Global Practices in TEYL

ELT Research Papers 11– 01
Investigating Global Practices in

Teaching English to Young Learners
Sue Garton, Fiona Copland, Anne Burns
ELT Research Papers 11–01
Investigating Global Practices in

Teaching English to Young Learners
Sue Garton, Fiona Copland, Anne Burns
ISBN 978-086355-667-8
© British Council 2011 Brand and Design / B094
10 Spring Gardens
London SW1A 2BN, UK
www.britishcouncil.org
This research paper was produced in collaboration with Aston University
About the authors
Dr Sue Garton is Senior Lecturer in TESOL and Professor Anne Burns is Professor in Language
Director of Postgraduate Programmes in English Education and Director of the Centre for Language
at Aston University, UK. She taught English in Italy Education Research (CLERA) at Aston University,
for many years, especially at undergraduate level. and Professor of TESOL at the University of New
Her research interests are in language teacher South Wales. She is an Honorary Professor at the
education, classroom interaction and language University of Sydney. She is perhaps best known
teaching policy and practice. She has co-edited, for her publications in action research (Burns, 1999,
with Keith Richards, a collection of papers about 2005, 2010) and teacher education (Burns and
the discourses of TESOL entitled Professional Richards, 2009). Her forthcoming publications
Encounters in TESOL: Discourses of Teachers in include Tips for Teaching Listening (Burns and
Teaching. Her latest book, From Knowledge to Richards. Pearson), Teaching Speaking: A Holistic
Experience in ELT is co-authored with Julian Edge Approach (Goh and Burns, CUP) and The Cambridge
and is part of the Oxford Handbooks for Language Guide to Pedagogy and Practice (Richards and
Teachers series. Burns, CUP).
Dr Fiona Copland is Course Director for MSc

TESOL Programmes by distance learning at Aston
University, UK. She has extensive experience of
language teaching and language teacher education
in Nigeria, Hong Kong, Japan and the UK. Fiona has
an MA in Applied Linguistics and a PhD in Education.
Her research interests include teaching English to
young learners and feedback talk.
Contents
Abstract ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2
1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 3
2 Review of the literature ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 4
2.1 Macro-level factors ........................................................................................................................................................................................................... 5
2.2 Micro-level factors ............................................................................................................................................................................................................ 5
2.2.1 Approaches to language teaching ....................................................................................................................................................... 5
2.2.2 Recruitment and training ........................................................................................................................................................................... 6
2.2.3 Teachers’ level of English proficiency ................................................................................................................................................ 6
2.2.4 The classroom context ............................................................................................................................................................................... 7
2.2.5 Examinations and assessment ................................................................................................................................................................ 7
2.2.6 Materials and resources ............................................................................................................................................................................. 7
2.2.7 Learners .............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 8
2.3 Summary.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 8
3 Research design .............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 9
4 Main findings ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 11
4.1 Profile of a YL teacher .................................................................................................................................................................................................. 11
4.2 Policy/syllabus documents ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 11
4.3 Major pedagogies .......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 12
4.4 Teachers’ roles, responsibilities, and challenges .......................................................................................................................................... 13
4.5 Solutions to pedagogical issues ............................................................................................................................................................................. 14
5 Recommendations ....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 16
Recommendation 1 ............................................................................................................................................................................................................... 16
Recommendation 2 ............................................................................................................................................................................................................... 16
Recommendation 3 ............................................................................................................................................................................................................... 16
Recommendation 4 ............................................................................................................................................................................................................... 17
Recommendation 5 ............................................................................................................................................................................................................... 17
References .............................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 18
Appendix – Survey results .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 21
1 | Contents
Abstract
This paper reports on the project Investigating Global Five recommendations are made:
Practices in Teaching English to Young Learners.
Its main aims were to: 1. The pre-service and in-service training provided
to teachers of young learners needs to be
■■ discover what policy/syllabus documents inform considerably strengthened.
TEYL practices around the world
2. Greater opportunities need to be found for sharing
■■ investigate and map the major pedagogies ideas and experiences amongst primary school
that teachers use teachers of English both nationally and internationally.
■■ better understand teachers’ perceptions of their 3. For a large number of teachers, there is substantial
roles and responsibilities, including the challenges need for English language development.
they face
4. An expanded range of materials for teaching young
■■ identify how local solutions to pedagogical learners is needed.
issues can be effective and how these may
resonate globally. 5. Educational policy developers should be provided
with advice, based on current research and good
The project was conducted using both quantitative classroom practice, on effective curriculum
and qualitative methods. Quantitative data was development for young learners to enhance
collected through a survey that resulted in 4,696 the learning experience of children.
responses from 144 countries, with responses
emerging from all continents. Qualitative data was
obtained through five observational classroom
case studies of teaching practices in Colombia,
Italy, Korea, Tanzania, and the UAE.
The study uncovered a wide range of factors

concerning the teaching of English to young learners
globally from the perspective of teachers involved
in implementing these programmes. In particular, it
showed that many of these factors are commonly
experienced by teachers across different countries
and contexts.
2 | Abstract
1
Introduction
English is being introduced to ever more and ever The overall aim of this project was, therefore, to
younger children and in many countries around the investigate global practices in Teaching English
world English is now compulsory in primary education to Young Learners (TEYL) aged 7−11 from macro
(Nikolov, 2009a; Pinter, 2006). However, curricula and and micro perspectives. The chief aims were to:
practices are often being developed in an ad hoc way
because there is little appropriate research to inform
■■ discover what policy/syllabus documents inform
fundamental policy decisions. As Enever and Moon TEYL practices around the world
(2009:5) note: ■■ investigate and map the major pedagogies that
‘ . . . we have yet to clarify the priorities teachers use
for formulating effective language policies, ■■ better understand teachers’ perceptions of their
for designing appropriate programmes of roles and responsibilities, including the challenges
implementation and for meeting the very real they face
challenge of ensuring that policy is effectively
and sustainably implemented within the daily ■■ identify how local solutions to pedagogical
practice of classrooms.’ issues can be effective and how these may
resonate globally.
Moreover, knowledge and understanding of
teaching practices in the field of young learners This report first reviews some of the existing literature
is, at best, sketchy. There are a number of books on policy and practice in TEYL as this relates to the
that bring together worthwhile studies of small project. We then describe the research design and the
research projects, often led by local university data collected before summarising the major findings.
researchers (see Moon and Nikolov, 2000; Nikolov, Finally, we present our recommendations for future
2009a; Rixon, 1999) but these studies often focus action to support teaching English to young learners.
on how young learners acquire particular systems,
such as vocabulary (for example: Orosz, 2009) or
skills, such as reading (for example: Samo, 2009).
Other books recommend best practice in teaching
young learners in the light of available research
findings, informing and guiding both teaching and
teacher education (for example: Cameron, 2001;
Pinter, 2006; Slattery and Willis, 2001). However,
there are no studies, as far as we are aware, that
examine how teachers around the world go about
their everyday practice of teaching English to young
learners, their attitudes to this teaching, and the
challenges they face. Nor is there any research which
provides a detailed description, on a case-by-case
basis, of how expert teachers in local contexts ‘do’
English language teaching, where this teaching is
not part of a programme of innovation and change
(cf. Graddol, 2006).
3 | Introduction
2
Review of the literature
The widespread introduction of English in primary controversial (see, for example, Nikolov and Mihaljević
schools has been described by Johnstone (2009:33) Djigunović, 2006; Pinter, 2006), especially in situations
as ‘possibly the world’s biggest policy development in of minimal input, rather than language immersion
education’. Even in countries such as Poland, Hungary (Larson-Hall, 2008). There has also been widespread
and Croatia, where a choice of foreign languages is criticism of policies that are generally imposed in
offered at primary level, English is overwhelmingly the a top-down manner and often without sufficient
first choice (Enever and Moon, 2009; Nikolov, 2009b). preparation (Enever and Moon, 2009; Gimenez, 2009;
There are a number of reasons for this trend: Y. Hu, 2007; Lee, 2009). As Gorsuch (2000) points
out, national curriculum decisions and policies are
1. The widespread assumption that earlier language essentially political and address curriculum content,
learning is better (Y. Hu, 2007; Nunan, 2003). but often fail to explain how such content should be
2. The response to the ever-increasing demand for implemented (see also Nunan, 2003). In other words,
English as a result of economic globalisation the pace of change has outrun the planning required
(Enever and Moon, 2009; Gimenez, 2009; Hu, to ensure the change is successful.
Y., 2007). Such a demand leads to pressure on Previous studies have described the consequences
governments from international economic forces and outcomes of the early introduction of English
to ensure there is an English-speaking workforce. into primary schools, particularly in terms of the
3. The pressure from parents in the national context gap between policy and implementation (Ho, 2003;
who want their children to benefit socially and Martin and Abdullah, 2003; Pandian, 2003), both at
economically from learning English (Brock-Utne macro- and micro-level. Some of the issues seem to
and Holmarsdottir, 2004; Enever and Moon, 2009; be common across countries while others are more
Gimenez, 2009). local. This review focuses on the policy and practice
issues most closely linked to the aims of the current
The growth in teaching English to young learners study (but see the chapters in Enever, Moon, and
has not been universally endorsed, however. Raman, 2009; Ho and Wong, 2003a for details about
The assumed benefits of an early start are individual countries).
4 | Review of the literature

