021 Airframe & Systems

Gas Turbine Engine Performance and

Operation

Introduction
Factors Affecting Power Output
Gas Turbine Operation and Monitoring

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 Gas Turbine Engine Performance and Operation

Gas Turbine Engine Performance and

23

Operation
Introduction
1. The performance of a gas turbine engine is dependent upon the mass of air that passes
through the engine and the acceleration imparted to that mass by the engine. In the turbo-jet and
turbo-fan engine the performance is measured in terms of thrust at the propelling nozzle or nozzles,
in the turbo-prop engine it is measured as shaft horsepower (SHP).

2. The mass of air passing through the engine, and therefore the thrust developed, is dependent
upon the air density, which varies with temperature and pressure. The forward speed of the aircraft
also affects air mass flow through the engine, since there is a ram effect at the air intake when the
aircraft is moving.

3. Static thrust, or gross thrust, is the amount of thrust produced by the engine when the aircraft
is stationary on the ground or the engine is on a test bench. Net thrust is the thrust produced by the
engine when the aircraft is in flight. The static thrust produced by an engine is largely the product of
the mass of air passing through the engine and the velocity of the exhaust gas at the propelling
nozzle. To calculate net thrust it is necessary to take into account the speed of the aircraft.

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 Gas Turbine Engine Performance and Operation

The Thrust Formula

4. The mass of air passing through the engine is the weight of air (wa) divided by acceleration
due to gravity (g). The thrust produced is the product of this and the velocity of the jet efflux (vj).
The static thrust force is given by the formula:

Wa × Vj
F = ---------------------
g
5. To calculate the net thrust it is necessary to include the forward speed of the aircraft in the
equation, because the thrust developed will depend upon the difference between the exhaust gas
velocity (V2) and the initial gas velocity (V1). The initial gas velocity is, of course, the same as the
aircraft velocity. Hence, vj in the static thrust formula can be substituted with V2 – V1 and the
formula for calculating static or net thrust becomes:

Wa
F = -------- ( V – V )
g 2 1
6. When calculating static thrust, V1 will be zero.

7. As described in the section dealing with propelling nozzles in (section 3.37), a turbo-jet
operating under choked conditions derives additional thrust from the pressure drop across the
propelling nozzle. This added thrust is the product of the pressure difference across the nozzle and
the area of the nozzle throat and is given by:

F = (P – P ) × a
0

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 Gas Turbine Engine Performance and Operation

Where: p = static pressure at the nozzle throat

p0 = ambient atmospheric pressure
a = area of the propelling nozzle throat
8. Consequently, the static thrust of a turbo-jet engine operating with the propelling nozzle in a
choked condition is given by the formula:

Wa
F = -------- ( V 2 – V 1 ) + ( P – P 0 ) × a
g
9. When considering a turbo-fan engine there are two gas streams to be taken into account, the
hot gas stream from the jet pipe and the cold gas stream from the fan. Given that the hot gas exhaust
is normally un-choked in such an engine, the formula for calculating the total thrust may be given as:

Wa Wa
F = -------- ( V 2 – V1 ) ( Jet ) + -------- ( V 2 – V 1 ) ( Fan )
g g

Turboprops
10. The output of a turboprop is measured normally as shaft horsepower (SHP) or thrust
equivalent shaft horsepower (TESHP). TESHP takes account of the residual jet thrust of a turboprop
exhaust as shaft horsepower.

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 Gas Turbine Engine Performance and Operation

Factors Affecting Power Output

Effect of Airspeed
11. From the foregoing it appears that the net thrust of the engine must decrease as airspeed
increases since, at any given altitude, V2 is constant and V1 is increasing. The greater the value of V1,
the lower the net thrust. This is indicated by curve A on the graph at Figure 23-1.

12. However, the ram effects at the compressor air intake increase with increasing forward speed,
forcing air into the engine at greater velocity. The design of the intake converts the increased velocity
of the intake air into pressure, increasing the density, thereby increasing the engine thrust. The
increased thrust due to ram effect is shown in curve B of the graph at Figure 23-1.

