Electric Vehicle Fires

Government of India
Ministry of Home Affairs

NATIONAL FIRE SERVICE COLLEGE
Takli Feeder Road, Rajnagar, Nagpur – 440030.
PROJECT-I & PROJECT-II
“STUDYING ELECTRIC VEHICLE FIRES & ANALYZING SUPPRESSANTS USED”

&
“DESIGN OF IOT BASED CONDENSED AEROSOL FIRE SUPPRESSION SYSTEM
AND STUDY OF PASSIVE FIRE PROTECTION FOR ELECTRIC VEHICLE”
Project Report Submitted in

Partial fulfillment of the
th
6 Semester B.E. (Fire Engineering) Course
By
Mr. Aditya Ajay Rannaware Mr. Rishi Rajesh Raorane
Mr. Nayan Waman Peshne Mr. Ritik Ashok Kawale
Mr. Vedant Kashiwar
Guide
Shri. Rajesh Chaudhari

2020 - 2021
DECLARATION
We hereby declare that the project thesis entitled “Studying Electric Vehicle Fires &
Analyzing Suppressants Used” and “Design of IoT Based Condensed Aerosol Fire
Suppression System & Study of Passive Fire Protection for Electric Vehicle” submitted
therein has been carried out by us in the National Fire Service College, Nagpur. This work is
original and has not been submitted earlier either as a whole or in part for the award of any
degree/certificate at this or any other Institution/University.
Nagpur, 1st July 2021.
1. Mr. Aditya Ajay Rannaware
2. Mr. Nayan Waman Peshne
3. Mr. Rishi Rajesh Raorane
4. Mr. Ritik Ashok Kawale
5. Mr. Vedant Kashiwar

Government of India
Ministry of Home Affairs
NATIONAL FIRE SERVICE COLLEGE
Takli Feeder Road, Rajnagar, Nagpur - 440030
CERTIFICATE
The project report titled “Studying Electric Vehicle Fires & Analyzing Suppressants
Used” and “Design of IoT Based Condensed Aerosol Fire Suppression System & Study of
Passive Fire Protection for Electric Vehicles” is a bonafide work carried out by Mr. Aditya
Rannaware, Mr. Nayan Peshne, Mr. Rishi Raorane, Mr. Ritik Kawale and Mr. Vedant
Kashiwar in the National Fire Service College, Nagpur and is submitted in the partial fulfillment
of the 6th Semester B. E. (Fire Engineering) Course.
Shri. Rajesh Chaudhari Dr. Gautam Kumar

(Project Guide) (Dean Academics)
(Deputy Director)
Shri. Ramesh Kumar

(Director)
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We would like to convey our heartfelt gratitude to our Director, Shri. Ramesh Kumar, National
Fire Service College, Nagpur for their help and co-operation.
We are very grateful to our mentor Shri. Rajesh Chaudhari, Deputy Director, NFSC,
Nagpur for his advice, good counsel, help and guidance throughout the project.
We are having genuine pleasure to express our deep sense of gratitude to Dr. Dhananjay
K. Singh, Course Coordinator and Mr. Vivek R. Sharma, Assistant Professor, NFSC, Nagpur.
Their dedication and keen interest, above all, their overwhelming attitude to help us, has been
solely and mainly responsible for completing our project. Their timely advice, meticulous scrutiny,
scholarly advice and scientific approach have helped us to a great extent to accomplish this project.
We are thanking profusely all the Professors and Staff of NFSC, Nagpur for their kind
help and co-operation throughout our study period.
Nagpur, 1st July 2021
1. Mr. Aditya Ajay Rannaware
2. Mr. Nayan Waman Peshne
3. Mr. Rishi Rajesh Raorane
4. Mr. Ritik Ashok Kawale
5. Mr. Vedant Kashiwar

ABSTRACT
Introduced more than 100 years ago, electric cars are seeing a rise in popularity today for many
of the same reasons they were first popular. The electrification of transport has become one of
the major trends of the 21st century. The electric vehicle market has seen an exponential growth
in the past decade and the world is showing growing interest in this promising technology.
Despite the undoubtable benefits of electrifying our transport fleet, among the EV community
there is a growing sense of concern about the dangers and apparent spontaneity of EV fires. This
safety concern stands in the way of the EV becoming the dominating transportation system.
Though experts agree that electric vehicles catch fire less often than gasoline-powered vehicles,
the relatively distinct nature of EV fires is something, that needs to be acknowledged and looked
after.
Through this Academic Project, we have tried to understand this strikingly different nature of EV
fires. We first deep dived into the various integrants of EVs and identified those components that
can potentially lead to a fire accident. For this purpose, we employed a systematic and structured
technique of, HAZOP Analysis.
We scrutinized the discrete ways, in which an EV can fail and lead to a fire outbreak, in its many
different states. We also listed down the potential repercussions of the failures. This Failure
Analysis enables us to take proactive precautions, rather than reacting to adverse events after
failures have occurred, in different states of electric vehicles.
All said and done, we then continued to study about the existing suppressants used for EV fires. A
comprehensive research and a comparative study of the various suppressants inferred, that
Condensed Aerosol would be the best suppressant for EVs.
With the inference of the foregoing research, we designed an IoT based Condensed Aerosol Fire
Suppression System, thus devising an active fire protection system for EVs.
The final segment of the project is about Passive Fire Protection for EVs, which encompasses the
various methods to limit the flame spread & financial impact of damage to EVs and its constituents.
This Academic Project aims to, holistically understand EV fires and prevent them by active and
passive measures. We hope this project and our ideas, add value to the ongoing scientific research
on EVs.
Contents
01- SCIENCE OF FIRE ............................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
1.1 FIRE ............................................................................................................................................. 2
1.2 ELEMENTS OF FIRE ............................................................................................................... 2
1.3 FIRE TETRAHEDRON ............................................................................................................ 3
1.4 PHASES OF FIRE ..................................................................................................................... 5
1.5 COMBUSTION .......................................................................................................................... 6
1.5.1. TYPE OF COMBUSTION ............................................................................................ 6
1.5.2. TERMINATION OF COMBUSTION .......................................................................... 7
02- INTRODUCTION ..............................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
2.1 HISTORY ..................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
2.2 WHAT IS AN ELECTRIC VEHICLE? ................................................................................ 11
2.3 MAJOR COMPONENTS OF EV’S ...................................................................................... 11
2.4 INTENT & NEED ...................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
2.5 HOW ARE BEV FIRES DIFFERENT FROM ICEV FIRES............................................ 15
03- HAZARD ANALYSIS ...................................................................................................... 17
3.1 HAZOP ANALYSIS OF EV COMPONENTS (FIRE SPECIFIC) .................................. 18
3.2 WHAT ARE LITHIUM-ION BATTERIES?....................................................................... 20
3.3 INSIDE THE TRACTION BATTERY PACK .................................................................... 21
3.4 FIRE HAZARDS ASSOCIATED WITH LIB ..................................................................... 22
3.5 FAILURE ANALYSIS OF BATTERY (FIRE SPECIFIC) ............................................... 25
04- EXISTING EXTINGUISHING SYSTEMS ...................................................................... 27
4.1 EXISTING EXTINGUISHING SYSTEMS .............................................................................. 28
4.1.1 WATER MIST SPRAT SYSTEM ............................................................................... 28
4.1.2 HEPTAFLUROPROPANE .......................................................................................... 31
4.1.3 AQUEOUS VERMICULITE DISPERSION (AVD)................................................... 32
05- CONDENSED AEROSOL FIRE EXTINGUISHING AGENT ....................................... 34
5.1 CONDENSED AEROSOL ..................................................................................................... 35
5.2 AEROSOL FORMING COMPOUND ................................................................................. 35
5.3 WORKING PRINCIPLE ........................................................................................................ 35
5.4 AEROSOL EXTINGUISHING ACTION ............................................................................ 36
5.5 ADVANTAGES OF CONDENSED AEROSOL................................................................ 39
06- DESIGN OF IOT BASED CONDENSED AEROSOL FIRE SUPPRESSION SYSTEM40
6.1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................... 41
6.2 THE CIRCUIT DIAGRAM .................................................................................................... 44
6.3 CONNECTIONS ...................................................................................................................... 44
6.4 FLOWCHART ......................................................................................................................... 45
6.5 THE CODE ............................................................................................................................... 46
6.6 DECODING THE CODE ....................................................................................................... 47
6.7 FUTURE SCOPE ..................................................................................................................... 49
07- PASSIVE FIRE PROTECTION FOR ELECTRIC VEHICLES....................................... 50
7.1 EV FIRE TEST ......................................................................................................................... 51
7.2 ELECTROLYTE PRESENT IN THE BATTERY.............................................................. 55
7.3 CARBON FIBER REINFORCED POLYMER BODY ..................................................... 58
7.4 CAR TYRES ............................................................................................................................. 59
7.5 CAR SEATS ............................................................................................................................. 60
7.6 PLASTIC MATERIALS LIKE DASHBOARDS, CONSOLE SHELLS, BUMPERS
AND HEADLIGHTS .......................................................................................................................... 61
08- CONCLUSION .................................................................................................................. 63
REFERENCES- ............................................................................................................................ 65
01 - SCIENCE OF FIRE
NATIONAL FIRE SERVICE COLLEGE, NAGPUR 1

1.1 FIRE
Fire is the rapid oxidation of a material in the exothermic chemical process of combustion,
releasing heat, light, and various reaction products. Slower oxidative processes like rusting or
digestion are not included by this definition.
Fire is hot because the conversion of the weak double bond in molecular oxygen, O2, to the stronger
bonds in the combustion products carbon dioxide and water releases energy (418 kJ per 32 g of
O2); the bond energies of the fuel play only a minor role here.
At a certain point in the combustion reaction, called the ignition point, flames are produced. The
flame is the visible portion of the fire. Flames consist primarily of carbon dioxide, water vapor,
oxygen and nitrogen. If hot enough, the gases may become ionized to produce plasma.
The negative effects of fire include hazard to life and property, atmospheric pollution. If fire
removes protective vegetation heavy rainfall may lead to an increase in soil erosion by water. Also,
when vegetation is burned, the nitrogen it contains is released into the atmosphere, unlike elements
such as potassium and phosphorus which remain in the ash and are quickly recycled into the soil.
This loss of nitrogen caused by a fire, produces a long-term reduction in the fertility of the soil,
which only slowly recovers as nitrogen is “fixed” from the atmosphere by lightning and by
leguminous plants such as clover.
Fire can be extinguished in any of the following four ways:
1) Removing or blanketing the fuel.

2) Cutting off or diluting the oxygen supply.
3) Removing the heat from the fire or the combustible, that is cooling sufficiently to prevent the
combustion reactions from continuing.
4) Interrupt the flame chemistry of combustion chain reaction by removing free atoms and free
radicals.
1.2 ELEMENTS OF FIRE

The Fire Triangle, or Combustion Triangle, is the three components needed to ignite and sustain a
fire. The three ingredients of a fire triangle are Heat, Fuel and Oxygen. If just one of these
components is removed, the fire triangle will collapse and the fire will be extinguished.

