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Component-I (A) – Personal details:

Prof. P. Bhaskar Reddy

Sri Venkateswara University, Tirupati.

Dr. Krishnendu Ray

Dept. of AIHC, University of Calcutta.

Dr. K. Mavali Rajan

Visva-Bharati University, Santiniketan.

Prof. Bhaskar Reddy

Sri Venkateswara University, Tirupati.

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Component-I (B) – Description of module:

Subject Name Indian Culture

Economic History of India (from the Earliest Time

Paper Name
to 1707 AD)

Economy under the Chalukyas of Kalyana and

Module Name/Title
Kalachuris

Module Id IC / EHI / 25

Learn the political history and cultural influence of

Pre requisites the Chalukyas of Kalyani and Kalachuris of the
south Indian dynasties.

The south India under the Kalyani Chalukyas and

Kalachuris viewed tremendous economic
development. They paid much attention on the
agricultural expansion. The majority of the people
Objectives
lived in villages and worked farming the stable
crops paddy. Agriculture based village industry
developed. Trade and commerce flourished during
the time periods.

Chalukyas / Kalyani / Kalachuris / Agriculture,

Keywords
Irrigation / Industry / Traders / Taxation

E-Text (Quadrant-I) :

1. Introduction

In south India the period of Kalyani Chalukyas and Kalachuris were important in the field of
economic development. They took keen interest in agrarian expansion. They commenced
many proposals to the improvement of agricultural and its prosperity. For the enhancement
of more agriculture produce they constructed a large number of tanks for the irrigation
purpose. They also formed new settlements in villages and granting them as Brahmapuri to
the Brahmin functionaries. These economic activities enabled them and enriched them
towards the enhancement. These agrarian changes led to the appearance of commercial
activities. Eventually these changes in both agriculture and trade and commerce improved
the economic condition of the state.

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Map of Chalukya of Kalyani

Map of Kalachuri dynasty

2. Agriculture

2.1. Land Tenure

Land was by far the most important resource of medieval south India, as indeed in all pre-
industrial food producing societies. It was played vital role in mobilizing revenue for the state
in the form of land tax as well as agriculture produce. The king and the administrator realized
the importance of the land and its value, henceforth; many initiatives were undertaken to the
survey and measurement of the land. Demarcation of land was also done in proper manner.
They tried to bring many forest lands under cultivation. The land grants served as one of the
important means of bringing virgin soil under cultivation in Chalukya regions.

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In the Kalyani Chalukya period there was a practice of granting land to the descendants of
the heroes who sacrificed their life for cause of the state. They granted lands and villages to
the temples and Brahmins. Land grants to the Brahmin priest and mathas we also get it
from the records of the Kalachuris. Reference is also made to Brahmapuri, which was the
Brahmin settlement. This practice of rewarding plots of land, villages even sometimes the
fiscal and administrative rights also granted to the Brahmins and the temples by the kings,
queens, feudal lords, private individuals guilds and other institutions, which paved the way
for the emergence of powerful landed intermediaries between the king and the people during
the Kalyani Chalukyas period. Apart from the service tenure there is also evidence to
individual ownership and royal ownership. In royal ownership the king had the right to own
private land, which is generally referred to as royal land.

The land tenure of the period was known by in several terms viz. tala-vritti, bhatta-vritti,
akkarika-vritti, kumara-vritti, deva-bhoga, (land gifted to Siva temples) etc. The gifts of land
to temples for the maintenance of services are designated by the term tala-vritti. The term
vritti is usually employed to designate service tenure. The bhatta-vritti is referring to free land
donated for the teacher of Sastras. And akkarika-vritti refers to free land for the village
teacher who taught morality to the students. The tala-vritti obviously means free land for the
maintenance services in the tala shrine, to which the gift is made. There are several
instances to the gift of land as tala-vritti. An inscription mentions that a village Suruki was
given as tala-vritti by Attimabbe to the Brahma Jinalaya, a Jain basadi. The Sivanur village
was made into a tala-vritti for the Siva temple of Nagesvara in Sundi erected by Nagadeva.
This donation to Siva temples is also known as deva-bhoga. There is also reference to
kumara-vritti, which stands for the land holding of the royal prince.