2.1 Macro-level factors 2.2 Micro-level factors
The first point to note is that there is a great deal 2.2.1 Approaches to language teaching
of variation in government policy from one country Perhaps the biggest and most complex of the policy
to another and even within the same country (see, decisions impacting on the classroom concerns the
for example, Brock-Utne and Holmarsdottir, 2004; Ho, approaches recommended for teaching English to
2003; Y. Hu, 2007; Kapur, 2009; Mihaljević Djigunović, young learners. In response to the perceived global
2009). Moreover, while in some countries, such as demand for communication in English, new TEYL
South Korea or Oman, the government maintains curricula have generally emphasised communicative
close central control over the implementation of competence. In many countries, particularly in East
policy (Al-Issa, 2007; Butler, 2009; Lee, 2009; Asia (Ho, 2003), this has led to the introduction of
Mitchell and Lee, 2003) , in others, such as Brazil, some form of Communicative Language Teaching
few or no guidelines are offered (Gimenez, 2009). (CLT) or Task-Based Learning and Teaching (TBLT).
Such lack of clarity can cause considerable confusion, This is the case, for example, in Korea (Li, 1998;
particularly at regional or school level. Until 2011, Mitchell and Lee, 2003), Hong Kong (Carless, 2003,
the Japanese government’s policy, for example, 2004), China (G. Hu, 2002), Turkey (Kirkgöz, 2009),
aimed to introduce language activities with the and Thailand (Prapaisit de Segovia and Hardison,
purpose of fostering ‘an introduction to foreign 2008), to name just a few.
language and culture as part of international
understanding, rather than teaching language Enever and Moon (2009) point out that CLT is a
learning per se’ (Butler and Iino, 2005:40). This has method that has its origins in EFL teaching for
resulted in schools and teachers having difficulties adults in western countries where groups are
interpreting the policy (ibid.: 37). Y. Hu (2007) reports small and classrooms well-equipped. It may not,
that in China the 2001 policy document refers to therefore, be appropriate for teaching children in
a staged and gradual introduction of English into over-crowded classrooms with few resources and
primary schools but how this is to be achieved is very different educational traditions (G. Hu, 2002,
not made clear. The result is educational inequality, 2005b; McKay, 2003). Moreover, the method is
especially between rural and urban schools and very often misunderstood by teachers, who may
between coastal and inland areas (G. Hu, 2005a, have received little or no training in its theoretical
2005b; Y. Hu, 2007; Nunan, 2003). underpinnings and practical applications (Butler,
2005; Littlewood, 2007; McKay, 2003). Ho and Wong
Inequality of access to English at primary level, and (2003b: xxxv) point out that CLT means different
especially the divide between urban and rural areas things to different teachers. The teachers in Li’s (1998)
and amongst urban schools, has been highlighted study, for example, thought that CLT meant focusing
by a number of other researchers (see, for example, solely on fluency and ignoring accuracy. Also, a
Butler, 2009; Gimenez, 2009; Ho, 2003; Y. Hu, 2007; lack of systematic preparation leads to uncertainty
Nikolov, 2009b). The result in many countries has and confusion about its implementation (Butler,
been a huge increase in the private sector, which 2005, 2009; Li, 1998). Similar problems arise in the
in turn increases the gap between rich and poor, as implementation of the more recent TBLT approach
wealthier parents are able to send their children to (Carless, 2004; Littlewood, 2007). CLT and TBLT are
private school or for private English lessons (Enever often seen as simply incompatible with local ways of
and Moon, 2009; Hoque, 2009; Lee, 2009). This learning, or what Jin and Cortazzi (2006) call ‘cultures
development creates both negative and positive of learning’ (see, for example, Baker, 2008; G. Hu,
consequences, causing, on the one hand, political, 2002, 2005b; Littlewood, 2007; Martin and Abdullah,
social, financial, and familial tensions (Lee, 2009), 2003). In particular, their learner-centredness is seen
and, on the other, pressure on governments to as inappropriate in some educational cultures (G. Hu,
improve state provision for early language learning 2002; Prapaisit de Segovia and Hardison, 2008).
(Gimenez, 2009).
So far this brief discussion has focused on the

macro-level and on some of the political and social
consequences of introducing compulsory English
at primary level. This discussion is important as it
reveals the backdrop against which the primary
school teachers in the current study are working.
These policy decisions also have ramifications
within the classroom, which are discussed below.