Let’s explore these components in more details:
• Heat
A source of heat is required in order for ignition to occur, and different materials have different
‘flash points’ e.g., the lowest temperature at which they ignite. Unfortunately, combustion
reactions also produce heat as they burn, further increasing the temperature of the fuel. For some
types of fire, the heat can be cooled with the application of water.
• Fuel
A fire cannot begin if there is no material to burn. Homes and businesses are full of flammable
materials, such as paper, oil, wood and fabrics. Any of these can serve as a fuel for a fire. Some
materials burn more easily than others. Fuels are probably the most difficult ‘side’ of the fire
triangle to remove, so it’s wise to store them appropriately to prevent them becoming a fire hazard.
• Oxygen
To sustain the combustion reaction, oxygen (or an oxidizing agent) is needed, as it reacts with the
burning fuel to release heat and CO2. Earth’s atmosphere consists of 21% oxygen, so there is plenty
available to trigger a fire if the other two components are present. Fire blankets and certain fire
extinguishers remove the oxygen ‘side’ of the triangle by removing it or displacing it, causing
suffocation and thereby ceasing the combustion reaction.
• Fire Triangle Facts

a) Normal air contains 21% oxygen.
b) Fuel may also contain oxygen.
c) Heat Sources Include: The Sun, Hot Surfaces, Sparks, Friction and Electrical Energy.
d) Fuel sources can be a solid, liquid or gas.
1.3 FIRE TETRAHEDRON

The fire tetrahedron represents the addition of a component in the chemical chain reaction, to the
three already present in the fire triangle. Once a fire has started, the resulting exothermic chain

reaction sustains the fire and allows it to continue until or unless at least one of the elements of the
fire is blocked.
Foam can be used to deny the fire the oxygen it needs. Water can be used to lower the temperature
of the fuel below the ignition point or to remove or disperse the fuel. Halon can be used to remove
free radicals and create a barrier of inert gas in a direct attack on the chemical reaction responsible
for the fire.
Combustion is the chemical reaction that feeds a fire more heat and allows it to continue. When
the fire involves burning metals like lithium, magnesium, titanium, etc. (known as a class-D fire),
it becomes even more important to consider the energy release. The metals react faster with water
than with oxygen and thereby more energy is released. Putting water on such a fire results in the
fire getting hotter or even exploding. Carbon dioxide extinguishers are ineffective against certain
metals such as titanium. Therefore, inert agents (e.g., dry sand) must be used to break the chain
reaction of metallic combustion.
In the same way, as soon as one of the four elements of the tetrahedron is removed, combustion
stops.
To disrupt the elements that form the Fire Tetrahedron and thus put out the fire, you need to do
one or more of these four things:
• Remove fuel sources: This can be a preventative measure i.e., making sure potential fire hazards
are stored safely or if a fire has started you can use water to disperse the fuel sources and to cool
them.
• Cool the burning materials with water.
• Exclude oxygen: For example, with a fire blanket to prevent oxygen from reaching the process.

• Break the chemical reaction: It is the chain reaction that keeps a fire going.
1.4 PHASES OF FIRE
Incipient Phase: The material releases pyrolysis products, which ignited through a variety of
combustion processes such as smoldering (non-flaming) or flaming.
Growth Phase: With the initial flame as a heat source, additional fuel ignites. Convection and
radiation ignite more surfaces. The size of the fire increases and the plume reaches the ceiling. Hot
gases collecting at the ceiling transfer heat, allowing all fuels in a room to come closer to their
ignition temperature at the same time.
Fully developed Phase or Steady Phase: Fire has spread over much, if not all the available fuel;
temperatures reach their peak, resulting in heat damage. Oxygen is consumed rapidly.
Decay (Burnout) Phase: The fire consumes available fuel, temperatures decrease, fire gets less
intense. Heat release rate rapidly decreases despite the availability of sufficient quantity of air
which is basically due to less quantity of fuel. The rare phenomena such as fire gas explosion or
flash fire also leads to decay with or without passing through fire severity phase.

1.5 COMBUSTION
Combustion, or burning is a high-temperature exothermic redox chemical reaction between a fuel
(the reductant) and an oxidant, usually atmospheric oxygen that produces oxidized, often gaseous
products, in a mixture termed as smoke.
Combustion in a fire produces a flame, and the heat produced can make combustion self-
sustaining. Combustion is often a complicated sequence of elementary radical reactions. Solid
fuels, such as wood and coal, first undergo endothermic pyrolysis to produce gaseous fuels whose
combustion then supplies the heat required to produce more of them. Combustion is often hot
enough that incandescent light in the form of either glowing or a flame is produced.
1.5.1. TYPE OF COMBUSTION
• Complete Combustion
In complete combustion, the reactant burns in oxygen and produces a limited number of products.
When a hydrocarbon burns in oxygen, the reaction will primarily yield carbon dioxide and water.
When elements are burned, the products are primarily the most common oxides. Carbon will yield
carbon dioxide, sulfur will yield sulfur dioxide, and iron will yield iron (III) oxide. Nitrogen is not
considered to be a combustible substance when oxygen is the oxidant, but small amounts of various
nitrogen oxides (commonly designated NOx species) form when the air is the oxidant. Complete
Combustion is not necessarily favorable to the maximum degree of oxidation and it can be
temperature-dependent.
• Incomplete Combustion
Incomplete combustion will occur when there is not enough oxygen to allow the fuel to react
completely to produce carbon dioxide and water. It also happens when the combustion is quenched
by a heat sink, such as a solid surface or flame trap. Same as complete combustion, water is
produced by incomplete combustion. However, carbon, carbon monoxide and/or hydroxide are the
products instead of carbon dioxide.
• Smoldering Combustion
Smoldering is the slow, low-temperature, flameless form of combustion, sustained by the heat
evolved when oxygen directly attacks the surface of a condensed-phase fuel. It is a typically
incomplete combustion reaction. Solid materials that can sustain a smoldering reaction include
coal, cellulose, wood, cotton, tobacco, peat, duff, humus, synthetic foams, charring polymers
(including polyurethane foam) and dust. Common examples of smoldering phenomena are the
initiation of residential fires on upholstered furniture by weak heat sources (e.g., a cigarette, a
short-circuited wire) and the persistent combustion of biomass behind the flaming fronts of

wildfires.
• Rapid Combustion
Rapid combustion is a form of combustion, otherwise known as a fire, in which large amounts of
heat and light energy are released, which often results in a flame. This is used in a form of
machinery such as internal combustion engines and in thermobaric weapons. Such a combustion
is frequently called an explosion, though for an internal combustion engine this is inaccurate.
• Spontaneous Combustion
Spontaneous combustion is a type of combustion which occurs by self-heating (increase in
temperature due to exothermic internal reactions), followed by thermal runaway (self-heating
which rapidly accelerates to high temperatures) and finally, ignition. For example, phosphorus
self-ignites at room temperature without the application of heat. Organic materials undergoing
bacterial composting can generate enough heat to reach the point of combustion.
• Micro-Gravity Combustion
The term 'micro' gravity refers to a gravitational state that is 'low' (i.e., 'micro' in the sense of 'small'
and not necessarily a millionth of Earth's normal gravity) such that the influence of buoyancy on
physical processes may be considered small relative to other flow processes that would be present
at normal gravity. In such an environment, the thermal and flow transport dynamics can behave
quite differently than in normal gravity conditions (e.g., a candle's flame takes the shape of a
sphere. Microgravity combustion research contributes to the understanding of a wide variety of
aspects that are relevant to both the environment of a spacecraft (e.g., fire dynamics relevant to
crew safety on the International Space Station) and terrestrial (Earth-based) conditions (e.g.,
droplet combustion dynamics to assist developing new fuel blends for improved combustion,
materials fabrication processes, thermal management of electronic systems, multiphase flow
boiling dynamics, and many others).
1.5.2. TERMINATION OF COMBUSTION

Combustion requires a high temperature, and the reactions must proceed fast enough at this high
temperature to generate heat as fast as it is dissipated so that the reaction zone will not cool down.
Combustion will be extinguished when anything is done to upset this heat balance, such as
introducing a coolant. It is not necessary for the coolant to remove heat as fast as it is being
generated, as the combustion zone is already losing some heat to the cooler surroundings. In some
cases, only a modest additional loss of heat is needed to tip the balance toward extinguishment.
Extinguishment can be accomplished by cooling either the gaseous combustion zone or the solid
or liquid combustible. In the latter case, the cooling prevents the production of combustible vapors.
Extinguishment also can be accomplished by introducing a barrier between the combustible
surface and the flame, for example, by providing a blanket of aqueous foam. Cutting off the air
supply also will cause extinguishment. Alternatively, the oxygen content of the air supply can be
reduced by diluting the air with carbon dioxide, nitrogen, steam, or combustion products.

02 - INTRODUCTION

2.1 HISTORY
Electric Vehicle was invented in the 1800s as a consequence of a series of breakthroughs
concerning the battery and the electric motor. In the 1900s, there was a brief period in which
EVs were in demand due to fuel shortages and environmental crises. However, the interest for
EVs dropped after the 1930s, when oil and gasoline became cheap and easily available, enabling
petrol-driven vehicles to travel faster and further. Today, billions of internal combustion engine
vehicles (ICEVs) are being driven, consuming about 87% of petroleum or about 33% of our
global energy.
However, limited natural energy resources, the increasing world population and global warming
exacerbate people’s perception of energy vulnerability and the need for more sustainable
transport solutions. Along with the rapid development of the LIB since the 1990s, EVs returned
to the global stage in the 21st century. Today, EVs are not only a symbol of green transportation,
but they also present extraordinary driving performance.
However, compared to the ICEVs which have seen continuous use and development over the last
century, EVs are still far from mature, especially when it comes to their perceived fire safety.
This safety concern stands in the way of the EV becoming the dominating transportation system.
A study of US fires from 2003 – 2007 electric vehicle contributed to a total of 17% vehicle fires.
Below are some typical fire accidents involving BEVs.
Here some of the major accidents involved in Electric Vehicle:
1. A Lifan 650 BEV, spontaneously ignited and investigations showed that leakage of rain
water in the battery pack caused a short circuit, which was followed by thermal runaway
and fire.
2. A similar incident of spontaneous ignition was observed in a brand-new electric bus

which was reportedly parked on a parking site.

3. A Tesla Model S reportedly caught fire while being charged at a supercharging station.
According to reports the reason was traced to be a fault in the vehicle’s onboard charging
equipment.
High speed collision of BEVs has been one of the most obvious reasons for their ignition. A
Tesla Model S crashed into metallic road debris, which penetrated into the battery pack resulting
in thermal runaway.
Incidents involving EVs may also lead to secondary thermal events resulting from the overall
amount of damage done to the LIB. There are, namely cases in which reignition transpired once
or multiple times. An example of this is a Tesla Model S that crashed in Florida, USA, by
impacting a wall at 140 km/h. The impact led to the vehicle being engulfed in flames. After the
fire had been subdued and the vehicle was removed from the scene, it reignited. When the
destroyed vehicle finally arrived at the tow yard, it reignited once more. This is of concern for
post-crash handlers, who normally do not have the tools or training to handle such events safely.
Approximately 15 % of Tesla BEVs involved in fire incidents between 2012-18, were caused by
things unrelated to the vehicle, such as structure fires, arson, etc. According to the reports,
fireworks, contact with external faulty electrical connections, heating of batteries due to
convective and radiative heat transfer from external source etc. have been certain external
reasons for BEV fires.
Several of such incidents have caught the media attention over the years and have been
highlighted dramatically. These incidents make it important for us to study the BEV fires and its
unique nature.