Generally land was divided into different types as wet, dry and garden lands, grassland, and
wasteland and forest land. These divisions of land were based on the condition of soil and
cultivation of the crops. The following terms indicates the land division of the Kalyani
Chalukyas;

 Key (land under wet cultivation)

 Galde (land under dry cultivation)

 Tonta (garden lands)

 Adakeya-tonta (areca gardens)

 Mane and mane nivesana (houses and house-sites) and some other divisions.

During the Kalyani Chalukya period land was measured in the units of matter and kammas.
There are references to 900 kammas and a matter of seventy six rods (kols) in Chalukyan
inscriptions. But the kol (measuring rod) was itself no fixed unit. Numerous types rod occur in
inscriptions such as piriya kol, kurita-kunteya kol, bherunda gale, etc. We also find the term
rajamana as a royal measurement. The nivartana and khanduga are the other measures of
land employed on occasions.

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2.2. Crop Cultivation

Agriculture was the main source of income of state through taxes on land and produce. The
majority of the people lived in villages and they cultivated the staple food crops paddy in the
wet land. The pulses and cotton cultivated in the dry areas and sugarcane in areas having
sufficient rainfall, with areca and betel being the chief cash crops. Besides the cultivation of
food grains and pulses, on both wet and dry land intensive cultivation of garden product
were also extensively practiced. There are references to the grazing fields in the Chalukyan
inscriptions. An inscription at Sitabaldi (Nagpur) belonging to the reign of Vikramaditya VI
records that Dandanayaka Vasudeva gave away twelve nivartanas of land for grazing of
cows (gopracara) and five more for a sphere (vahaka) who tended the cattle.

Among the cultivable lands the wet lands were the most valuable one, which were irrigated
by means of water from a tank, canal, well, etc. With the availability of the irrigation facilities
the people cultivated variety of food crops. Inscriptions give us valuable information
regarding agricultural and horticultural products of the Kalyani Chalukya period. Paddy was
cultivated in larger level. Inscriptions mention the cultivation of other agricultural products like
indigo, maize, wheat, sesamum, mustard, castor, colam, etc. Among the garden crops areca
nut, betel leafs, tamarind, mangoes, Palmyra, citron and sugar-cane figure predominantly.
The root products like turmeric, ginger, kanda, pemdalam, cema, mullamgi, etc. and
vegetables like potla-kakara, gummadi, vamga, baccali, nurulli, etc. are also referred in the
inscriptional and literary sources.

Irrigation

Cultivation of various crops depended on a good supply of water. The river water is
important source of irrigation, which give fertility to the soil of the river belts. During the
scarcity of the river water the people stored the river water and rain water in the tank of the
common villages. When the rainfall was uneven, cultivator used the tank water for irrigation
purpose. The king and other royal families realized the importance of the irrigation, since the
agriculture was the main occupation of the people. In the construction of the tank for water
storage the king and royal families took special attention and provided their support in
construction work. Inscriptions of the Kalyani Chalukya period give information on the
support and patronage of the royal families for the promotion of the irrigation facilities. At
Mantur in the Bijapur district (in 1041 A.D) certain incomes from taxes and fines were set
apart for digging a tank called Rattasamudra after the Ratta governor of the locality. Another
instances in 1052 A.D. the Kadamba prince Harikesarin presented to the mahajanas of Nirili
(Niralgi in Darwar) the entire house tax of the place for the maintenance of the Piriyakere,
the big tank.

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Royal Emblem of Kalachuris

Land was endowed in the same year for the maintenance of a tank Gundiyakere at Talakallu
in the Bellary district. An inscription of 1071 A.D. from the Sorab taluk in the Shimoga district
speaks about a successful scheme for bringing fresh land under cultivation by the digging of
a new tank Settikere, and an endowment for the maintenance of this tank. Some time the
entire toll taxes were transferred for the construction and maintenance of the water tank.
These information notices that there were general realization of the importance of irrigation
in land economy.