The consequence of all these factors is often a gap Anecdotal evidence suggests that the first option has
between pedagogic policy and classroom practice also been widely adopted in many parts of the world,
(G. Hu, 2005a, 2005b; Nikolov, 2009b; Nunan, 2003). although not always with a training component. Other
The typical pragmatic response from teachers is the countries ‘imported’ native-speaker teachers to try to
adoption of weak forms of CLT or TBLT (Carless, 2003; fill some of the gaps (Nunan, 2003). The overall result,
Ho and Wong, 2003b), whereby teachers interpret the however, is a lack of fully qualified teachers (i.e. qualified
approaches according to their local context (Mitchell to teach in primary schools and to teach English).
and Lee, 2003), using, for example, communicative
activities to practise discrete language items (Carless, Many countries did provide some initial training when
2004; Mitchell and Lee, 2003; Xinmin and Adamson, their policies were introduced. In Korea, for example,
2003). Indeed, both Li (1998) and Littlewood (2007) teachers were offered 120 to 240 hours to improve
conclude that the advice to teachers should be to their language and teaching skills (Shim and Baik,
adapt rather than adopt, and G. Hu (2005b:655) calls 2003), while in Italy, as part of the Progetto Lingue
for ‘an informed pedagogical eclecticism’. 20001, teachers could undertake either 300 or 500
hours of training in both language and methodology.
However, CLT is by no means universal in YL
teaching, nor is it seen as universally problematic. While pre-service and in-service provision has
For example, McKay (2003) points out that in Chile increased in many countries since the introduction of
recent government policy appears to be moving primary level English (see, for example, G. Hu, 2005a),
away from CLT in recognition of its inappropriateness lack of appropriate training is still seen as problematic
to the Chilean context, while Al-Issa (2007) notes that by many teachers (Nunan, 2003; Prapaisit de Segovia
the Omani curriculum and teaching methodology are and Hardison, 2008). Its importance is evident in the
not based on communicative practices. Kubanek- present study too.
German (1998:194), in her review of primary foreign 2.2.3 Teachers’ level of English proficiency
language teaching in Europe, claimed that ‘[t]he The problem of teachers’ low proficiency level in
subject of the appropriate teaching methods is English or their lack of confidence in their English
the least controversial one’. ability is almost universally identified in the literature
2.2.2 Recruitment and training (see, for example, Baker, 2008; Butler, 2004;
Many countries introduced English as a compulsory Ghatage, 2009; Hoque, 2009; Kuchah, 2009; Li, 1998;
subject at primary school apparently without careful Littlewood, 2007; Nunan, 2003; Prapaisit de Segovia
consideration of who was going to teach it. Some and Hardison, 2008). The perceived demands of
countries therefore found − and still find − themselves CLT, such as teaching in the target language, lead to
with a severe shortage of trained primary school teachers’ lacking confidence in their English ability,
teachers of English (G. Hu, 2005a; Y. Hu, 2007; particularly in their speaking and listening skills
Kirkgöz, 2009; Nunan, 2003; Nur, 2003), and this (Kuchah, 2009).
situation is especially acute in poorer or rural areas. However, the question arises as to what level of
Solutions to this problem have varied both from proficiency and fluency teachers really need in order to
country to country and from school to school. teach in primary schools. It may be that the real issue
In China, for example, the government is not the teachers’ lack of proficiency, which may well
recommendation was that: be more than adequate for TEYL, but rather a lack of
confidence predicated on the belief that native-like
1. Primary school teachers of other subjects who competence is required to teach CLT successfully.
had some English background should be trained
to teach English. One interesting development has been the promotion
in some countries, such as Korea, China and Taiwan,
2. English teachers should teach across a number of technological support and multimedia packages,
of schools. in the belief that these can go some way towards
compensating for the lack of qualified teachers or
3. Retired English teachers from both primary and their low language proficiency. A number of writers
secondary schools should be employed. have argued that such resources, used appropriately,
4. Class advisors or teachers of other subjects should can offer much support to teachers (Y. Hu, 2007;
be used to organise students for activities such as Mitchell and Lee, 2003; Nunan, 2003), although there
watching English videos or listening to cassettes is the issue of unequal access to technology, even
(Y. Hu, 2007). within the same country (G. Hu, 2005b).
1
Circolare Ministeriale 6 agosto 1999, n. 197 http://www.edscuola.it/archivio/norme/circolari/cm197_99.html

2.2.4 The classroom context 2.2.6 Materials and resources
There are a number of classroom-based factors that The situation concerning both which materials
may militate against teachers following national policy. are used to teach YLs and their availability varies
Large classes are common in many parts of the world greatly. In some countries there is one prescribed
(Ho, 2003; Wedgwood, 2007) and teachers believe textbook for each grade, for example, in South Korea
this makes it difficult or impossible to introduce more (Butler, 2004) and Malaysia (Pandian, 2003). In other
learner-centred teaching because, for example, they countries, there is a range of government-approved
cannot closely monitor students’ language use (Li, textbooks for teachers to choose from, as, for
1998) or use pair work and group work (Hoque, 2009). example, in China (G. Hu, 2005a) and Singapore
(Mee, 2003). In yet other countries, such as Italy,
Problems of control and discipline connected schools are free to choose their own textbooks from
with learner-centred teaching in large classes those available on the market (reported by the case
have also been raised (Butler, 2005; Carless, 2004; study teacher) or to not use a textbook at all, as in
Littlewood, 2007). Butler (2005) refers to what she Abu Dhabi (reported by the case study teacher).
calls ‘classroom harmonization’, which some teachers
see as particularly challenging during English classes In many countries, teachers have found themselves
because of the way they are expected to teach. with a lack of suitable materials, either because
Carless (2004) notes that there is a tension between materials are not available (Hoque, 2009; Y. Hu,
the need to fulfil local expectations for quiet and 2007; Mathew and Pani, 2009) or because they do
orderly classrooms and the need to carry out oral not reflect changes in the curriculum (Y. Hu, 2007;
English tasks, possibly in large classes. He concludes İnal, 2009; Nunan, 2003). Local textbook production
that teachers need to learn to be tolerant of what he has not necessarily been a satisfactory solution. As
calls ’constructive noise’, while ensuring their pupils Hoque (2009) points out, in Bangladesh, for example,
are on-task (ibid). textbook writing committees are led by academics
with little experience of teaching at primary level.
Another factor is the number of hours per week The solution in China has been to use cooperation
dedicated to English. According to Ho’s (2003) between local education departments and publishers
overview of 15 countries in East Asia, the hours in and overseas publishers and textbooks writers (G. Hu,
primary schools varied, from between one and two 2005a). Even where books do exist, they may not be
hours in South Korea to between four and six hours available to the children (Mathew and Pani, 2009).
in Malaysia or Singapore. Teachers with a low number Moreover, teachers may need training to use the new
of hours per week believe they cannot introduce books, otherwise they continue to employ previous
learner-centred teaching and also cover the syllabus methods (Nur, 2003).
(Carless, 2003, 2004; McKay, 2003).
Where textbooks are inadequate, teachers often
2.2.5 Examinations and assessment lack the time and expertise to develop appropriate
Although government policies and curricula materials (Li, 1998). Yet good materials may have
typically advocate teaching communicatively, this an important role to play as they can become the
approach is often incompatible with the demands ‘de facto’ curriculum. As Nur (2003:168) points out,
of national examinations (Carless, 2003; Li, 1998; where there is a lack of qualified teachers, ‘textbooks
Littlewood, 2007) which continue to be grammar- appear to have a strong positive impact’.
based. This situation can lead to the backwash
effect as teachers are under pressure to complete The textbook is clearly not the only resource
the syllabus and prepare for examinations (Carless, that may be lacking in primary schools. Ghatage
2003; Pandian, 2003). Although the backwash effect (2009) notes that while policy in Maharashtra, India,
would appear to be more severe at secondary level encourages the use of audio-visual aids, such as
(Gorsuch, 2000; G. Hu, 2005b), it certainly exists at TV and radio, these are unavailable in rural schools.
primary level too (Carless, 2003; Hoque, 2009; İnal, The teachers in Li’s (1998) study complained that
2009; Nunan, 2003; Pandian, 2003). For example, there was insufficient funding for the equipment and
Pandian (2003) reports that a study in Malaysia facilities needed for learner-centred teaching, a point
revealed teachers were focusing on reading, writing, also made by İnal (2009).
grammar, and vocabulary, rather than on listening
and speaking as these latter skills were not part
of the Primary Schools Assessment test.