2.2 WHAT IS AN ELECTRIC VEHICLE?
An electric vehicle is a vehicle propelled by one or more electric motors using energy stored in
rechargeable batteries, instead of burning petrol or diesel internally and exhausting fumes. They
can be either partially or fully powered on electric power.
EV is a shortened acronym for an electric vehicle. Electric vehicles have low running costs as
they have lesser moving parts for maintaining and also very environmentally friendly as they use
little or no fossil fuels (petrol or diesel). While some EVs use lead acid or nickel metal hydride
batteries, the standard for modern battery electric vehicles is now considered to be lithium-ion
batteries as they have a greater longevity and are excellent at retaining energy.
There are broadly three kinds of electric vehicles at present:
a. Solar-powered electric cars and vehicles

b. Hybrid electric vehicles, that are powered by a mix of internal combustion and batteries.
c. Electric vehicles with on-board battery packs also known as battery electric vehicles
(BEV), that solely rely on electric energy.
2.3 MAJOR COMPONENTS OF EV’S
1. Purpose Built Chassis:

It’s a self-contained platform with the electronic
motors, battery, and driving components
integrated into it, which can be scaled to various
sizes and topped with a variety of bodies.
2. Battery Pack:
It is used to power the electric
motors of a BEV or PHEV. These batteries
are rechargeable & are typically Lithium-
ion batteries. They are specifically
designed for a high ampere-hour (or
kilowatt-hour) capacity. Batteries for
electric vehicles are characterized by their
relatively high power-to-weight
ratio, specific energy and energy density;
smaller, lighter batteries are desirable
because they reduce the weight of the
vehicle and therefore improve its

performance. Compared to liquid fuels, most current battery technologies have much
lower specific energy, and this often impacts the maximum all-electric range of the vehicles.
The most common battery type in modern electric vehicles are lithium-ion and lithium polymer,
because of their high energy density compared to their weight. Other types of rechargeable
batteries used in electric vehicles include lead–acid (“flooded”, deep- cycle, and valve regulated
lead acid), nickel-cadmium, nickel–metal hydride, and, less commonly, zinc–air, and sodium
nickel chloride (“zebra”) batteries.
3. Inverter:
The inverter converts the high-voltage, high-
current DC electricity from the batteries and
converts it to AC electricity for the 3-phase
induction motor. It also supplies current to the
battery pack for recharging during regenerative
braking.
The Function of an Inverter:
Broadly speaking, an inverter is an electrical

device that converts electricity derived from a
DC (Direct Current) source to AC (Alternating Current) of the type that can be used to drive a
device or appliance. In a solar power system, for example, the power stored by batteries charged
by solar panels is converted to standard AC power by the inverter, which provides the power to
plug-in outlets and other standard 120-volt devices.
Within an electric drivetrain, the inverter controls the electric motor. This is a key component in
the car as, similar to the Engine Management System (EMS) of combustion vehicles, it
determines driving behavior. Regardless of whether the motor is synchronous, asynchronous or
brushless DC, the inverter always functions in a similar way and is controlled by an integrated
PCB, which is designed to minimize switching losses and maximize thermal efficiency. Not only
does the inverter drive the electric motor, it also captures energy released through regenerative
breaking and feeds this back to the battery. As a result, the range of the vehicle is directly related
to the efficiency of the traction inverter.

4. 3-Phase Induction Motor:
It is an AC electric motor in which the electric current

in the rotor needed to produce torque is obtained by
electromagnetic induction from the magnetic field of
the stator winding. They are widely used in electric
vehicles.
The IM has the following advantages:

• IM has no collector and no brushes so it needs
less maintenance
• Cost of IM is comparatively less.
• Weight of IM is comparatively less.
• IM is robust and can works better in abnormal
ambient conditions.
• IM can be manufactured for bigger power and can reach a rotation of 50000 rpm.

2.4 INTENT & NEED
• The coming decade is expected to be the decade of fully electric vehicles.

• The electrification of transport is now one of the major trends of the 21st century.
• Global EV sales rose a dramatic 65% from 2017 to 2018 for a total of 2.1 million
vehicles with sale figures steady through 2019.
• Electric cars are ever more appealing in a world where reducing carbon emissions
and pollution is a growing concern for many people.
• They emit less greenhouse gases and air pollutants over their life than a petrol or
diesel car.
• Electric vehicles have a smaller carbon footprint than gasoline-powered cars. This
is even after the production of the vehicle and the generation of the electricity
required to fuel them is considered.
• The electric vehicles market in India also appears to be gaining traction.
• Companies have not only started to manufacture electric scooters and bikes but
have also begun to research for alternatives to lithium-ion batteries, which are
mostly imported from China. Recently, EV major Tesla announced their plans of
starting India operations soon.
• 6 of the world's 10 most polluted cities are in India. Also, according to Economic
Times, India's oil import dependence has jumped to 84% having said that. India
unarguably will have electrified transportation very soon in the near future.
• Despite the undoubtable benefits of electrifying our transport fleet - from reduced
air pollution to enabling us to achieve the essential net-zero targets - among the
EV community there is a growing sense of concern about the dangers and
apparent spontaneity of EV fires.
• Fundamentally, electric vehicles are extremely safe, but the main danger occurs
when the lithium-ion battery is damaged, which might happen if it is exposed to
extreme heat or something penetrates the battery cell wall.
• For the fire brigade, the real problem when it comes to an EV fire is with trying to
put it out. This safety concern stands in the way of the EV becoming the
dominating transportation system.
• As stated by Professor Paul Christensen from the University of Newcastle, an
expert in the field of EV fires, various solutions have been suggested but the
general consensus is that it's not going to be one single product or solution, it's
going to have to be a system that involves both procedure and product.

2.5 HOW ARE BEV FIRES DIFFERENT FROM ICEV FIRES?
BEV fires might appear to be strikingly similar to the conventional ICEV fires, but they have a
very intriguing different nature.
• Time For Ignition: The biggest difference is the time it takes to ignite. Battery fires
typically take some time to achieve the heat necessary to start the fire. Batteries typically
need a certain period to accumulate enough energy to trigger the thermal runaway. This
makes EVs different from the gasoline of conventional vehicle that more easily reaches
the fuel flammability limit or flashpoint and can be ignited by a spark or flame.
• Detection: In the case of battery failure, there may not be an apparent sign of the fire
phenomenon at the beginning. The battery pack is namely enclosed and may be under the
hood or inside the EV body. Hence the fire will likely not be noticed when it is in an
early developed stage, while there is still plenty of time for occupants to leave the
vehicle.
• Temperatures: When it comes to fire temperatures, electric vehicle fires can exceed
5,000 F. Whereas, the conventional vehicles have a clear win, in terms of peak fire
temperatures, where a fully burnt gasoline vehicle can reach temperature of about 1700 F.
• Potential Threats: BEV fires are challenging for the firefighters because they pose other
threats including, possibility of getting an electrical shock (up to 400 volts).
• It can also result in emission of extremely toxic fumes. Once thermal runaway has been
initiated, either the cell or its safety valve will burst and release toxic gas. As thermal
runaway propagates, more battery cells will fail to generate more smoke and toxic gases.
These toxic gases are, for example, hydrogen fluoride (HF), hydrogen cyanide (HCN),
carbon monoxide (CO), etc.
• BEV fires have a significant risk of causing lithium burns (respiratory and skin
reactions), if it comes in immediate contact of a person.
• Reignition: One unique nature of the BEV fires is reignition up to 24 hours after initial
extinguishment. There have been many instances of reignition in the past. The risks of
electric shock and battery reignition/fire arise from the “stranded” energy that remains in
a damaged battery. On the other hand, the possibility of an such phenomenon is
negligible in case of ICEV’s.
• HRR & PHRR: Fire in EV and PHEV has a similar HRR that of the ICE vehicle fire as
well as the gasoline pool fire. In fact, the PHRR of EV is even lower than an ICE vehicle,
which supports one opinion that pure BEV is safer than conventional vehicles or hybrid
vehicles.
• Test Results for HRR & PHRR:

Two pairs of similar EV and ICE vehicle models from two manufacturers were tested by
Lecocq.
The first pair were smaller vehicles, both around 1,100 kg, while the second pair were larger
at 1,400 and 1,500 kg for the ICE and EV model respectively.
The peak heat release rate results were similar for the first pair at 4.2 MW and 4.8 MW, with
the ICE vehicle being higher.
For the second, larger pair, the EV had a peak of 4.7 MW, while the ICE vehicle had a peak
HRR of 6.1 MW.

03 - HAZARD ANALYSIS

3.1 HAZOP ANALYSIS OF EV COMPONENTS (FIRE SPECIFIC)
Hazard and Operability Analysis (HAZOP) is a structured and systematic technique for system
examination and risk management. In particular, HAZOP is often used as a technique for
identifying potential hazards in a system and identifying operability problems likely to lead to
nonconforming products. HAZOP is based on a theory that assumes risk events are caused by
deviations from design or operating intentions.
In this approach, the system is broken down into smaller components and every variation in work
parameters is considered for each step, to see what could go wrong.
The purpose of the HAZOP is to investigate how the system deviates from the design intent and
creates a risk for personnel and equipment and operability problems.
Terminologies:
1) Node: It is a specific portion or component of a process or system.
2) Guide Word: The identification of deviations from the design intent is achieved by a
questioning process using predetermined “guide words”. The role of the guide word is to
stimulate imaginative thinking, to focus the study and elicit ideas and discussion.
Some common HAZOP guide words include:
• No or Not: This is a complete negation of the design intention. No part of the

intention is achieved and nothing else happens.
• More: This is a quantitative increase.
• Less: This is a quantitative decrease.
• As well as: All the design intention is achieved together with additions.
• Part of: Only some of the design intention is achieved.
• Reverse: The logical opposite of the intention is achieved.
• Other than: Complete substitution, where no part of the original intention is achieved
but something quite different happens.
• Early: Something happens earlier than expected relative to clock time.
• Late: Something happens later than expected relative to clock time
• Before: Something happens before it is
3) Element: Describes what the guide word pertains to (material, process step, etc.)
4) Intention: Describes how a process or system is expected to behave at the study line.
5) Deviation: A way in which the process conditions may depart from their intention.
6) Possible Causes: Describes how the deviation may occur.