3. Village Industries

During the Kalyani Chalukya and Kalachuri periods different village industries were
progressed as a controlled industry of the state. Number of agriculture based industries; oil-
pressing industry, sugarcane mills, spinning and weaving industries were industries were
located in almost all important big town and cities. The oil-presses were licensed by the
kings unless they were granted exemption. All the industries had to pay their duty directly to
the kings

In industrial activities many artisan community and other professional groups were involved.
The artisans like carpenter, potter, black-smith, gold-smith, copper-smith etc. were closely
associated with the economic development of the villages. Inscriptions of the Kalyani
Chalukyas mentions certain occupational groups like cobbler, washer man, barber, cattle-
keepers, various labours of both paid and free labour, etc. and their role in economic
development of the country.

Salt manufacturing was important occupation of the state, which was continued to be a state
monopoly under the many south Indian dynasties. Wood-work, ivory-work, jewels making,
woolen carpets and some other crafts were also displayed extraordinary skill of the
craftsmen. These professional groups had to get sanction from the governing authority for
their professional vocation. All the professional groups paid their taxes to the state according
to their status of the profession.

4. Coins

Both the Kalyani Chalukyas and the Kalachuris issued coins in their domain. Especially the
Kalyani Chalukyas issued many coins in their country, which was mainly used for the
commercial transaction. They issued gold and silver coins. We find large number of
references to coins, mints, various denominations, the names of the coins in the

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contemporary inscriptions. On the basis of various references it becomes clear that the
period was very rich from the numismatic point of view.

There were many coins minting centre in the Chalukyan region. They minted their state
coins at Lokkigunti and Sudi. Numerous references to the mint at the Lokkigunti indicate that
it was an important mint during the Kalyani Chalukya period. The inscription of
Tribhuvanamalla gives the evidence to the coin mint centre at Sudi. The inscription mentions
gifts made by Uttavoja, the gold-smith and mint master of Tribhuvanamalla, to god
Kammatesvara at Sudi. The same inscription mentions the word belliyagammata, which
shows that silver coins were also minted in addition to gold coins.

Western Chalukya of Kalyani, Coins of the King Somesvara I Trilokamalla (1043-1068 A.D)

There are various terms occurring in the inscriptions of the Chalukyas to gold coins. The
term gadyana refer to gold coin of Kalyani Chalukyas. Kondguli inscription of Bhulokamalla
(dated 1132 A.D.) mentions some of the gold coins viz. varttaka lokki gadyana, kantaka piya
gadyana and kantaka gadyana. Mostly the gold coins of the Kalyani Chalukyas are plated
coins as they are of a base-metal core covered or plated with a thin layer of gold. Each
design or symbol on the Chalukya coin has been impressed by a separate punch, and like
the Kadamba coins the ones of the Chalukyas to assume the form of a concave saucer or
cup.

Coins of the Kalyani Chalukya king Somesvara (1181-1189 A.D). Image Garuda depicted in
the coin, with prominent beak, running right.

There were many symbols found in the Chalukya coins. The most common device on the
obverse of the Chalukya coins is the varaha or boar. Religious symbols such as the lamp,
lotus and conch sometimes appear around the boar. On a few rare coins, the sun and moon
symbols are depicted above the boar - the moon as a crescent while the sun is shown as a
circle or pellet. The varaha, was the royal emblem of the Kalyani Chalukyas.

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Apart from gold and silver coins the Kalyani Chalukyas also issued copper coins in their
region. There are epigraphic as well as literary references to the copper coins. These kinds
of coins are generally round and punched with various symbols. The Kalyana Chalukyan
coins have been found in Karnataka, Andhra, Tamilnadu and Maharashtra regions. One of
the richest collections of the Kalayai Chalukya coins is from the Koduru trove, which is a
small village in Nellore district of Andhradesa. The villagers discovered some copper and
earthen pots containing gold coins numbering to 15, 462 in the Koduru village, which
indicates the richness of the dynasty in minting several gold coins.