2.2.7 Learners articulated rationale and without a detailed
Many teachers believe that they are limited in what consideration of the costs and benefits of such
they can do in the primary classroom because of policies and practices on the countries in question.
learners’ low levels of proficiency (Li, 1998). Moreover, Furthermore, there is a widely articulated belief
learners’ expectations about what to learn, such as that, in public schools at least, these policies and
the importance of grammar for examination purposes practices are failing.’
(Prapaisit de Segovia and Hardison, 2008), and how
to learn English may conflict with what teachers However, the more recent papers cited show a slightly
are expected to do (Ho, 2003). However, Carless more optimistic view and it may be that the situation
(2003) points out that sometimes mismatches in is gradually improving, following initial difficulties.
expectations may be more to do with the teachers’ A number of the papers in Enever et al. (2009), for
lack of understanding of CLT and their inability to select example, report on recent regional and national
appropriate tasks than with any real incompatibility with initiatives to enhance the teaching of English to
the demands of tests or the expectations of students. young learners which have been relatively successful.
Another issue frequently reported is an apparent This review is by no means exhaustive. It has
lack of motivation and interest in English on the not, for example, discussed the possible negative
part of learners, who may not see any need to learn effects of the dominance of English on local languages
the language or simply do not see mastery of it as (see, for example, Bruthiaux, 2002; Kapur, 2009), nor
attainable (Li, 1998). This may be particularly acute have we considered the difficulties in transition from
in rural areas where learners have little contact with primary to secondary school caused by language
foreigners and therefore little perceived need to learn policy (see, for example, Martin and Abdullah, 2003;
to communicate in English (Ho, 2003). Consequently, Nikolov, 2009b; Qiang, 2009). Finally, we have not
teacher-fronted classes with a focus on grammar and discussed English medium education (see, for example,
memorisation are preferred (G. Hu, 2005b; Li, 1998; Brock-Utne, 2010; G. Hu, 2005a, 2005b). The debate
Prapaisit de Segovia and Hardison, 2008). about English as the language of instruction in primary
schools is likely to become more central at a time
when not only countries with a colonial legacy of
2.3 Summary
English (such as Malaysia) are struggling with their
This review has touched on some of the major issues
language policy, but countries traditionally considered
surrounding policies and practices in TEYL. From
EFL contexts (such as China) are contemplating the
the overview presented above, it is noticeable that,
introduction of English-medium education. These
overall, the view tends to be rather pessimistic, with
issues have not been discussed, not because they are
Nunan (2003:609) concluding that:
not important, but because they were not the focus
‘English language policies and practices have of the research presented here. Nevertheless, they
been implemented, often at significant cost to undoubtedly affect many of the teachers involved
other aspects of the curriculum, without a clearly in the current study.

3
Research design
The methodology used for the study falls principally The survey items drew on the literature on survey
within an interpretive-exploratory paradigm (see, design (see, for example, Dörnyei, 2009; Oppenheim,
for example, Grotjahn, 1987) with the major goal of 1992) and were piloted with ten potential respondents
gaining an insider − or emic − perspective (van Lier, in ten different geographical regions. There were six
1988; Watson-Gegeo, 1988) on the key construct of sections, which required information relating to: 1)
global practices in TEYL. Furthermore, given current demographics (location/type of school, qualifications/
trends towards mixed-method research designs (see, years of experience, English proficiency); 2) English
for example, Creswell, 2003; Dörnyei, 2007), drawing teaching in the country; 3) the school; 4) the class
on both quantitative and qualitative approaches and activities used; 5) syllabus planning; 6) teachers’
enabled a more rounded picture of these practices opinions about challenges, improvement and change.
to emerge as well as complementary findings to A range of closed, ranked, and open-ended items
be presented. The mixed methods design adopted was used in order to gain mainly quantitative but also
consisted of: i) a survey of perceptions of TEYL some qualitative responses2.
practices from a global sample of teachers of English;
ii) detailed case studies of the contexts, practices and The cross-sectional observational case studies
perceptions of five teachers in different continents were undertaken by the researchers with five
(Africa, Asia, Europe, the Middle East, South America). teachers in different international locations: Africa
Ethical approval was gained from Aston University (Tanzania), Asia (South Korea), Europe (Italy), the
before the survey was disseminated and the case Middle East (the UAE), and South America (Colombia).
studies were carried out, and informed consent was The locations were selected to give as diverse a
obtained from the schools and teachers involved perspective as possible on teacher practices and
in the studies. approaches across the world. As the sample is
opportunistic and purposive, it provides illustration
The cross-sectional survey was provided rather than representation. A consistent methodology
both electronically through Survey Monkey, and was used for all five cases.
via hard copy to accommodate limited or no
technological access. This approach allowed for 1. Teachers were contacted either through local
large and geographically diverse samples of data contacts or because they volunteered in the
to be collected in an efficient, economic, and survey to be observed.
standardised manner (de Vaus, 2002; Dörnyei, 2. At the school site, teachers were asked in an
2009). Responses were facilitated through local initial interview for preliminary information about
offices of the British Council and the researchers’ the class/students, the purpose and plans for the
professional contacts and resulted in a very large lesson, and for any other information relevant to
database, numbering 4,696 responses from 144 the observation. Teachers also provided relevant
countries. Twelve countries returned 100 responses documents (policy and syllabus documents and
or more: Italy (559), Brazil (293), Turkey (283), classroom materials).
Palestine (240), Egypt (204), Colombia (183), Latvia
(161), Lithuania (133), South Korea (125), Croatia 3. Each observation was audio-recorded and field
(116), India (101) and Macedonia (101). A further 14 notes taken by the researcher.
countries returned over 50 responses: Ukraine (99),
4. Post-observation interviews were conducted.
Spain (98), Poland (86), China (80), Russia (77), Nigeria
Transcripts were made of all the interviews.
(70), the UAE (70), Georgia (68), Argentina (62), Taiwan
(61), Tanzania (58), Bangladesh (56), Azerbaijan (53),
and Jordan (53). In relation to the survey responses,
which draw on non-probability ‘opportunity’ sampling,
it should be recognised that they represent reported
practices rather than provide conclusions about
actual practices.
2
A copy of the survey is available from the researchers on request.
9 | Research design
Details of the case study contexts are as follows: These cases provide a snapshot of current practices
each obtained in one location on one teaching
1. Colombia: one Grade 4 class was observed in occasion. They illuminate and complement the
a state school in a suburban location in a low quantitative data but cannot claim to be generalised
socio-economic neighbourhood in the south of interpretations of ongoing practices in the classrooms
Bogotà. The teacher was male and in his late fifties. concerned or in the wider practices at national levels.
2. Italy: one Grade 3 and two Grade 5 classes were
observed in a state school in a medium-sized,
relatively wealthy town in Northern Italy. The
teacher was female and in her early fifties.
3. South Korea: a mixed Grades 1 and 2 after-school

class was observed in a state school just outside
the centre of Seoul. The teacher was female and
in her late forties.
4. Tanzania: one Grade 1 and one Grade 4 class

was observed in a rural state primary school about
8 kilometres from a medium-sized town in central
Tanzania. The teacher was female and in her mid-to
late fifties.
5. The UAE: two single sex (boys) Grade 6 classes