7) Consequences: Describes what may happen if the deviation occurs.
In the following HAZOP study, we have identified 5 nodes inside an electric vehicle (other than
battery) that have potential of producing a fire accident.
Node Guide Word Element Deviation Possible Causes Consequences

1 REVERSE Voltage Rise in winding 1. Voltage 1. Unbalanced
temperature Variations currents in
2. Over or under winding
voltage condition 2. Increase in
3. Voltage winding
imbalance – temperature
Supply voltage 3. Severe fire
not equal accident
2 REVERSE Heat Rise in bearing 1. Insufficient 1. Rise in motor

temperature ventilation temperature
2. Poor positioning 2. Heat transfer to
of air the battery
vents/radiator pack, may lead
3. Heat generated by to thermal
nearby runaway of
components battery pack
3 NO/NOT Insulation Insulation 1. Insulation defects 1. Short circuit

Defects on two adjacent between turns.
wires 2. Motor
simultaneously, protective
due to humidity, device might
dust, vibration fail to react,
may lead to
motor failure &
even fire
4 REVERSE Frame Frame faults 1. Spurious 1. Short circuit

connection 2. Electrocution
between the 3. Uncontrolled
traction circuit operation
and the vehicle
frame

5 REVERSE DC supply High DC 1. Poorly soldered 1. Intense heating
to Inverter voltage which parts. of Inverter and
can potentially 2. Unstable its components.
create a non- connections. 2. If the voltage is
self- 3. Unsealed boxes, not turned off
extinguishing poor heat or distance
arc dissipation. between arc
contacts is not
increased,
might result in
fire.
3.2 WHAT IS A LITHIUM-ION BATTERY?
Over the last decade, the electric vehicle (EV) has significantly changed the car industry
globally, driven by the fast development of Li-ion battery technology. Lithium-ion batteries have
attracted interest from academia and industry due to their high power, energy densities and long
cycle lives compared to other battery technologies. Additionally, a lower weight makes the LIB
most suitable for vehicles as it can promote transportation efficiency.
The energy of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) is housed within individual battery cells. A lithium-
ion cell consists of a cathode, an anode, separator, and electrolyte. Each cell has one positive and
one negative terminal. These terminals are connected to thin metal foil that has been coated with
electrochemically active material. The active material for the negative and positive side of the
battery is referred to as anode and cathode material, respectively. The electrolyte enables the
movement of lithium ions between the electrodes, while the separator fits between the anode and
cathode preventing shorting between the two electrodes but permitting ion transfer.
During the discharge reaction, lithium ions move from the anode and insert into the voids
between layers of cathode crystals (the process named intercalation). Upon charging, lithium
ions move from the cathode on the positive side of the battery and insert into the anode. During
the initial charge, intercalated lithium ions react immediately with the solvent of the electrolyte
and form a passivation layer on the anode, the Solid-Electrolyte Interphase (SEI), which is
permeable to lithium ions but not to the electrolyte. To supply the desired power and energy
from a battery system (an energy storage system), the cells are connected in parallel to increase
the capacity or in series to raise the voltage.

3.3 INSIDE THE TRACTION BATTERY PACK
A battery system usually consists of a number of battery packs, which are made of multiple
battery modules, each containing a number of cells with series and/or parallel configuration.
1. Battery cell is the basic unit of a LIB, are connected in series or parallel to form a battery
module. A frame is used to fix the cells together and protect them from external shocks,
heat, and vibration. The properties of individual battery cells determine the driving
performance of an EV.
2. Modules are installed with systems that manage power, charging/discharging, and
temperature. These are typically referred to as the Battery Management System (BMS).
3. Battery pack is the assembly that integrates the modules within the pack infrastructure.
This infrastructure includes structural components, wiring, cooling loops, and power
electronics.
This condensed assembly enables the EV to store a lot of energy. However, this also makes it
challenging to manage temperatures inside the pack.

3.4 FIRE HAZARDS ASSOCIATED WITH LIB
• Thermal Runaway: When exothermic chemical reactions are generating more heat than
is being dissipated, the LIB enters a so-called thermal runaway condition. Thermal
runaway is triggered by a chain of chemical reactions inside the battery resulting in
accelerated increase of internal temperature. Specifically, decomposition of SEI (Solid
Electrolyte Interface) layer [The interface between electrolyte and current collectors. This
is where electron exchange occurs.] and reactions between electrolyte and anode is
followed by melting of the separator and breakdown of the cathode material. Battery
temperature increases dramatically approximately at rate of 10ºC/min. The outcome can
be that of complete combustion of the LIB accompanied by the release of gas, flying
projectiles and powerful jet flames.
• Charge: LIBs are designed to receive and store a certain amount of energy over a
specific amount of time. When these limits are exceeded, as a result of charging too
quickly or overcharging, the cell performance may degrade, or the cell may even fail. The
charge level of batteries is normally defined in terms of state of charge (SOC). Their
operational limits may be defined from 0-100%, which means that a battery at 100%
SOC is considered fully charged to its rated capacity. Overcharging may be realized
when the cell voltage is incorrectly detected by the charging control system, when the
charger breaks down or when the wrong charger is used. When overcharging, the anode
material can become overly lithiated. As a result, lithium intercalation ceases and lithium
metal deposits on the anode. These deposits may grow into metallic fingers commonly
referred to as dendrites. As they grow, they can reach the point where they penetrate the
separator and cause an internal short circuit. The opposite happens at the cathode. Here
overcharging may result in it becoming de-lithiated to the point where the cathode
decomposes thermally and generates heat.

• Discharge: When the LIB is discharged, lithium-ions flow from the negative current
collector and anode to the positive current collector and cathode. If the level of discharge
becomes too great however, the negative current collector, which consists of copper, can
dissolve. As a result, small conductive copper particles are released in the electrolyte
which increase the risk for an internal short circuit. It can also lead to the evolution of
hydrogen and oxygen, cell venting and plating on the cathode. Over-discharge abuse
occurs when discharging battery cells below their minimum voltage. In the unlikely event
where four battery cells are in series, and one of them is completely discharged (0V), this
could lead to the empty cell being discharged even further.
How do the hazards trigger accidents?
1. Mechanical Impact: Mechanical deformation may also initiate an internal short circuit
and potentially result in fire. Severe deformation may be a result of certain crash or
ground impact conditions. Severe deformations of the battery pack must be avoided. The
high voltage system may be damaged, causing short circuits and arcing and it may also
result in the leakage of flammable and conductive liquids.
2. Thermal Impact: Battery performs best at room temperatures (20~30°C). Extreme hot
and cold temperatures are negative for the battery’s performance and will shorten their

lifespan. In high temperature conditions, some unwanted chemical reactions can occur
and result in overheated batteries. With a poor thermal dispassion ability, it is then
possible to trigger a thermal runaway, which can lead to an EV fire in the end. In cold
temperatures, the battery’s internal resistance increases. This resistance promotes the
growth of metallic dendrites and cause additional heating effects to take place within the
battery, which increases the chance for a battery fire to be triggered.
3. Electrical Abuse: LIBs are made to receive and store a pre-defined amount of energy in
a set amount of time. Exceeding these limits, which can be the result of charging too
quickly or overcharging, may degrade their performance, or result in premature failure.
Electrical abuse is accompanied by Joule heating and internal chemical reactions. The
former generates heat whereas the latter may, in time, lead to an internal short circuit.
Some EV fires may result from inappropriate operating conditions and internal faults,
such as the short circuit in the high voltage circuit, overcharging and overheating
environment.
4. External Short-Circuit: An external short circuit is another form of electric abuse that
may destabilize the battery. This event may occur in case the battery is exposed to, for
example, severe mechanical deformation and impact, immersion in water, corrosion and
electric shock during maintenance.
5. Internal cell Short-Circuit: The most hazardous failure cause is that of an internal cell
short circuit. This catastrophic event may occur very suddenly and without previous
warning. This is a result of manufacturing defects or physical damage due to dendrite
growth or mechanical deformation. When the internal short circuit occurs, the resulting
damage is often severe. The cell discharges its energy through the short circuit. When
electric current passes through conducting material, it produces heat. This mechanism
may be referred to as Joule heat generation. In this local area, the rapid heating can
trigger further self-heating and thermal runaway.

3.5 FAILURE ANALYSIS OF BATTERY (FIRE SPECIFIC)
The following Failure Mode Analysis of electric vehicle battery, identifies where and how it
might fail and assesses the relative impact of the different failures.
This study enables us to take proactive precautions, rather than reacting to adverse events after
failures have occurred, in different states of electric vehicles.
State of Vehicle Potential Failure Potential Causes

Journey Internal Short Circuit 1. Voids in separator
2. Aging
3. Vibration
4. Deformation
Journey External Short Circuit of cells 1. Leakage of coolant in the

(both inside the module and the module
pack) 2. Vibration
3. Shock/impact
4. Deformation
5. Mechanical Damage
Journey External Short Circuit 1. Leakage of coolant in the
(Outside the pack) module
2. Vibration
3. Shock/impact

4. Deformation
Journey Over discharging 1. High load & for too long
Journey Over charging 1. Extensive braking on a fully

charged battery
Parked (Not 1. Internal Short Circuit 1. Leakage of coolant in the

Charging) 2. External Short Circuit (of module
cell/module/pack) 2. Shock/impact
3. Deformation
Parked (Not Over discharging 1. Parked for a long time

Charging) 2. Negative balancing will
discharge other cells if one
cell has low voltage
Charging Internal heating 1. Overcharging

2. Charging after a long time
Charging Fire outside the battery 1. Fault in the electrical system
or connections
2. Poor contact at the charging
interface
Collision Mechanical Abuse/ 1. Something on road

Penetration penetrates the battery
Collision Fire outside the battery 1. Leakage of electrolytes in the

cells
Extreme Heat/ 1. Heating 1. Surrounding temperatures

Cold conditions 2. Short Circuit exceed the limiting values
2. Solar Heat
3. Asphalt radiation
Workshop/Garage 1. Fire 1. Improper handling during

2. Thermal Runaway repair or dismantling

04 - EXISTING EXTINGUISHING
SYSTEMS

4.1 EXISTING EXTINGUISHING SYSTEMS
Currently, there is no integrated suppression system that is being used for EVs. Although research
and experimentation suggest that the following suppressants could potentially be effective for EV
fires.
1. Water Mist Spray.

2. Heptafluoropropane.
3. Aqueous Vermiculite Dispersion (AVD).
4.1.1 WATER MIST SPRAY SYSTEM

Water mist system is a great technology for extinguishing fire or dousing fire in the EV’s
(electric vehicle). The water mist technology is a three-dimensional extinguishing solution,
wherever a sprinkler is too slow or its extinguishing capacity is insufficient in some specific
conditions, the innovative two-phase water mist technology provides an ideal solution. This
technology is ideal for use in IC engine in hybrid vehicle and in batteries in EV’s, it has a three-
dimensional effect and as a result is able to reach even the tiniest nooks and crannies. The use of
water mist provides reliable extinguishing, cooling and prevents reignition. Water used is with no
chemical additives, making this technology extremely environmentally friendly.
How Water Based Extinguishants are Beneficial for Extinguishing EV Fires?
Water-based extinguishants provide the most cost-effective method to fight fires, Water is an
excellent cooling medium due to its high heat capacity and latent heat of vaporization, this may
be able to mitigate or halt the propagation of thermal runaway to surrounding batteries.
Water Mist Suppressants: We can use water mist suppression system in the EV’S for dousing
fires because Water mist comprises a range of droplet sizes under 1000 µm, droplets that are much
smaller than those from a sprinkler. Finer droplets have a larger surface area to volume ratio
compared to larger droplets resulting in a greater absorption of heat energy from the hot air for the
same volume of water, while the larger drops within the drop size distribution can penetrate the
fire plume and cool the burning material. These droplets do not have contact with each other and
this reduce the risk percentage of shock circuit.