The Kalachuris also issued several coins, which is very similar to the coins of the Kalyani
Chalukyas. Some of the coins have the punched devices which is also common on the later
Chalukyan series. The coins bear the legend Kalache or Kalachera which may be taken to
the dynastic name of the Kalachuris. The legend does not give the name of the issuing
authority but coins with dynastic name may be referred to the period of Bijjala, the Kalachuri
king (1156-1167 A.D.). Some varieties of coins with an ‘anthropoid figure’ and with dynastic
name have been found in Kalachuri region. The king Somesvara issued several such type of
coins during his reign. The coins of the Kalachuris bear the legend ‘Bhujabala’, which may
indicate the title of the Kalachuri rulers.

Silver coin, known as a rupaka, of Krishnaraja Kalachuri (reigned c. 550-575 CE).

5. Merchant Guilds

The organization of corporate bodies became common in the 11th and 12th centuries. Every
trader, artisans, and various occupational groups had their own organizations in early period.
The merchants like gold merchants, clothe dealers, oil merchants and grain merchants, had
their own organizations. Almost all arts and crafts were organized into guilds and work was
done on a corporate basis. But inscriptional records do not mention individual artists,
sculptors and craftsman. The merchants organized themselves into powerful guilds that
transcended political divisions, allowing their operations to be largely unaffected by wars and
revolutions. Their only threat was the possibility of theft from brigands when their ships and
caravans traveled to distant lands.

Many guild organizations are noticed in the south Indian inscriptional volumes. Among them
very powerful South Indian merchant guilds were included the Manigramam, the Nagarattar
and Anjuvannam. Local guilds were called nagaram, while the Nanadesis were traders from
neighbouring kingdoms who perhaps mixed business with pleasure. There is reference to
Bananju merchants, the nanadesi, manevarata and jourupa in Kalachuri inscriptions.

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There were some classes among the merchant guilds of the Kalyani Chalukya period.
Among them the Sixteen (settis) of the eight nads was most prominent, who used as carriers
asses and buffalos. Many other classes of merchants and soldiers, viz. gavares, settis,
settiguttas, ankakaras, biras, gandigas, gavundas, gavundasvamis, etc are noticed in
inscriptions. In some Chalukya inscriptions we find mention the names of the guilds like 500
Vira Balanjiya, sixteen of eight nads and 500 svamis of Ayyavole in 1074 A.D from Holal. We
also find the Nanadesis with a brief prasasti in 1127 A.D at Ragimasala vada. All these
records came from the modern Bellary district.

The Nanadesis was a prominent trade guild during the Kalyani Chalukya period, who visited
many countries in overseas. In Chalukya inscriptions we find mention of Nanadesi and the
Mummuri-dands. The Nanadesis were divided into Cola, Malaya and Kannada on the basis
of their region and linguistic group. They involved in trade activities, visited all countries,
villages, towns, cities and with valuable articles in their bags. They traded in magnificent
elephants, horses of the finest breeds, moonstones, pearls, rubies, diamonds, topaz,
emerald and other precious articles. They also traded some commercial goods like cloves,
sandal, musk, saffron and other species and perfumes. They paid the sunka regularly and
filled the royal treasury with gold and jewels.

The wealthiest and most influential and celebrated of all South Indian merchant guilds was
the self-styled Ainurruvar. They were also known as the 500 Svamis of Ayyavolepura
(Brahmins and Mahajanas of present-day Aihole), who conducted extensive land and sea
trade and thereby contributed significantly to the total foreign trade of the empire. It fiercely
protected its trade obligations (Vira Bananjudharma or law of the noble merchants) and its
members often recorded their achievements in inscriptions (prasasti). Five hundred such
excavated Prasasti inscriptions, with their own flag and emblem, the bull, record their pride in
their business.