were observed in a model state school in a rural
location in Abu Dhabi. The teacher was male and
in his mid-forties.
10 | Research design
4
Main findings
In this section, we first give a brief overview of the In comparison to previous studies into TEYL, the
profile of the YL teachers who responded to the level of English reported seems particularly high
survey and then present a brief summary of findings and both results are probably a consequence of the
in response to the aims of the research as listed type of teacher who would have access to, and be
in the introduction (see appendix for the complete able to complete, the questionnaire. Finally, 66.6 per
set of data related to the points below). cent of respondents report receiving pre-service
training, while 73.7 per cent report receiving
4.1 Profile of a YL teacher in-service training.
The vast majority of survey respondents were
female (80.4 per cent). Most worked in state 4.2 Policy/syllabus documents
schools (68.3 per cent) in urban areas (73.9 per Primary school teachers of English around the world
cent), and approximately a third were in their thirties are influenced by a wide range of documents including
while just over a quarter were in their twenties and government documents and local documents, such as
a quarter in their forties (Appendix, Figures 1, 2, 7, the school’s syllabus. The most influential document,
8). It is interesting to compare age with experience, however, was the lesson plan, with 94 per cent of
as over half the teachers had been teaching English respondents to the survey rating this as useful or very
for less than ten years and over two-thirds had been useful (see Figure 2 on the next page). The course
teaching English to young learners for less than ten book was also seen as extremely important, as were
years (Appendix, Figures 4 and 5). This finding shows supplementary materials. While this finding might
that many teachers in the survey did not start their be predictable, what was surprising was the number
teaching careers as teachers of English to young of teachers who found national documents such as
learners and is consistent with previous research. national curricula of value when planning; over 70 per
From the answers to the questions on nationality cent rated these documents as useful or very useful.
and on level of English (Figure 1, below), it can also
be seen that around 92 per cent of the respondents How useful are the following in planning your lessons?
do not speak English as their first language. 3,000
Approximately 73 per cent are educated to university
level (Appendix, Figure 3), while nearly 50 per cent 2,500
report that their level of English is advanced or at
2,000
native-speaker competence (Figure 1, below).
1,500
What is your level of English, in your opinion?

1,000
45%
500
40%
35% 0
National curriculum/syllabus
from the government/ministry
Examinations syllabus
Class syllabus/scheme of work
Textbook/coursebook
Supplementary
materials/worksheets
The availability of
classroom equipment
The way you learned English
Your pre-service teacher training
Attendance at conferences
In-service teacher
training courses
Your English teaching
colleagues at school
Your membership of
professional organisations
Lesson plans
School syllabus/
curriculum guidelines
30%
25%
20%
15%
10%
5%
0%
Beginner
Elementary
Pre-intemediate
Intermediate
Upper-intermediate
Advanced
Native speaker
Native speaker
competence
Not applicable Not at all useful Not very useful
Somewhat useful Very useful
Figure 1: Level of English Figure 2: Lesson planning
11 | Main findings
All the case study teachers worked from a plan, One very noticeable absentee from the list of
which was detailed to a greater or lesser extent, frequently used activities is storytelling. Only 42 per
and the researchers were shown a range of course cent of the teachers reported telling stories every
books from which teachers worked. In the UAE, the lesson or often, while 17 per cent said they never
researcher was also shown national documents or rarely read stories. This is surprising given their
and their value was discussed. Four of the five importance in the young learner literature, particularly
teachers seemed keen to implement government in books which provide practical advice to teachers
policy and used national curriculum documents to (Moon, 2000; Pinter, 2006; Slattery and Willis, 2001).
support this implementation, although in Korea the
strict government guidelines were seen as rather Interestingly, very few activities were unpopular, with
constraining. Government policy seemed to be least only one activity − translation − being never or rarely
constraining in Italy, where ministerial guidelines have used by the majority of teachers, again showing
traditionally been quite general and open. The most the wide range of activities that teachers report
important level of planning from a teacher’s point exploiting in class (see Table 2 below and Appendix,
of view seemed to be at school level, with each Figures 15 and 16). Other activities that at least 30
school or group of schools preparing its own annual per cent of teachers reported using rarely or never
syllabus, based on ministerial guidelines but with were a mixture of traditional and creative: computer
some flexibility. The Common European Framework work, watching TV/videos, children reading silently,
of Reference for Languages was also mentioned by dictation, children telling stories, and creative writing.
the case study teacher as influencing the syllabus. What is least surprising is the low report of children
doing computer work. In many schools, computers
remain a luxury and internet access is limited.
4.3 Major pedagogies
According to the survey, teachers used a large Translation exercises 50.5%
number and wide variety of activities in their classes Activities on the computer 45%
(see Table 1 below and Appendix, Figures 15 and 16).
Watching videos/TV 39.4%
Perhaps surprisingly, of the list of activities provided
Reading silently 37.3%
in the survey, listening to the CD or tape-recorder
was the most popular activity across all responses. Dictation 36.8%
A number of ‘traditional’ activities were also popular, Children telling stories 33.5%
including repeating after the teacher, children reading Creative writing 30.7%
out loud, filling the gaps, grammar exercises, and Table 2: A
ctivities used rarely or never by at least 30 per
children memorising words or phrases. However, cent of the teachers
‘creative’ activities were also frequently used,
particularly games and songs. Role play was also In the responses to the open question asking
used by the majority but role-plays can be used teachers to list other activities used, a major concern
both for communicative, meaning-focused activities for teaching vocabulary was evident, particularly
and for more drill-like, accuracy-focused activities. through games such as hangman, bingo, crosswords,
card games, and board games. Flashcards are also
Children repeating after the teacher 74.4% a common tool. Performance and drama activities
Listening to tape-recorder/CD 73.5% are used frequently, from children performing actions
Children reading out loud 70.3% to songs or acting out short dialogues, through to
end-of-term plays for parents. A number of teachers
Playing games 69.9%
also reported using Total Physical Response (TPR)
Songs 66.9%
activities, drawing and colouring and competitions,
Filling gaps/blanks in exercises 64.8% especially competitive games. Other interesting
Role-play 60.8% and perhaps less predictable activities listed by a
Grammar exercises 56.4% number of teachers include children carrying out
Children memorising words and phrases 56.2% surveys and interviews, giving presentations (from
Handwriting exercises 52.3% five-minute ‘show and tell’ activities to reports
of research projects), art and craft work, dance,
Table 1: Activities used every lesson or often by the
majority of teachers
activities outside class (from picnics in the playground
to sightseeing trips), and Content and Language
The popularity of listening to the CD or tape may be Integrated Learning (CLIL) work. There were also
due to the fact that many teachers reported a lack a number of more traditional activities reported,
of confidence in their own use of English and so may especially reading and listening comprehension and
prefer to provide children with a native speaker model writing sentences or paragraphs, and paraphrasing.
via a recording. This finding is borne out by previous
research, as reported in section 2.2.3 above.
12 | Main findings
The ‘other activities’ listed above represent only 4.4 Teachers’ roles, responsibilities, and
a small selection of those reported by the teachers, challenges
demonstrating an extremely wide variety of activities, Survey responses indicate that teachers have to
from the very simple and resource-free to the more prepare lessons, tests, supplementary materials,
complex and resource-intensive, many of which and homework, and they must mark tests and
could potentially be used by primary school homework (see Figure 3 below). 54 per cent can
teachers everywhere. choose their own course book which means that,
for a large minority, this important lesson planning
The lessons observed in the case studies bore
document is imposed. More worryingly, approximately
out the findings from the survey, with evidence
1,700 teachers pay for their own resources; these
of teachers attempting to introduce communicative
can be anything from batteries to power CD players to
activities to fit the cultures and constraints of local
microphones to project over noisy classes. Nearly half
contexts. For example, students in the UAE did a
are responsible for organising out-of-school activities.
good deal of controlled speaking and writing,
including repeating after the teacher and reading
As a regular part of your job, do you … Yes No
out loud. At the same time, the controlled work was
delivered through an interactive game in which the 4,000
pupils had to find matching sentences and pictures 3,500
and pin them onto the board and through local
3,000
examples, such as, ‘How many camels do you own?’
2,500
The teacher in Tanzania conducted presentation
2,000
and controlled practice of grammar structures, but
she made it relevant to the children by using realia, 1,500
including clay pots, flowers, and footballs, and by 1,000