Water Mist Characterization to fully comprehend water mist spray dynamic, performance, and
behavior, the following parameters should be characterized:
• Droplet size distribution (DSD)

• Spray cone angle
• Spray velocity
• Mass flow rate
• Spray momentum.
The water mist characteristics will also be influenced by the existence of a fire but, first described
in a non-fire environment.
Water Mist Fire Suppression System Characteristics:

The performance of the WMFSS is primarily determined by the characteristics of sprays generated
by nozzles. Different types of nozzles, e.g., single- and multi-hole, can significantly vary the mass
distribution of sprays. The single-hole nozzle produces relatively larger droplets, longer
penetration length with a higher concentration in the region beneath the nozzle in comparison with
the multi-hole nozzle. Typically, WMFSS consist of multiple nozzles where the spacing between
nozzles and distance from the floor/target (here the LIB) are determined by the distribution of the
flux density of individual nozzles and the size of compartment and potential fire. The position of
the nozzle can affect the performance of the suppression system. If a nozzle is located directly
above a fire, the water droplets of the spray will travel the least distance to reach the fire and may
show better performance in suppressing the fire. In contrast, while installation of multiple nozzles
will involve a higher cost for the system, multiple nozzles may show better performance in
suppressing the fire by distributing mists more uniformly and enhancing the oxygen depletion
process. However, activation of two nozzles may render a drop in the pressure of the water supply
and reduce the performance of the spray. The design of WMFSS is considered as “project
specific”, where each particular hazard or occupancy requires its own specific design for the
optimum efficiency. It is therefore not possible to design a mist system simply by reference to one
of the standards available such as NFPA 750, BS 8489, or CEN TS 14972. For example, while BS

8489 sets out the design criteria for a water mist system, its suitability for a particular fire risk
should be examined according acceptable test protocols.
For a lithium-ion battery compartment, a suitable WMFSS (with or without complementary

suppressing agents such as surfactants, foam or gas) might include a zonal approach, based on
each module, where the fire suppression system automatically activates on detection of a local
temperature increase (beyond the thermal and battery management systems), thus enabling early
intervention, and possibly avoiding heat transfer to adjoining cells, major battery damage and other
fire damage.
What if 5% surfactant is used in water mist suppression system?
The above graph is of flame temperature vs. time with pure water and 5% surfactant solution (The
surfactant includes Fatty Methyl Ester Ethoxylate (FMEE); C6 Alkyl glucoside (APG06); C8
Alkyl glucoside (APG08) andC10 Alkyl glucoside (APG10).) added in it. This shows that if we
used pure water as suppressant the time taken and temperature decreasing rate is greater than the
5% surfactant used in water mist. And the conclusion comes up with the surfactant used with water
mist is beneficiary for dousing the EV fires by decreasing time and temperature rate.
Main Disadvantage of Water Mist Suppression System:
• Water can react with LiPF6 and form toxic and harmful hydrogen fluoride (HF).

• Chemically reduced by lithium and produce combustible hydrogen.
• Conduct current and cause external short circuits in a cell.
• Results in LIB thermal runaway.
4.1.2 HEPTAFLUOROPROPANE
Heptafluropropane (HFC-227ea) is a colorless, odorless gaseous halocarbon commonly

used as a gaseous fire suppression agent, also known as FM200. Its chemical formula is CF3-CHF-
CF3, or C3HF7. With a boiling point of −16.4 °C, it is a gas at room temperature. It is slightly
soluble in water (260 mg/L). HFC-227ea falls in the category of Clean Agents and is governed by
NFPA 2001 - Standard for Clean Agent Fire Extinguishing Systems. Effective fire suppression
requires introducing a concentration of the HFC-227ea agent between 6.25% and 9% depending
on the hazard being suppressed. Most fire suppression systems are designed to provide
concentration of 6.25-9%.
Advantages of Heptafluoropropane Suppression System:

• HFC-227ea contains no chlorine or bromine atoms, presenting no ozone depletion effect.
• Its atmospheric lifetime is approximated between 31 and 42 years.
• It leaves no residue or oily deposits and can be removed by ventilation of the affected space.
How HFC-227ea Suppresses EV Fires:

It suppresses fire primarily by –
• Extracting heat from the flame reaction Zone.
• Reducing the flame temperature below that which is necessary to maintain sufficiently high
reaction rates by a combination of heat of vaporization and heat capacity.
• To increase the chemical inhibition, heptafluoropropane is sometimes mixed with NAHCO3.
And these helps in suppressing fires quickly.

Main Disadvantages of HFC-227ea Suppression System:
• Heptafluoropropane (HFC-227ea) contributes to climate change. It has a global warming
potential (GWP) of 3,220.
• While the FM-200 does not contain Halon gas, it still uses Hydrofluorocarbons (HFC) to
suppress fires, which is not as eco-friendly as other clean agents.
4.1.3 AQUEOUS VERMICULITE DISPERSION (AVD)

Aqueous Vermiculite Dispersion (AVD) fire extinguishing agent is a new, revolutionary
technology that uses fixed and portable delivery techniques to effectively combat lithium-ion
battery fires. AVD is an aqueous dispersion of chemically exfoliated vermiculite. It is applied to
lithium battery fires as a mist, extinguishing them and preventing the propagation of the fire.
Vermiculite is the name given to a group of hydrated laminar aluminum-iron-magnesium silicates.
It consists of thin, flat flakes containing microscopic layers of water. The chemical exfoliation of
vermiculite produces microscopic, individual platelets that are freely suspended in water. This
yields a stable aqueous dispersion of vermiculite to be used as a lithium battery fire extinguishing
agent.
How AVD works?

The vermiculite particles within the mist are deposited on the surface of the burning fuel to
create a film over the top of the fire. The film instantly dries and, because the high aspect ratio
platelet particles overlap and bind together, a non-flammable oxygen barrier between the fuel
and the atmosphere is produced.

This process has a cooling effect on the fuel source and, as the water content in AVD is
evaporated, the vermiculite platelets begin to build up and the fire is brought under control.
Process:
• When lithium-ion batteries are exposed to heat, physical/impact damage or overcharging,
they go into thermal runaway.
• The cells are sufficiently swollen, releasing hot flammable gases (hydrocarbons) that are
formed as the electrolyte dissociates.
• The hydrocarbons burn vigorously at high temperatures and rapidly spread the fire to the
surrounding cells and flammable materials.
• AVD is applied as a fine mist, which instantly cools the batteries and extinguishes the
flames.
• AVD encapsulates the fuel source and insulates the cells, preventing further propagation of
thermal runaway – bringing the fire under control.
1. 2.
3. 4.
5.
Disadvantage of AVD Suppression System:
The AVD needs the storage space and in EV’s this can occupy the wanted space and can make
vehicle heavy.

05 - CONDENSED AEROSOL FIRE
EXTINGUISHING AGENT

5.1 CONDENSED AEROSOL
1. The National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) defines condensed aerosol as an
extinguishing medium consisting of finely divided solid particles and gaseous matter,
generated by a combustion process of a solid aerosol forming compound.
2. Dry chemical agents are powder-based agents that normally range in diameter from 25 to
150 micrometers, while condensed aerosols are defined by NFPA as particles of less than
10 micrometers in diameter. Both produce large surface areas for reaction and are very
effective extinguishants.
3. The fire tetrahedron identifies four elements needed for fire to occur: heat, fuel, oxidizing
agent (usually oxygen), and chemical chain reaction. Fire will burn until at least one of
these elements is removed. Condensed aerosol mainly interferes with the chain reaction,
similar to halocarbon agents, such as Halon1301. Without the chain reaction, there’s
insufficient heat necessary to maintain the fire.
4. These systems take advantage of the well-established fire suppression capability of solid
particulates, with potentially reduced collateral damage associated with traditional dry
chemicals.
5.2 AEROSOL FORMING COMPOUND

1. The aerosol-generating chemical is a thermoplastic mixture consisting of an oxidiser, a
combustible binder and additives.
2. The oxidiser is solid potassium nitrate (KNO3), the binder is solid plasticised nitro-
cellulose (CnHmNpOq) and other ingredients for stabilisation.
3. Combustion products of the aerosol-generating chemical consists of: potassium carbonate
(KHCO3, K2CO3), carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrogen (N2) and water (H2O) and represent the
actual extinguishing agent, completely environmentally friendly.
4. In a cartridge, a defined amount of solid is stored, which is ignited electrically in the
event of an alarm or initiates the extinguishing process by self-activation at approx. 300
degrees.
5.3 WORKING PRINCIPLE

1. The principle of the extinguishing action employed by aerosol is unique – a special solid
chemical, which when electrically or thermally ignited, produces combustion by-products
– micron sized dry particles, (mainly potassium carbonates), and a gaseous mixture,
(mainly carbon dioxide, nitrogen and water vapour), mixed together into a uniform fire
extinguishing aerosol, before being released into the protected area.
2. The hot aerosol propels itself through a unique solid chemical coolant, which
decomposes, absorbing huge amounts of heat, thus ensuring a flameless discharge and a
uniform distribution of the cool aerosol within the area. The high rate of aerosol
discharge ensures a tremendous knock down effect.

3. Micron sized aerosol particles exhibit gas-like three-dimensional qualities that allow the
agent to rapidly distribute throughout enclosure and to reach even the most concealed and
shielded locations. Homogenous distribution is achieved in a matter of seconds, while
long holding times all help to prevent fire re-ignition.
4. When activated the solid aerosol element undergoes a combustion reaction, which can
schematically be represented as follows:
KNO3 (s) + CnHmNpOq (s) = KHCO3 (s) + K2CO3 (s) + CO2 (g) + N2 (g) + H2O (g)
5. Combustion products mainly consist of potassium carbonates (KHCO3, K2CO3), carbon

dioxide gas (CO2 (g)), nitrogen gas (N2 (g)) and water vapour (H2O (g)) and represent the
actual extinguishing agent.
6. As the reaction temperatures are high, potassium carbonates are formed in the gas phase,
but as the vapour cools, the potassium carbonates condense to a liquid and then a solid.
As solid potassium carbonates are produced by condensation, the particle size is very
small – approximately from 1 to 10 microns.
7. Micron sized solid particles mix with the gaseous carbon dioxide, nitrogen and water into
a uniform homogeneous gas-like phase – an aerosol.
8. Thus, extinguishing aerosol is a suspension of the micron sized solid particles, mainly
potassium carbonates, in the gas mix of carbon dioxide, nitrogen and water vapour.
5.4 AEROSOL EXTINGUISHING ACTION

1. Removal of Flame Propagation Radicals: “chain carriers” OH, H and O in the flame
zone. The chemical action of potassium radicals in Pyrogen is similar to that of bromine
radicals in Halons and can be schematically represented as follows:

K + OH = KOH
KOH + H = K + H2O
2. Recombination of Flame Propagation Radicals: Gaseous potassium carbonates

condense to a liquid and then a solid form producing a large number of micron sized
particles. Being so small, the particles produce a large surface area, where recombination
of “chain carriers” takes place:
O + H = OH
H + OH = H2O
Secondarily, aerosol extinguishing action is achieved by lowering fire temperature to a

temperature below which the fire reaction cannot continue (thermal cooling). Several
physical mechanisms can be underlined:
A. Heat absorption via endothermic phase changes:

K2CO3 (s) → K2CO3 (l) → K2CO3 (g)
B. Heat absorption – via endothermic decomposition reaction:

2KHCO3 (s) → K2CO3 (s) + CO2 (g) + H2O (g)
3. Dilution of the Fire Combustion Zone by the Aerosol Cloud: The extremely high
surface area of the micron-size aerosol particles increases the likelihood of radical
recombination and heat absorbing reactions, thus ensuring rapid extinguishment with a
small amount of agent. The high rate of aerosol discharge ensures a tremendous
knockdown effect. Micron sized aerosol particles exhibit gas-like three-dimensional
qualities that allow the agent to rapidly distribute throughout enclosure and reach the
most concealed and shielded locations. Homogeneous distribution is achieved in a matter
of seconds, while long holding times all help to prevent fire re-ignition.
▪ Condensed Aerosol Fire Extinguishing Reaction Sequence-
Oxidation of hydrogen in the flames:

H2 + O2 → 2 OH-
OH- + H2 → H2O + H+
H+ + O2 → OH- + H+
O2- + H2 → OH- + H+
Oxidation of carbon monoxide in the
flame:
H2 + O2 → 2 OH-
OH- + CO+ + → CO2 + H+
H+ + O2 → OH- + O2-
Therefore, in the flame, during combustion, further to water and carbon dioxide
(stable), only unstable hydroxyl radicals are formed which allow the reaction to
continue (phenomenon of auto catalysis).