From the early periods these guilds have played a very important part in the support of trade
and commerce. They organize themselves and frame their own rules and regulations for the
maintenance of unity among the members and regulate its commercial activities. Through
their guild unity they presented self government in trade. This federation of trade was most
important component in the economic history of the ancient India.

6. Trade and Commerce

6.1. Commercial Centre

The urban economy of the Kalyani Chalukyas was mainly based on the commercial activities
of the town and cities. We find several names of the towns in inscriptions and literatures. The
big towns were designated as nagara, pattana or pura. Some of the nagara like Aihole and
Dambal were called as maha-nagara (big towns), are well known to have been large
mercantile settlements.

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In Tamil country the term nagaram was reserved exclusively for mercantile centre and
pattanam for sea-ports. We find references to pattanasvamins and nagara settis, who were
mostly the inhabitants of the pattanam and nagaram respectively. The general assembly of
nagara was called mahajanas, who were very powerful group and controlled landed
properties and its resources. The mercantile community of the nagara controlled and
regulated matters relating to the trade and commerce of the country. These commercial
centre played vital role in the growth of state’s economy and political legitimization of the
influential community of the big centre.

6.2. Trade

Rich traders contributed significantly to the king's treasury through paying import and export
taxes. The edicts of the Aihole Svamis mention trade ties with Indian kingdom and foreign
kingdoms such as the Cheras, Pandyas, Maleya (Malaysia), Magadh, Kaushal, Sourashtra,
Kurumba, Kambhoja (Cambodia), Lata (Gujarat), Parasa (Persia) and Nepal. Travelling both
land and sea routes, these merchants traded mostly in precious stones, spices and
perfumes, and other specialty items such as camphor. Business flourished in precious
stones such as diamonds, lapis, topaz, carbuncles, and emeralds. Commonly traded spices
were cardamom, saffron, and cloves, while perfumes included the by-products of
sandalwood, musk, civet and rose. These items were sold either in bulk or hawked on
streets by local merchants in towns.

6.2.1. Inland Trade

There was a remarkable growth in internal trade in Chalukyan territory. The regular markets
had gradually become urban centre. Various commodities were brought from villages to
urban markets for sale. There were excellent high ways to transport goods from one place to
another and one region to another region. The capital city of the Western Chalukyas had
remained an important trading centre. There were other commercial centre emerged as the
urban centre in core area of the Chalukya region.

Regarding the commercial activities in inland transaction, every village in south India under
the study period had its market. In the village markets the best articles were kept for sale
including different kinds of grains. In addition to grains, there were other articles such as: oil,
ghee, areca nut, vegetables, flowers, coconuts, sugar, cloth, sandals, etc. were sold in their
markets. Every village temple also surrounded by the shops. A license had to be taken to
open shops by merchants in certain areas. The license was granted at the request by the
royal officers. The interest shown by kings in internal trade is evidenced by such royal
support.

In inland transaction, the merchants used roadways both trunk and sub-roads for transport of
the merchandise. The internal trade must have been carried by transporting merchandise in
carts or on the backs of pack-animals. The merchants moved about in caravans to avoid the
risk from robbers. They timed their travel to particular places in accordance with the festivals
which took place at the temples of the various localities. Mostly temple festivals were the
important marketing place for people of the country.

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6.2.2. External Trade

The Kalyani Chalukyas controlled most of South India's west coast and by the 10th century
they had established extensive trade ties with the Tang Empire of China, the empires of
South East Asia and the Abbasid Caliphate in Bhagdad, and by the 12th century Chinese
fleets were frequenting Indian ports.

The traders from Chalukya country exported many commercial goods to the China and other
foreign counties. They exported textiles, spices, medicinal plants, jewels, ivory, rhino horn,
ebony and camphor to Song dynasty of China. The same products also reached ports in the
west such as Dhofar and Aden. The final destinations for those trading with the west were
Persia, Arabia and Egypt. The Kharepetan plates of Rattaraja (1008 A.D.) mentions the
overseas trade of the Kalyani Chalukyas with Malaya archipelago.