using examples from the local culture such as ‘Will 500
you have ugali for lunch?’ She also asked the children 0
to personalise their responses with reference to their
prepare class tests?
prepare final examinations?
mark tests and/or examinations?
prepare your own lessons?
choose your own course book?
class activities?
give the children homework?
mark homework?
pay for resources (eg batteries)?
organise out of school

activities in English?
prepare supplementary
everyday lives, such as buying bananas at the market.
Figure 3: Responsibilities
13 | Main findings
When asked about factors that would improve Overall, our findings on this research question
learning and teaching in their contexts, training in support much previous research, but our data also
new language teaching methodologies was ranked reveal challenges and issues that have not previously
as the most important, followed by smaller classes been identified, such as the prominence given to
and better access to new technologies such as DVDs mixed-level classes and to children with learning
or computers (see Figure 4 below). These issues have difficulties or disabilities. These findings in particular
all been identified by previous research as reported deserve further attention by both researchers and
in sections 2.2.2, 2.2.4 and 2.2.6 above. However, teacher educators.
fewer tests/examinations were ranked as the least
important, followed by starting English at an earlier 4.5 Solutions to pedagogical issues
age. Surprisingly, given reports in previous research, Solutions were mostly identified in the case study
improvements in the teacher’s level of English was schools. For example, in the UAE, although class
also ranked as less important. It seems likely that size was relatively small (15 students in one case),
this finding is a function of the questionnaire sample, the children were very lively and found it hard to
whose level of English, as noted in 4.1 above, is remain in their seats for any length of time. What is
probably higher than average. more, concentration spans were limited. The teacher
addressed these discipline problems by introducing
Which of the following do you think would improve teaching and
learning in your classes? Please put them all in order of importance
strategies to regulate behaviour, including raising a
from 1 to 8 (1 = most important and 8 = least important) ‘stop’ sign when behaviour seemed out of control,
and introducing a ‘sleep’ activity involving resting
Better access to resources
such as textbooks and materials heads on hands to calm children down before the
Fewer tests/examinations next stage in the lesson.
Better access to new technologies,
such as DVDs or computers In the Colombian classroom, the teacher enlisted
Training in new language
teaching methodologies
the help of the regular classroom teacher, who was
present throughout, to go round the class and help
Improvement in my own level of English
monitor that the children were staying on task when
Smaller classes
they were asked to complete activities in their books.
Starting English at an earlier age
The Italian and the Korean teachers both responded
More hours of English each week to issues of discipline, mixed levels and learning
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 difficulties by organising the children in small groups
(4−6), which were usually changed once a month, and
Figure 4: Changes needed to improve learning by using a reward point system. Both teachers used
and teaching
different grouping strategies, sometimes selecting
groups themselves or operating a random selection,
Challenges identified by the teachers in the survey
and at other times asking the children to select their
are many and varied, but, overwhelmingly, large
own groups. Where the teachers observed that the
class sizes and discipline issues were highlighted
groups were not well-balanced, they sometimes
as problematic. Mixed level classes were also difficult,
intervened to make changes. The reward point
with teachers reporting that often they had to teach
system, which was also noted in the UAE, was used
a class in which there were both complete beginners
to encourage collective class responsibility and
and students whose English was of a good standard.
related to good behaviour, performance in English
Many teachers also worried about working with
(such as completing homework and answering
children with learning difficulties and disabilities.
questions in class), and classroom management
Another much reported problem was how to motivate
(such as finding material quickly).
children who could see no immediate use for the
language they were learning. The factors the Korean teacher identified in
managing mixed-ability groups related to ensuring
In terms of pedagogy, teachers stated that how to
a gender-balance, and mixing children of different
teach grammar was a great concern, in particular
abilities. The Italian teacher also identified other
how to explain grammar rules to young learners
challenges including children whose first language
and how to make grammar practice interesting for
was not Italian as well as those with learning or
them. This finding is noteworthy and merits further
behavioural problems, such as a child who did
research, as it is not clear from the literature what
not seem to want to learn and did little in class.
the benefits of explicit grammar teaching are to
She placed emphasis on peer support and peer
children of this age group.
learning to meet these challenges.
14 | Main findings
Motivation was addressed in a number of the In the lessons we observed, there was little overt
classes observed. Generally, activities were short teaching of grammar rules and so children were
and had a clear purpose. For example, the teacher not demotivated by trying to attend to teaching
in Colombia had planned a series of activities to which might be beyond their cognitive level. The
consolidate grammar-based work mandated in the one exception was Tanzania where the lesson
syllabus. He made great effort to enliven the teaching was grammar-based. However, the children were
of grammatical items by introducing engaging particularly motivated and the teacher maintained
communicative activities. In particular, he used music their interest through constant elicitation and
and songs, visuals, and word puzzles to appeal to concept-checking, a lively pace and high energy.
the children and maintain their attention. He also Indeed, in all the classes we observed, most children
recycled the activities at various points in the lesson appeared very motivated and interested in learning
and explained that he did this so that the children English. Even though all the classes, with the
would not get bored. Often an element of play was exception of the UAE, took place in contexts where
introduced, as for example, in the UAE where a child the children have little or no contact with English
was dressed in baseball cap and sunglasses and outside the classroom, there was no evidence of the
given a camera in order to play a tourist. In Italy, motivational problems identified in previous studies
the teacher had a ‘birthday hat’ which a child wore related to the relevance of learning English. This may
on his/her birthday and where the other children confirm Carless’s (2003) summation cited above that
offered imaginary presents while repeating a well- pedagogical factors may be more to do with what is
rehearsed dialogue. The Italian teacher also moved happening inside the class than with external factors.
the children around, from sitting at desks, to a reading
space where they sat on mats on the floor, to all
standing at the front of the class, a practice also
favoured by the teacher in Abu Dhabi.
15 | Main findings
5
Recommendations
The study uncovered a wide range of factors Recommendation 2
concerning the teaching of English to young learners The interest shown in this project by a large
globally from the perspective of teachers involved number of teachers worldwide and the similarities
in implementing these programmes. In particular, in their activities and concerns demonstrate
it shows that many of these factors are shared by that there is a need for greater opportunities
teachers across different countries and contexts. for sharing ideas and experiences amongst
The following recommendations are based on the primary school teachers of English both
major findings of the study. nationally and internationally.
Recommendation 1 Initiatives could include:

The pre-service and in-service training of teachers
to teach young learners needs to be considerably
■■ Local teacher development groups, run by local
strengthened. The needs of in-service teachers YL teachers.
are particularly acute, given that many did not ■■ Trainer training opportunities for YL teachers
start their careers as teachers of English or as who can then support other teachers in their
teachers of young learners. local schools.
Preferably, training programmes should be free (or ■■ An international website for teachers where
very low cost), locally situated, of short duration, teachers can share ideas, experiences and
and focused. Given that the study, as well as the activities, preferably run by YL teachers themselves
literature, shows that teachers often find CLT rather than ‘experts’.
approaches and methodologies confusing, training
should focus on aspects of language teaching for ■■ On-line conferences and seminars for YL teachers,
young learners that are highlighted as important by with contributions mainly from YL teachers
teachers, and on effective strategies reported in the themselves.
research literature on young learners. Based on this
■■ Collaborative researcher-teacher practitioner
study, these include the following areas in particular:
research or reflective teaching initiatives.
■■ Identifying strategies for managing large classes
Recommendation 3
and dealing with discipline.
The English language proficiency and skills
■■ Dealing with multi-level classes and with learners of teachers is highly varied. There is clearly a
with a range of learning disabilities/difficulties. need amongst many teachers for English
language development.
■■ Developing and maintaining motivation.
Initiatives could include:
■■ Examining the pros and cons of teaching grammar
to young learners. ■■ Strengthening strategic liaisons with local
universities and English language training institutions
■■ Promoting key techniques and activities in for teacher English language development courses
language teaching to children, such as storytelling. and refresher sessions. These could include informal
■■ Using and expanding the use of materials and arrangements such as English language social
resources, including those required by the syllabus events or conversation clubs.
and others, that can be exploited by the teacher. ■■ Providing training sessions focusing on English as
■■ Assisting teachers to adapt pedagogic/syllabus a classroom language and on the advantages and
models and methods to suit local conditions and disadvantages of using both L1 and L2 in
contexts. Training should focus on the ‘particularity, the classroom.
practicality and possibility‘ (Kumaravadivelu, ■■ Promoting further research on the specific needs
2001) of pedagogies, rather than the wholesale of teachers of young learners in relation to English
implementation of western approaches. language development.
16 | Recommendations
Recommendation 4 Recommendation 5
An expanded range of materials for teaching In many countries, access to English development
young learners is needed. Materials development is restricted in terms of the amount of input
and their use should become a key area for young learners receive and the examination-
research and development in the field. Materials driven nature of many syllabi. Educational policy
need to be available in as many formats as possible developers should be provided with evidence
to respond to local conditions. Possible formats based on current research and good practice
include paper-based, CD-ROM, internet, and local in effective curriculum development for young
media such as radio. As far as possible, materials learners in order to enhance the learning
should be of particular benefit to teachers working experience of children.
in poor schools in poor countries where resources
are difficult to find and to afford. Equal access to English is a concern arising from
this research, particularly for children in poorer rural
Such materials should be: communities. There is noticeable disparity in the
access different groups of children have to learning
■■ Resource-light to accommodate contexts English and this disparity disadvantages many
where there may be limited funding, facilities children from an early age, also creating difficult
or equipment. teaching conditions for teachers of English to
■■ Accompanied by full and simple instructions in young learners.
order to assist teachers to use them effectively.
■■ Imaginative, and draw on local cultural

understandings.
■■ Creative, to increase students’ confidence in

using English.
■■ Aimed at motivating young learners to

learn English.
17 | Recommendations
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Mitchell, R., and Lee, J. H.-W. (2003). Sameness Qiang, W. (2009). Primary EFL in China: From policy
and difference in classroom learning cultures: to classroom practice. In J. Enever, J. Moon and
interpretations of communicative pedagogy in U. Raman (Eds.), Young Learner English Language
the UK and Korea. Language Teaching Research, Policy and Implementation: International Perspectives
7(1), 35−63. (pp. 131−140). Reading: Garnet Education.
Moon, J. (2000). Children Learning English. Oxford: Rixon, S. (1999). Young learners of English.
Macmillan-Heinemann. Harlow: Longman.
Moon, J., and Nikolov, M. (2000). Research into Samo, R. (2009). The Age Factor and L2 Reading
Teaching English to Young Learners. Strategies. In M. Nikolov (Ed.), Early Learning
Pécs: Pécs University Press. of Modern Foreign Languages: Processes and
Outcomes. Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
Nikolov, M. (2009b). The dream and the reality of early
programmes in Hungary. In J. Enever, J. Moon and U. Shim, R. J., and Baik, M. J. (2003). English Education
Raman (Eds.), Young Learner English Language Policy in South Korea. In W. K. Ho and R. Y. L. Wong (Eds.),
and Implementation: International Perspectives (pp. English Language Teaching in East Asia Today:
121−129). Reading: Garnet Education. Changing Policies and Practices (pp. 235−256).
Nikolov, M. (Ed.). (2009a). Early Learning of Modern
Foreign Languages: Processes and Outcomes. Slattery, M., and Willis, J. (2001). English for Primary
Bristol: Multilingual Matters. Teachers. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Nikolov, M., and Mihaljevic Djigunovic, J. (2006). van Lier, L. (1988). The Classroom and the Language
Recent research on age, second language aquisition, Learner. London: Longman.
and early foreign language learning. Annual Review
of Applied Linguistics, 26, 234−260. Watson-Gegeo, K. A. (1988). Ethnography in ESL:
defining the essentials. TESOL Quarterly, 22(4),
Nunan, D. (2003). The impact of English as a global 575−592.
language on educational policies and practices in the
Asia-Pacific region. TESOL Quarterly, 37(4), 589−613. Wedgwood, R. (2007). Education and poverty
reduction in Tanzania. International Journal of
Nur, C. (2003). English Language Teaching in Educational Development, 27, 383−396.
Indonesia: changing policies and practical constraints.
In W. K. Ho and R. Y. L. Wong (Eds.), English Language Xinmin, Z., and Adamson, B. (2003). The pedagogy of
Teaching in East Asia Today: Changing Policies a secondary school teacher of English in the People’s
and Practices (pp. 163−172). Singapore: Eastern Republic of China: Challenging the stereotypes. RELC
Universities Press. Journal 34(3), 323−337.
Oppenheim, A. N. (1992). Questionnaire design:

Interviewing and attitude measurement.
London: Continuum.
Orosz, A. (2009). The Growth of Young Learners’

Vocabulary Size. In M. Nikolov (Ed.), Early Learning
of Modern Foreign Languages: Processes and
Outcomes. Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
Pandian, A. (2003). English Language Teaching in

Malaysia today. In W. K. Ho and R. Y. L. Wong (Eds.),
English Language Teaching in East Asia Today:
Changing Policies and Practices (pp. 269−292).
Pinter, A. (2006). Teaching Young Language Learners.

Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Prapaisit de Segovia, L., and Hardison, D. M. (2008).

