation using contour lines.  Closely bunched lines indicate a steep gradient. 

      A cognitive map portrays qualitative understanding of personal space, such as your trip from home to school, using just lines.  Cognitive issues include elements, spatial representation abilities, and functions.

      A choropleth map symbolizes a statistical surface on a grid, like pollution plumes, with two color ramps, two variable color progressions for two databases, and a color ramp for two hue progressions.  Quantitative progression has equal color contrast steps but sharp.

      In cartographic design, detail and precision are utmost.  Standardization of output is critical for return business.

      The first step in creating a map is map layout.  Achieve map aesthetics with visual balance.  Place the map center up 5% from the geometric center of the page.  Orient the map to the largest polygon and then sketch it out.  Features such as these are self-explanatory.

      Other map layout concerns are clarity, legibility, visual contrast, clarity, legibility, balance, organization, and the use of proper colors.

      The map elements are: title (location and/or theme); legend (box with symbols used for features); scale (graphic, verbal, fractional); compass rose (w/north arrow, for orientation); neatline (inner frame); border (outer frame); sources (information or base maps); projection (conic, cylindrical, azimuthal); and, a logo (for clients or marketing).

      A visual hierarchy in your map emphasizes the importance of a certain feature or theme over others.  This is accomplished through optical lift of the map layers, with the title as the primary layer and the base information the secondary layer.  Focus perception on the figure before the ground, i.e., foreground and background.  Project one and subdue the other.  Create a visual centerpoint to the map’s white space, which is the whole page, vertical or horizontal orientation. 

      Use visual contrast in drawing lines of light and dark, thin and thick, smooth and rough texture and line weight, but be clear and legible.  Value refers to the relative lightness and darkness of lines and shapes.  Perception scale in Nature is light equals high, but it’s the reverse with maps. 

      Polygon harmony and polygon balance are achieved when polygon crosshatching is smooth, without blending classifications.  Dot patterns are good for those with color blindness.  To avoid noise in crosshatching, the best line texture is 45 degree diagonal. Avoid parallel line feedback vibration.   

      With color maps, color theory, color balance, color hue (shade or tint), and color value (relative lightness and darkness) are factors, so limit your palette.  Mix strong colors with those of same value to provide intensity.  Polygon colors should match legend colors. 

      A color ramp of values shows natural or made-up classification ranges, so it must be clear.  Ramp types, with examples: single hue (white to green); bipolar hue (blue to white to red); complementary hue (blue, gray, yellow); partial hue (yellow to red); blended hue (yellow to brown); value (white to black); and, full spectrum (blue to red).  Your eyes see eight to sixteen colors at one time, so apply color ramp logic in selection.

      Generalization (select, classify, simplify, symbolize, induce) reduces complexity but keeps accuracy, through the use of algorithms for interpolation for vector analysis and raster analysis.  Reduce map chatter and complexity. 

      Lastly, typographic style is important, with the theme primary, e.g., Times New Roman is popular for water.  For slide legibility, use the Sixty Foot Rule: the minimum text width should be 14 inches.

      Ch. 3: Introducing GIS

      Geographic Information Systems , or GIS , is a computer technology that enables the creation of maps and connecting of data to them for analysis.  The maps and globes of the old science of cartography are now in a computer.  A feature is each geographic object on a map or layer, while a surface is a single, continuous expanse that changes from one location to another, such as the ocean.

      A traditional general map shows features with labels for identification, while a GIS layer map has different coverages portraying each attribute.  Layers can be numerous, from cultural and natural sources, limited only by data collection.  One goal of this course is to encourage the creation of layers of information that be used by the public.

      Features are represented as points, lines, or polygons, all of which come is various sizes and shapes. 

      Polygons are large enough to have boundaries, such as countries and lakes. 

      Lines are narrow, such as roads and rivers.  Lines connect and have contiguity.  Annotating lines to data takes a large file. 

      Points are single objects, such as a tree, or you.  A point can be a location or an aggregate. Location on small- scale, aggregates on large.

      All of these are called vector data. 

      Surfaces are represented by numeric values rather than shapes, i.e., measurable values for any particular location on the Earth’s surface, e.g., elevation. 

      These are called raster data. 

      Examples include elevation, temperature, and rainfall.  A raster is a matrix of identically sized square cells, each of which represents a unit of surface area, such as one or ten meters, and contains a measured or estimated value for that location.  Vector data can be

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