The thriving trade center of Siraf, a port on the eastern coast of the Persian Gulf, served an
international clientele of merchants including those from the Chalukya Empire who were
feasted by wealthy local merchants during business visits. An indicator of the Indian
merchants' importance in Siraf comes from records describing dining plates reserved for
them. In addition to this, Siraf received aloe wood, perfumes, sandalwood and condiments
from south India.

The most expensive import to South India was Arabian horse shipments, this trade being
monopolized by Arabs and local Brahmin merchants. Traveller Marco Polo, in the 13th
century, recorded that the breeding of horses never succeeded in India due to differing
climatic, soil and grassland conditions. The busy trade activities with many overseas
territories indicate the very close commercial relationship with those counties.

7. Taxation

We find numerous technical terms of revenue in the inscriptions of the Kalyani Chalukyas.
Two kinds of revenue were collected by the state viz. aya and sunka. The term aya which
comprised all other terms of income, fell into various kinds.

The most notable kinds of income of the state were siddhaya, pannaya, and dandaya. The
term siddhaya stands for the traditional land tax; the pannaya was income from merchandise
and the dandaya was income from fines imposed by court or payment for punishment for
offences. The term sunka is used for a general income. There were several variety of sunka
levy mentioned in Chalukya inscriptions, viz. vadda-ravulada sunka, perjjunka and manneya
sunka. Each of these sunka was evidently collected and administered by district agencies of
the state.

Land tax assessment was based on frequent surveys evaluating the quality of land and the
type of produce. The Kalyani Chalukya records specifically mention black soil and red soil
lands in addition to wetland, dry land and wasteland in determining taxation rates. The land
tax was called siddhaya in Kalyana Chalukya period.

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Taxes were levied on mining and forest products too. Sometimes additional income was
raised through tolls for the use of transportation facilities. The state also collected fees from
customs, professional licenses, and judicial fines. Records show horses and salt were taxed.
The commercial goods like gold, textiles, perfumes and agricultural produce like black
pepper, paddy, spices, betel leaves, palm leaves, coconuts and sugar were taxed by the
state.

They collected various professional taxes from the people. Angadi-dere (tax on shops),
domba-dere (tax on tumblers), gaana-dere (tax on oil mills), navida-dere (tax on barbers),
were some of the professional taxes. House tax (manevana), tax on threshold (hosatilu), and
the pandals (hamdara) were property taxes levied by the local bodies. There were
commercial taxes collected on merchandise. These commercial taxes were collected from
the merchants of the country, those who involve in both inland and overseas trade.

In the villages of the study region many taxes were collected. There were separate officials
to look after the village lands and its management. The important village officials is
mentioned in inscriptions from rural areas were the Gavundas (officials) or Goudas. The
Gavundas belonged to two levels of economic strata, the Praja Gavunda (people's
Gavunda) and the Prabhu Gavunda (lord of Gavundas). They served the dual purpose of
representing the people before the rulers as well as functioning as state appointees for tax
collection and the raising of militias. They are mentioned in inscriptions related to land
transactions, irrigation maintenance, village tax collection and village council duties.

8. Summary

The economic condition of the south India during the Kalyani Chalukyas and Kalachuris was
agriculture based. They worked for the promotion of agriculture, since it was the main
occupation of the majority of state population. They used various kinds of irrigation methods
to water their arable lands. Mostly they employed tank irrigation to provide water for wet crop
cultivation. The trade and commerce were flourished and the merchants of the period
involved in both internal and external trade. Both the Kalyani Chalukyas and Kalachuris
imposed several taxes on people. The land holders, merchants, artisans and other
professional groups paid their taxes directly to the state, which formed the backbone of its
revenue. They also collected some emergency taxes at war times. All these revenue
collection filled the state treasury, which led to country’s economic growth and prosperity.

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