The chain reaction is interrupted by the
Potassium atoms, which react with the
unstable hydroxyl as follows:
OH- + K+ → KOH (and flames are thus

extinguished)
Notice that the potassium hydroxide

(KOH) is formed in quantities smaller than
micrograms.
The KOH reacts further in the presence of

CO2 and form K2CO3.
During this process we can verify that the

extinguishing action of potassium
compounds is not achieved either through
smothering or quenching but through a
reaction in presence of flame with
consequent termination of the chain
reaction.
Legend
H2 Hydrogen stable
O2 Oxygen stable
OH- Hydroxyl radicals unstable
H2O Water stable
H+ Hydrogen atoms unstable
O2- Oxygen atoms unstable
CO2+ Carbon monoxide unstable
CO2 Carbon dioxide stable

5.5 ADVANTAGES OF CONDENSED AEROSOL
1) Aerosol is non-toxic, non-conductive, non-oxygen depleting and non-Corrosive in nature.
2) It has zero global warming potential (GWP), zero ozone depletion potential (ODP) and negligible
atmospheric life time.
3) It is CFC free.
4) It is most efficient by weight.
5) It is effective on A, B, C, E & K Class fires.
6) It has far easier installation - no piping, pressure cylinders, special supports or valves are
required, thus reducing installation time and labor costs considerably.
7) It has easy maintenance without the need for pressure testing, weighing, pressure/leak detection,
filling, etc.
8) It tremendously saves the space, i.e., the space required is only a fraction of the space needed for
cylinders etc.
9) It does not affect the operation of equipment, in particular, electrical in nature.
10) It has simple Design Calculations.

06 - DESIGN OF IOT BASED
CONDENSED AEROSOL FIRE
SUPPRESSION SYSTEM

6.1 INTRODUCTION
From all the previous studies, we can draw a conclusion that fundamentally, electric vehicles are
safe, but the real problem is to suppress a fire that the vehicle potentially catches. This safety
concern stands in the way of the EV becoming the dominating transportation system. Professor
Paul Christensen from the University of Newcastle, an expert in the field of EV fires says,
“Various solutions have been suggested but the general consensus is that it’s not going to be one
single product or solution, it’s going to have to be a system that involves both procedure and
product”.
With the advent of super cheap computer chips and ubiquity of wireless network, it has now
become possible to design ‘Internet of Things’ (IoT) based systems that could help, not only in
early detection of EV fires, but also extinguish the fire in its incipient stage.
This project integrates auto technology for autonomous operation and uses the Arduino
microcontroller. The Arduino UNO board is interfaced with GSM Sim 900A Module, Flame
Sensor Module, Aerosol Generator, Red & Green LEDs with the help of Breadboard and Jumper
Wires.
COMPONENT DESCRIPTION:
Arduino UNO: It is an open-source

microcontroller board, developed by
Arduino.cc. It is based on Microchip
ATmega328P microcontroller.
The board is equipped with sets of

digital and analog input/output (I/O)
pins that may be interfaced to
various expansion boards (shields)
and other circuits.
It has 14 digital input/output pins (of

which 6 can be used as PWM
outputs), 6 analog inputs, 16 MHz
crystal oscillator, USB connection,
Power jack, ICSP header, Reset
button. On connecting it to a computer with a USB cable or powering it with an AC-to-DC
adapter or battery, it will get started.

The Arduino Integrated Development Environment (IDE) is an application used to write and
upload code to Arduino UNO and other Arduino boards.
Flame Sensor Module: This shield is designed to detect presence of fire. It consists of a
photodiode (IR receiver), resistor, capacitor,
potentiometer, and LM393 comparator in an integrated
circuit
All Fires emits a small amount of Infra-red light, this

light will be received by the Photodiode (IR receiver)
on the sensor module.
Op-Amp checks for a change in voltage across the IR

Receiver, so that if a fire is detected the output pin (DO)
will give 0V (LOW), and if the is no fire the output pin
will be 5V (HIGH).
It can detect infrared light with a wavelength ranging

from 700nm to 1000nm and its detection angle is about 60°. The sensitivity can be adjusted by
varying the onboard potentiometer. Working voltage is between 3.3v and 5v DC, with a digital
output.
A logic high on the output indicates the presence of flame or fire. A logic low on output indicates
the absence of flame or fire.
GSM Sim 900A Module: Global

System for Mobile communication
(GSM) is digital cellular system used for
mobile devices.
The Arduino GSM shield allows an
Arduino board to connect to the internet,
send and receive SMS, and make voice
calls using the GSM Library.
It can be powered up using 5V adaptor. It
can be easily interfaced with 5v
supported controller boards. This module
supports communication in 900MHz
band.

Breadboard: It is a rectangular plastic board with a bunch of tiny holes. Connections are not
permanent & easy to remove. Soldering is not required.
Top and Bottom rows of holes are connected horizontally and split in the middle while the
remaining holes are connected vertically.
Red & Green LED: 1 Red & 1 Green LED is used.

The Green LED remains ON at all material times.
The Red LED is lit when Fire is detected by the flame sensor.
Jumper Wires: Jumper wires are wires that have connector pins at
each end, allowing them to be used to connect two points to each
other without soldering.
Jumper wires are used with breadboards and other prototyping tools.

6.2 THE CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
(Software Used: Fritzing)
6.3 CONNECTIONS
Flame Sensor to Arduino:
VCC → 5V
DO → Pin 11
GND → GND
GSM Module to Arduino:

TX → TX
RX → RX
GND → GND

Breadboard to Arduino:
Green LED → Pin 13 & Pin 6
Red LED → Pin 5
Aerosol Generator → Pin 12
Red LED → Aerosol Generator
5V Battery or AC/DC Adaptor is connected to the GSM Module
6.4 FLOWCHART
Start
Collect information from Flame

Sensor Module
Yes If Flame
GSM Module sends SMS
== Low
Red LED activated No
Aerosol Generator Discharges Stop

6.5 THE CODE
const int aerosolPin = 12;

const int flamePin = 11;
int Flame = HIGH;
int redled = 5;
int greenled = 6;
void setup ()
{
pinMode(aerosolPin, OUTPUT);
pinMode(redled, OUTPUT);
pinMode(greenled, OUTPUT);
pinMode(flamePin, INPUT);
serial.begin(9600);
}
void loop()
{
Flame = digitalRead(flamePin);
if (Flame == LOW)
{
serial.printIn(“ATDxxxxxxxxxx;”);
digitalWrite(aerosolPin, HIGH);
digitalWrite(redled, HIGH);
digitalWrite(greenled, LOW);
serial.printIn(“AT+CMGF = 1”);
delay(1000);
serial.printIn(“AT+CMGS=\ “+91xxxxxxxxxx\”\r”);
serial.printIn(“FIRE IN YOUR CAR”);
serial.printIn((char)26);
}
else
{
digitalWrite(aerosolPin, LOW);
digitalWrite(greenled, HIGH);
digitalWrite(redled, LOW);
}
}

(Software Used: Fritzing)
6.6 DECODING THE CODE
These code lines define the pins on the

const int aerosolPin = 12; Arduino UNO to which the components
const int flamePin = 11; like Aerosol Generator, Flame Sensor
int Flame = HIGH; Module and the Green & Red LEDs are
int redled = 5; connected.
int greenled = 6; int Flame = HIGH, means the input
from the flame pin will always be
HIGH (5V), until a fire is detected.
Part 1: Next, we setup the Arduino UNO by
Defining the void setup () defining the purpose of each pin
Pins { connected to it. The Aerosol pin, Red &
pinMode(aerosolPin, OUTPUT); Green LED pins are only used for
pinMode(redled, OUTPUT); giving an output. Whereas, the flame
pinMode(greenled, OUTPUT);

pinMode(flamePin, INPUT); sensor pin is the only pin that gives an
serial.begin(9600); input to the Arduino UNO.
} Serial.begin(9600); This command
activates a serial communication
between the Arduino UNO and GSM
Sim 900A Module.
This loop structure continuously repeats
the given task until a required condition
Part 2: void loop() is met.
Initiation of { Here the task of the loop is to read the
Loop Flame = digitalRead(flamePin); input from the flame pin through the
‘digitalRead’ command and store the
value in ‘Flame’ variable.
Inside the void loop() we have only one
if condition. This if condition is used to
if (Flame == LOW) check if the flame is detected. If the
{ flame is detected by the sensor, the
serial.printIn(“ATDxxxxxxxxxx;”); flame detector will give LOW (0V)
digitalWrite(aerosolPin, HIGH); signal which is read by Arduino using
digitalWrite(redled, HIGH); digitalRead() function and the value is
Part 3: digitalWrite(greenled, LOW); stored in ‘Flame’ variable.
Execution serial.printIn(“AT+CMGF = 1”); The serial.printIn(“ATDxxxxxxxxxx;”);
on detection delay(1000); command first feeds the users number
of fire serial.printIn(“AT+CMGS=\ in the GSM module.
“+91xxxxxxxxxx\”\r”); Then a HIGH (5V) signal is sent to the
serial.printIn(“FIRE IN YOUR aerosolPin and Red LED pin so as to
CAR”); switch them ON. A LOW (0V) signal is
serial.printIn((char)26); sent to the Green LED and hence it is
} switched OFF, once the fire is detected.
serial.printIn(“AT+CMGF = 1”); This
command sets the GSM module in text
mode.
serial.printIn(“AT+CMGS=\
“+91xxxxxxxxxx\”\r”); &
serial.printIn(“FIRE IN YOUR CAR”);
These commands send the pre-saved
message to the user through the GSM
Module.
else If fire is not detected, the value of
Part 4: { variable Flame=HIGH, the Arduino
Execution if digitalWrite(aerosolPin, LOW); UNO will send a LOW signal to the
fire is not digitalWrite(greenled, HIGH); Aerosol pin and Red LED and a HIGH
detected digitalWrite(redled, LOW); signal to the Green LED.
}}

6.7 FUTURE SCOPE
The HAZOP Analysis done earlier gave us an account of 5 nodes other than battery that can
potentially lead to a fire accident. All those components and the battery pack are present in the
space below the seats in most of the electric vehicles. This is done to keep the center of gravity
of the vehicle at a lower level, which facilitates higher driving speed and increased battery
efficiency. The IoT based Condensed Aerosol Fire Suppression System proposed in this project
can be installed in the area aforementioned.
Also, the compartment where the battery and the major components are present is completely
enclosed with no source of light inside it. This will ensure optimal functioning of the sensor used
in the proposed project, which works really well in darker areas.
In order to ensure precision in fire detection, multiple Flame Sensor Modules can be interfaced
with the Arduino UNO Board. Other Arduino shields that can detect gases like carbon monoxide,
carbon dioxide etc. that are liberated during a fire can also be used.