Implementing education reform: EFL teachers’
perspectives. ELT Journal 63(2), 154−162.
20 | References
Appendix – Survey results
Gender: Years of experience as an English language teacher:
80.4% female 29.2% 0–4

19.6% male 26.6% 5–9
19.5% 10–14
11.6% 15–19
6.8% 20–24
6.3% 25+
Figure 1: Gender of respondents Figure 4: Experience of ELT
Age: Years of experience teaching English in primary/elementary school:
0.5% Younger than 18 41.2% 0–4
26.5% 19–29 27.7% 5–9
34.8% 30–39 16.1% 10–14
24.6% 40–49 8.4% 15–19
12.2% 50–59 3.7% 20–24
1.5% 60+ 2.9% 25+
Figure 2: Age of respondents Figure 5: Experience of TEYL
Highest level of education: What is your level of English, in your opinion?
10.8% Secondary/ 45%

high school
40% 38.7%
12.5% Post secondary/
35%
high school e.g.
college 30%
45.6% Bachelor’s 25%

21.3%
(1st level degree)
20%
25.1% Master’s 15% 13.4%
(2nd level degree) 10.3%
10% 7.7%
2.4% Doctorate (PhD) 4.2%
5% 2.8%
1.7%
3.7% Other
0%
Beginner
Elementary
Pre-intemediate
Intermediate
Upper-intermediate
Advanced
Native speaker
Native speaker
competence
Figure 3: Level of education
Figure 6: Level of English
21 | Appendix – Survey results

Type of primary/elementary school you teach in most often: Did you receive any training in teaching English before you began
teaching in primary/elementary school?
68.2% State 66.6% Yes
27.2% Private 33.4% No
4.6% Other
Figure 7: Type of school Figure 11: Pre-service training
Location of your current school: Have you received any training in teaching English since you began
teaching English in primary/elementary school?
73.9% Urban 73.7% Yes
(town/city)
26.3% No
26.1% Rural
(village/
countryside)
Figure 8: Location of school Figure 12: In-service training
How many children are in your classes on average? Which language do you mostly use in your English classes?
9.6% Under 10 39.8% Mostly English
29.6% 11–20 8.8% Mostly the

students’
37.2% 21–30 first language
14.8% 31–40 51.4% A mix of
5.4% 41–50 the two
3.4% 50+
Figure 9: Class size Figure 13: Language used in class
How is English teaching organised in your school?
10.5% One teacher

teaches all
subjects, including
English
21.6% One teacher

teaches all
subjects except
English
56.9% A different teacher

teaches each
subject/group
of subject
11.0% Other
Figure 10: Organisation of English teaching

In your classes, which of the following do you think are most important for children in your
class to learn?
Please put them in order of importance for you from 1 to 7.
(1 = most important and 7 = least important)
Writing 5.2
Pronunciation 4.0
Reading 4.1
Grammar 5.2
Speaking 2.4
3.6
Vocabulary
3.1
Listening
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Average rating
Figure 14: Importance of different skills
Here are some activities that are used in primary schools.

How often do you use these activities in the class you teach most often?
4,000 Every lesson
3,500 Often
Sometimes
3,000
Rarely
2,500
Never
2,000
1,500
1,000
500
0
Songs
Children repeating after

the teacher
Role-play
Reading silently
Listening to tape
recorder/CD
Children telling stories
Playing games
Making things
Translation exercises
Children copying from
the book/board
Teacher reading stories
Children memorising words

and phrases (rote learning)
Figure 15: Frequency of activities used in class
Below are some more activities that are used in primary schools.
How often do you use these activities in the class you teach most often?
4,000 Every lesson
3,500 Often
Sometimes
3,000
Rarely
2,500
Never
2,000
1,500
1,000
500
0
Rhymes and/
or poems
the computer
Handwriting exercises
Grammar exercises
Children reading
out loud
Project work
Grammar explanations
Creative writing
Filling gaps/blanks
in exercises
Spelling exercises
Dictation
Watching videos/TV
Activities on
Figure 16: Frequency of activities used in class

How useful are the following in planning your lessons?
3,000
2,500
2,000
1,500
1,000
500
0
National curriculum/syllabus from the
government/ministry
School syllabus/ curriculum guidelines
Examinations syllabus
Class syllabus/scheme of work
Textbook/coursebook
Supplementary materials/worksheets
The way you learned English
Your pre-service teacher training
Attendance at conferences
In-service teacher
training courses
Your English teaching
colleagues at school
The availability of
classroom equipment
Your membership of
professional organisations
Lesson plans
Not applicable Not at all useful Not very useful
Somewhat useful Very useful
Figure 17: Lesson planning
Which of the following do you think would improve teaching and learning in your classes?
Please put them all in order of importance from 1 to 8.
(1 = most important and 8 = least important)
Better access to resources

such as textbooks and materials
Fewer tests/examinations
Better access to new technologies,

such as DVDs or computers
Training in new language
teaching methodologies
Improvement in my own level of English
Smaller classes
Starting English at an earlier age
More hours of English each week
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Figure 18: Changes needed to improve learning and teaching

All images © Mat Wright
ISBN 978-086355-667-8
© British Council 2011 Brand and Design / B094
The British Council creates international opportunities for the people
of the UK and other countries and builds trust between them worldwide.
A registered charity: 209131 (England and Wales) SC037733 (Scotland).

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ELT Research Papers 11– 01

Investigating Global Practices in

Investigating Global Practices in

Dr Fiona Copland is Course Director for MSc

2 Review of the literature ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 4

2.1 Macro-level factors ........................................................................................................................................................................................................... 5

2.2 Micro-level factors ............................................................................................................................................................................................................ 5

2.2.1 Approaches to language teaching ....................................................................................................................................................... 5

2.2.2 Recruitment and training ........................................................................................................................................................................... 6

2.2.3 Teachers’ level of English proficiency ................................................................................................................................................ 6

2.2.4 The classroom context ............................................................................................................................................................................... 7

2.2.5 Examinations and assessment ................................................................................................................................................................ 7

2.2.6 Materials and resources ............................................................................................................................................................................. 7

2.2.7 Learners .............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 8

3 Research design .............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 9

4 Main findings ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 11

4.1 Profile of a YL teacher .................................................................................................................................................................................................. 11

4.2 Policy/syllabus documents ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 11

4.3 Major pedagogies .......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 12

4.4 Teachers’ roles, responsibilities, and challenges .......................................................................................................................................... 13

4.5 Solutions to pedagogical issues ............................................................................................................................................................................. 14

Appendix – Survey results .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 21

The study uncovered a wide range of factors

4 | Review of the literature

So far this brief discussion has focused on the

5 | Review of the literature

6 | Review of the literature

7 | Review of the literature

8 | Review of the literature

3. South Korea: a mixed Grades 1 and 2 after-school

4. Tanzania: one Grade 1 and one Grade 4 class

5. The UAE: two single sex (boys) Grade 6 classes

What is your level of English, in your opinion?

Class syllabus/scheme of work

Your pre-service teacher training

Not applicable Not at all useful Not very useful

Somewhat useful Very useful

Figure 1: Level of English Figure 2: Lesson planning

including clay pots, flowers, and footballs, and by 1,000

prepare final examinations?

mark tests and/or examinations?

prepare your own lessons?

choose your own course book?

give the children homework?

pay for resources (eg batteries)?

organise out of school

Recommendation 1 Initiatives could include:

■■ Imaginative, and draw on local cultural

■■ Creative, to increase students’ confidence in

■■ Aimed at motivating young learners to

Oppenheim, A. N. (1992). Questionnaire design:

Orosz, A. (2009). The Growth of Young Learners’

Pandian, A. (2003). English Language Teaching in

Pinter, A. (2006). Teaching Young Language Learners.

Prapaisit de Segovia, L., and Hardison, D. M. (2008).

80.4% female 29.2% 0–4

Figure 1: Gender of respondents Figure 4: Experience of ELT

Age: Years of experience teaching English in primary/elementary school:

0.5% Younger than 18 41.2% 0–4