07 - PASSIVE FIRE
PROTECTION FOR ELECTRIC
VEHICLES

7.1 EV FIRE TEST
This test was performed by SP Technical Institute of Sweden which is referred by us for evaluating
the components vulnerable to fire in EVs.
Introduction:
To evaluate the fire risk for the battery-powered vehicle, flame propagation, the rate of heat release
and radiation heat flux were obtained in real-scale fire tests of the vehicle. In the test of the battery-
powered vehicle, there was no explosive burn of the lithium-ion rechargeable battery pack.
A lithium-ion rechargeable battery (hereafter referred to as LIB of large capacity is installed in the
electric vehicle. The safety standards of the LIB are UL 1642 for the cell and UL 2054 for the
battery pack in addition to IEC 61960. The electrolyte in a LIB is an organic compound that
happens to be extremely flammable; e.g., dimethyl carbonate or diethyl carbonate. The exposure
of a LIB to a fire will lead to an outburst and leakage of flammable gas from the LIB pack through
a temperature rise of the electrolyte. Assessment of the fire risk posed by a LIB should clarify the
effects of the outburst and the leakage on the spread of a fire. Because the overheating of the
battery pack in a fire depends on the position of the battery pack in the vehicle, it is difficult to
estimate the fire risk of a single battery pack in an electric vehicle. The battery-powered vehicle
has many special parts, and the burning of these parts will lead to fire behavior, this behavior is
due to vulnerable components and we have analyzed the components for suggesting them retardant
material as a passive fire protection.
Specification of Electric Vehicle:

• The EV used was equipped with four tires.
• The electric motor is located at the front of the vehicles.
• The four side doors and the hood of the motor bay were made of aluminum.
• The battery pack was constructed from 48 modules each containing four cells and provided
360 V DC with 24 kWh capacity.
• Each cell was of laminated type, and the positive and negative electrodes, separator and
electrolyte were sealed in the cell.

• The material of a positive electrode was a manganese-based alloy. The electrolyte was a
flammable carbonic-acid-ester-based solvent.
• The battery pack had an upper shell and lower shell made of steel, and the shells sealed the
module and harness. The battery pack was installed beneath.
• Dimension of EV - L×W×H = (4445×1770×1545) mm.
• Gross weight = 1520 kg.
Test Condition of Electric Vehicle:

• The LIB was fully charged.
• The windows of the four doors of the vehicles were closed.
• The electric motor or engine was shut off throughout the tests.
• In the tests, ignition was initiated at the fully integrated soft rear bumper with
• 80 g of alcohol gel fuel.
• The vehicles were allowed to burn until the fires went out.
Measurement of The Test:

• The tests were carried out in a fire test room (dimensions: 15 m (W) x 15 m (D) x 15 m (H))
with an electrostatic precipitator.
• K-type thermocouples are placed in the test vehicles to measure temperature.
• A video camera is used to obtain a video of the burning vehicle during the tests to observe
the fire spread from the point of origin.
• Test vehicle was placed on a weighing platform, which was used to determine both the mass
loss and the rate of mass loss of the burning vehicle.
• The data of the temperature, mass loss and heat flux were stored in a recorder.
• The measurement accuracy of the weighing platform was 10 g.
• The vehicles were allowed to burn until the fires self-extinguished.
• The locations of the heat-flux sensors in the surroundings of the test vehicle.
• Heat flux sensor are located at the front, right side and rear of the burning vehicle, for the
measurement of heat flux on the right side being set adjacent to the center pillar, rear tire and
front tire.

Burning process:
The duration of burning of each part was determined from the measured rise in temperature and
the video of the burning vehicle. The flame originating from the left side soft rear bumper had
propagated at near roof height along the body surface after about 9 min. Shortly afterward, the
right- and left-rear tires and the luggage compartment began to burn, and a large flame formed at
the rear. When the heat from the large flame that formed at the rear shattered the rear window
about 20 min later, the rear flame grew and the door panels at the right and left rear subsequently
melted. The melting of a door panel was slow, and there was no large opening of the panel in the
short term. A flame that was presumed to be an outburst flammable gas from the battery pack was
observed from under the vehicle at about 37 min. The flame for this outburst lasted for about 1
min. When the heat from the flame that formed in the passenger compartment shattered the front
window about 40 min later, the passenger compartment flame rapidly grew. The front door panels
on the right and left began to melt with the rapid combustion of the passenger compartment, and
the flame presumed to be the outburst of flammable gas relapsed under the vehicle for a few
minutes. However, the battery pack did not burst or explode in this fire test.

Above figure shows the total voltage characteristic of the LIB for the electric-battery-powered
vehicle. The total voltage of the LIB fell to almost 0 V at about 50 min. The flame in the passenger
compartment propagated to the motor bay through a through-hole in the fire wall and in the vicinity
of the hinges of the front doors. The fall of the burning door mirror and 198 Seconds, front fender
inner panel led to the combustion of the right- and left-front tires, and the flame combined with
the flame of the motor bay, which grew through the melting of the motor bay hood. The fire burned
out completely about 120 min after ignition.
Burning process of EV
Conclusion:
This study determined flame propagation, rate of heat release, radiation heat flux and
components which are vulnerable to fire. From the test results, we’ve identified the major
combustible material present in EVs and how they support flame spread. On the basis of these
findings, we’ve listed down the possible fire retardants that could be applied to the identified
components, so as to limit the flame spread and minimize the extent of damage to the vehicle.
Major Combustible Materials Observed:
1. Electrolyte present in the battery

2. Carbon reinforced polymer body
3. Car tyres
4. Car seats
5. Plastic components like headlights, bumper, console shells and dashboard

7.2 ELECTROLYTE PRESENT IN THE BATTERY
• Electrolytes are one of the most important parts of the battery since they are responsible
for the conduction of ions between the electrodes.
• The typical electrolyte for LIBs is made of a flammable carbonate-based organic solvent
such as ethylene carbonate (EC), dimethyl carbonate (DMC), diethyl carbonate (DEC)
and ethyl methyl carbonate (EMC), and/or propylene carbonate (PC).
• The carbonated solvents of electrolyte are the main contributor to fire induced by LIB
thermal runaway.
• These electrolytes have very low flash points. They are highly volatile and flammable.
• The flammable organic electrolyte has the lowest thermal stability among all of the
components.
• During the thermal runaway process, the electrolyte can release flammable gases due to
thermal instability and the cathode material can generate oxygen. Under this condition,
the increasing Li-ion battery temperature makes the battery prone to catching fire.
• Electrolytes have low mass in a LIB but have high effective heat of combustion, and
account for approximately 80% of the heat release in a LIB fire.
• The flame retardants used for electrolyte shall have following properties-
o High flash point
o Inert and should not hinder electrochemical reactions
Passive Fire Protection for Battery Electrolyte-
Method 1. Addition of Flame Retardants (FRs) to the Electrolyte

1) Triphenyl phosphate (TPP) is the most popularly used phosphorus-based
flame retardant. It is a cheap and efficient flame retardant.
2) TPP results in lower electrolyte flammability due to the formation of a layer
of char which protects the un-combusted condensed phase.
3) TPP can generate phosphorus-containing free radicals, for example, PO• and
PO2•, which can actively capture the H• and HO• radicals emitted by the

burning electrolyte so that it can weaken or terminate combustion chain
branching reactions, therefore retarding the combustion.
4) As the concentration of TPP increases, the ionic conductivity of the
electrolyte significantly decreases, possibly because of increased viscosity.
This significantly deteriorate the cell performance.
Method 2. Incorporation of FRs into the Battery Separator
1) A novel electrospun core-shell microfiber separator with thermal-triggered

flame-retardant properties is used in lithium-ion batteries.
2) The microfibers exhibit a core-shell structure, where the triphenyl phosphate
(TPP), a popular organophosphorus-based flame retardant, is the core and
poly(vinylidene fluoride–hexafluoropropylene) (PVDF-HFP) is the shell.
3) The encapsulation of TPP inside the PVDF-HFP protective polymer shell has
prevented direct exposure of the flame retardant to the electrolyte and has
largely slowed down its dissolution, preventing negative effects from the
retardants on the electrochemical performance of the battery.
4) If thermal runaway of the lithium-ion battery happens, the PVDF-HFP
polymer shell will melt as temperature increases and then the encapsulated
TPP flame retardant will be released into the electrolyte, thus effectively
suppressing the combustion of the highly flammable electrolytes.
5) PVDF-HFP was chosen as protective shell because-
o It is insoluble in common electrolytes for lithium-ion batteries thus,
the polymer protective shell would not dissolve when the normal
battery is running.
o It exhibits a relatively low melting point (~160°C), such that it can be
melted before or at the early stage of combustion.
o It is inert and stable within the reductive/oxidative electrochemical
environment inside the battery.
6) The TPP was chosen as the flame retardant because it is a popularly used
cheap and efficient phosphorus-based flame retardant. Moreover, the air
pollution level after combustion is much lower than that when halogen-based
flame retardants are used.

7) With this smart and adaptive material in the battery, we do not have to make
a trade-off between the electrolyte non-flammability and the electrochemical
performance of the battery.
a) The free-standing separator is composed of microfibers with a core-shell structure, where the flame retardant
is the core and the polymer is the shell. The encapsulation of the flame retardant inside the protective
polymer shell has prevented direct exposure and dissolution of the flame retardant into the electrolyte,
preventing their negative effects on the electrochemical performance of the battery.
b) Upon thermal triggering, the polymer shell would melt and then the encapsulated flame retardant would be
released into the electrolyte, thus effectively suppressing the ignition and burning of the electrolytes.
Method 3. Replacement of Current Low Flash Point Electrolyte with a Fire-

Extinguishing Concentrated Electrolyte
1) Non-flammable phosphate-based electrolyte is prepared by adding 5 mol L-1
(M) Li-bis(fluorosulfonyl) imide (LiFSI) in a trimethyl phosphate (TMP)
solvent and by diluting it with bis(2,2,2-trifluoroethyl) ether (BTFE).
2) Trimethyl phosphate (TMP) is selected as the solvent because of its well-
known flame-retardant property along with its low viscosity and high
oxidative stability.
3) The salt used was LiFSI because of its weak cation anion interaction, offering
high ion transport even at high concentrations.
4) The electrochemical performance of batteries using this highly concentrated
electrolyte is also enhanced.
5) This concentrated electrolyte with non-flammable

solvents can effectively passivate the anode via the
formation of salt-derived SEI (a green film) while
functioning as a fire-extinguishing material.

6) It is also effective in preventing the growth of Li dendrites. Electrolytes react
with lithium dendrites violently at elevated temperatures to produce gases
that increases the internal pressure of the batteries continuously, causing
safety problems such as battery explosion.
7.3 CARBON FIBER REINFORCED POLYMER BODY

• Carbon fibre reinforced polymers are composite materials which rely on the carbon fibre
to provide the strength and stiffness and the polymer that provides a cohesive matrix to
protect and hold the fibres together and provides some toughness.
• CFRP is about four times lighter than steel yet 10 times stronger.
• The lighter the vehicle, the less power required to get it moving and the less energy
needed to maintain a constant speed. Reducing a vehicle’s weight can effectively
improve its energy efficiency.
• It has excellent fatigue strength, high chemical resistance and corrosion resistance.
• When CFRPs are exposed to a fire, the composite materials degrade and quickly ignite,
releasing volatile gases, and producing char resulting in a significant reduction in
structural strength.
Passive Fire Protection of CFRPs Using Silicone-Based Intumescent Coatings-

1) It can be achieved with reactive insulation coatings which react when exposed to
fire increasing their thermal insulation properties, thereby protecting the
underlying substrate.
2) Silicones have the properties to exhibit low thermal conductivity, to be water and
heat resistant, and to have high durability. The intumescence process results from
a combination of charring and foaming at the surface of the substrate
3) The result of this process is the formation of a multicellular (alveolar) barrier,
thick and non-flammable, which likely to protect the substrate or residual material
from heat or flame action.
4) The charred layer acts as a physical barrier which slows down heat and mass
transfer.

7.4 CAR TYRES
• Tires for electric vehicles carry a heavier load and have to withstand high instant torque,
leading to higher tire wear, so we need tires with stronger constructions and more robust
rubber compounds.
• Greater mass and increased inertia means longer braking distance, so we place a special
emphasis on optimal grip.
• With high instant torque, increased weight, the demand for a long range and lower
emissions comes an even greater need for minimal rolling resistance, so tires for electric
cars offer a smoother, more energy-efficient and low-impact ride.
• Most tires on the road today are constructed of roughly equal parts natural rubber,
petroleum and “carbon black” filler (derived partially from burned fossil fuels), along
with a dash of other chemical additives to improve functionality.
• On incineration release benzene, lead, butadiene, styrene and other potential carcinogens
into the air we breathe.
• Combustion of tyres is self-sustaining and can occur at lower temperatures and early
stages.
• Steel threads present in the lateral walls of tyres result in higher overall HRR. While
burning it liberates dense smoke cloud.
Passive Fire Protection for Car Tyres:
Chemically toughened natural rubbers, vegetable-based processing oils, and fibres made of plant
cellulose are used to replace some of the petroleum in the newer so-called “low-oil” tires.
A pneumatic tire comprising at least one component, the at least one component comprising a
rubber composition, the rubber composition comprising: at least one diene-based elastomer; from

20 to 40 parts by weight, per 100 parts by weight of elastomer (phr), of silica; and from 10 to 25
weight percent of aluminum hydroxide; wherein the composition is self-extinguishing at a
temperature of 1000° C., and the composition is exclusive of halogenated paraffin and antimony
trioxide.
7.5 CAR SEATS
• Car seats are generally made up of polyurethane foam because it is comfortable, light
weight, durable, cost-effective and can be tailored in any shape.
• Polyurethane is a leading member of the wide-ranging and highly diverse family of
polymers or plastics. Polyurethane can be a solid or can have an open cellular structure,
in which case it is called foam, and foams can be flexible or rigid.
• As simple explanation, manufacturers make polyurethane foam by reacting polyols and
di-isocyanates, both products derived from crude oil.
• PU foams are readily ignitable because of their low thermal resistance, high flammability,
and produce large amount of smoke while burning.
• PU foams are highly flammable and show a high burning velocity due to the high
surface-to-mass ratio, high air permeability, open cell structure, low aromaticity, and the
high oxygen, carbon, and hydrogen content in the polymer matrix.
• Most commonly used flame retardants for Polyurethane foams are Expandable graphite
and Melamine.
Passive Fire Protection of PU Foam Car Seats Using Expandable Graphite Flame
Retardant:
• Expandable Graphite is a halogen free flame retardant. It is widely used for polyurethane
foam.
• The EG expands under the impact of Heat up to about 500 times of its original volume
and creates a very large surface. It allows a quick oxidation of the carbon. The oxygen is
taken out of the air and makes the air almost inert. This inert air extinguishes the fire.
• EG doesn’t create flames while oxidation. Therefore, no source of fire will be generated
by the oxidizing graphite.
• It also creates voluminous, stable carbonaceous layer on the surface of the materials. This
layer limits the heat transfer from the heat source to the substrate and the mass transfer
from the substrate to the heat source resulting in protection of the underlying material.
Passive Fire Protection of PU Foam Car Seats Using Melamine Flame Retardant:

• Melamine is a halogen free flame retardant. It is a fire retardant and smoke-suppressant
widely used for polyurethane foam.
• Melamine is believed to act as a heat sink, increasing the heat capacity of the combustion
system and lowering the surface temperature of the foam. Thus, the rates of combustible
gas evolution and burning are reduced.
• The nitrogen content of the melamine may partly end up as nitrogen gas when melamine
burns, providing both a heat sink and inert diluents in the flame. The presence of
melamine in the foam results in less heat generated by the flame, consequently less heat
fed back to the foam and the rate of foam pyrolysis, i.e., generating of volatile fuel is
reduced.
• Due to a chemical interaction between melamine and the evolved isocyanate fraction
creating from degradation of polyurethane foam. This interaction reduces the amount of
di-isocyanate the main contributor to the smoke and CO release.
7.6 PLASTIC MATERIALS LIKE DASHBOARDS, CONSOLE

SHELLS, BUMPERS AND HEADLIGHTS
• These components are most commonly made up of polypropylene plastic due to its low
cost, outstanding mechanical properties and moldability.
• Polypropylene is a tough, rigid and crystalline thermoplastic produced from propene (or
propylene) monomer.
• Polypropylene is a highly flammable material. The flash point of a typical composition is
260 °C; auto-ignition temperature is 388 °C.
• Polypropylene burns with a hot smoke free flame without leaving a char residue because
of its wholly aliphatic hydrocarbon structure.
• Polypropylene has a high heat of combustion, about 46.4 kJ·g−1
• Rapid decomposition rate of PP as compared to wood and other cellulosic materials,
makes flame retardation of polypropylene a difficult task.
• Burning of PP leads to the formation of flaming droplets, spreading the fire rapidly.

Passive Fire Protection Using Flame Retardant Polypropylene:
• Tris(tribromoneopentyl) phosphate is the most commonly used solid flame retardant

additive that is incorporated in polypropylene to achieve fire retardancy. It is an aliphatic
bromine-containing flame retardant (FR) having a high melting point (181° C).
• It is hydrolytically and thermally stable, because of steric hindrance in this molecule.
• It reduces heat in gas phase from combustion by scavenging reactive free radicals emitted
during burning and prevent their oxidation, thus causing interruption in burning process.
• The exothermic processes are thus stopped, the system cools down, and the supply of
flammable gases is reduced and eventually fire completely suppressed.

08 - CONCLUSION

▪ Thus, we have studied the unique nature of EV Fires & various phenomenon related to
the EV Fires.
▪ We have successfully completed a fire specific HAZOP analysis of the various EV
components.
▪ We also successfully completed a fault analysis of battery for different states of operation
of the electric vehicle.
▪ We studied the existing suppression systems that are used for extinguishing EV fires
▪ We studied and analyzed condensed aerosol system, its working, advantages and the
chemistry behind its operation.
▪ We firmly come to the conclusion that condensed aerosol could be a potential
suppressant for EV fires.
▪ We have successfully designed IoT based Condensed Aerosol Fire Suppression System.
▪ We have also studied the fire test of electric vehicle and derived some crucial
conclusions.
▪ We have studied about major combustible materials which promote flame propagation in
an electric vehicle.
▪ We have studied and analyzed the flammable nature of the major combustible materials
and their respective passive fire protection strategies.

REFERENCES:
o https://www.isrmag.com/condensed-aerosol-fire-suppression-system/
o https://www.firepro.com/en/velex-vehicle-fire-suppression-system
o https://www.seai.ie/technologies/electric-vehicles/what-is-an-electric-vehicle/how-
electric-vehicles-work/
o https://avidtp.com/what-is-the-best-cooling-system-for-electric-vehicle-battery-packs/
o https://www.dober.com/electric-vehicle-cooling-
systems#electric_vehicle_thermal_management_system
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Electric Vehicle Fires

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Government of India

Ministry of Home Affairs

PROJECT-I & PROJECT-II

“STUDYING ELECTRIC VEHICLE FIRES & ANALYZING SUPPRESSANTS USED”

Project Report Submitted in

Mr. Aditya Ajay Rannaware Mr. Rishi Rajesh Raorane

Mr. Nayan Waman Peshne Mr. Ritik Ashok Kawale

Mr. Vedant Kashiwar

Shri. Rajesh Chaudhari

Nagpur, 1st July 2021.

1. Mr. Aditya Ajay Rannaware

2. Mr. Nayan Waman Peshne

3. Mr. Rishi Rajesh Raorane

4. Mr. Ritik Ashok Kawale

5. Mr. Vedant Kashiwar

Shri. Rajesh Chaudhari Dr. Gautam Kumar

Shri. Ramesh Kumar

Nagpur, 1st July 2021

1. Mr. Aditya Ajay Rannaware

2. Mr. Nayan Waman Peshne

3. Mr. Rishi Rajesh Raorane

4. Mr. Ritik Ashok Kawale

5. Mr. Vedant Kashiwar

NATIONAL FIRE SERVICE COLLEGE, NAGPUR 1

Fire can be extinguished in any of the following four ways:

1) Removing or blanketing the fuel.

1.2 ELEMENTS OF FIRE

NATIONAL FIRE SERVICE COLLEGE, NAGPUR 2

• Fire Triangle Facts

1.3 FIRE TETRAHEDRON

NATIONAL FIRE SERVICE COLLEGE, NAGPUR 3

• Cool the burning materials with water.

NATIONAL FIRE SERVICE COLLEGE, NAGPUR 4

1.4 PHASES OF FIRE

NATIONAL FIRE SERVICE COLLEGE, NAGPUR 5

1.5.1. TYPE OF COMBUSTION

NATIONAL FIRE SERVICE COLLEGE, NAGPUR 6

1.5.2. TERMINATION OF COMBUSTION

NATIONAL FIRE SERVICE COLLEGE, NAGPUR 7

NATIONAL FIRE SERVICE COLLEGE, NAGPUR 8

Here some of the major accidents involved in Electric Vehicle:

2. A similar incident of spontaneous ignition was observed in a brand-new electric bus

NATIONAL FIRE SERVICE COLLEGE, NAGPUR 9

NATIONAL FIRE SERVICE COLLEGE, NAGPUR 10

There are broadly three kinds of electric vehicles at present:

a. Solar-powered electric cars and vehicles

2.3 MAJOR COMPONENTS OF EV’S

1. Purpose Built Chassis:

NATIONAL FIRE SERVICE COLLEGE, NAGPUR 11

The Function of an Inverter:

Broadly speaking, an inverter is an electrical

NATIONAL FIRE SERVICE COLLEGE, NAGPUR 12

It is an AC electric motor in which the electric current

The IM has the following advantages:

NATIONAL FIRE SERVICE COLLEGE, NAGPUR 13

• The coming decade is expected to be the decade of fully electric vehicles.

NATIONAL FIRE SERVICE COLLEGE, NAGPUR 14

NATIONAL FIRE SERVICE COLLEGE, NAGPUR 15

NATIONAL FIRE SERVICE COLLEGE, NAGPUR 16