13. In terms of the thrust formula, the loss of thrust due to the reduced differential between V2
and V1, as airspeed increases, is largely offset by the increase in wa due to increased density, because
of ram effect. At supersonic airspeeds ram effect takes on great importance in increasing engine
thrust. The overall effect of airspeed upon thrust is shown in curve C of the graph at Figure 23-1.

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 Gas Turbine Engine Performance and Operation

FIGURE 23-1
Ram Effect

14. The increased airflow, due to ram effect, must be matched by an increased fuel flow, as
discussed in the section covering fuel control systems. At subsonic airspeeds, net thrust decreases
slightly with increased airspeed and fuel consumption increases as shown in the upper two graphs at
Figure 23-2. From this it follows that specific fuel consumption (sfc) of a turbo-jet engine must
increase with increasing airspeed, since specific fuel consumption is defined as pounds of fuel burned
per hour per pound of thrust developed (lb/hr/lb.thrust). This is shown in the lower graph at
Figure 23-2.

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 Gas Turbine Engine Performance and Operation

FIGURE 23-2
Effect of Airspeed
- Turbojet

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 Gas Turbine Engine Performance and Operation

15. In turbo-prop aircraft sfc is defined as lb.fuel/hr/SHP. Because SHP (shaft horsepower)
increases with increased airspeed, sfc shows an increase in turbo-prop aircraft up to the maximum
propeller efficiency airspeed (about 350 mph). This is illustrated at Figure 23-3.

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 Gas Turbine Engine Performance and Operation

FIGURE 23-3
Effect of Airspeed
- Turboprop

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 Gas Turbine Engine Performance and Operation

Effect of Altitude
16. As altitude increases the ambient atmospheric pressure and temperature decrease. The
reduction in pressure decreases the air density but, up to the tropopause this effect is partly
compensated by the reduction in temperature, which limits the density decrease with altitude. Any
reduction in air density must, however, result in a reduced air mass entering the compressor and
therefore a reduced mass flow through the engine. Consequently thrust of a gas turbine engine
decreases with increased altitude.

17. The effect becomes most marked above the tropopause (36,089 feet) where temperature
remains constant up to 65,617 feet but pressure continues to fall. With no compensating effect from
temperature, air density due to pressure reduction falls at a much more rapid rate above the
tropopause, with a consequent rapid decrease in thrust. It is for this reason that the optimum cruising
altitude for long-range cruising is 36,000 feet.

Effect of Temperature
18. At lower levels, outside air temperature has a marked effect upon engine performance for a
given altitude. This is of particular importance to take-off performance of gas turbine engines.

19. When air temperature is lower than standard the increased density will increase the mass of
air entering the compressor so, for a given engine rpm the thrust is greater. However, the compressor
will require greater power to maintain the same speed in the denser air so the engine will require
more fuel. Alternatively, if the fuel supply is not increased, engine speed will decrease.

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 Gas Turbine Engine Performance and Operation

20. When air temperature is higher than standard the reduced density will result in a decrease in
thrust for a given rpm. The engine cannot be safely operated much beyond 100% rpm so, if the mass
flow for take-off thrust is to be achieved, the air density must be restored. This means that some form
of thrust augmentation must be used, such as water or water-methanol injection, as discussed in
section 3.38.4.

Effect of Engine RPM

21. The air mass flow produced by the gas turbine engine compressors is dependent upon their
speed of rotation, the higher the rpm the greater the mass flow. Further, the change of thrust (mass
flow) for a given change in engine rpm is most marked at high engine speeds. For this reason,
cruising rpm is usually 85% to 90% of maximum rpm. It is also for this reason that it is usually
desirable to maintain high engine rpm during the approach to land, especially as gas turbine engines
are inherently slow to ‘spool up’ (increase rpm)

Flat Rated Thrust

22. It is clear from the foregoing that the thrust of a gas turbine engine is directly related to the
density of the air in which it is operating. Consequently, if the throttle (thrust) lever is set for a given
fuel flow then any change in air density will result in a change of engine thrust. For example, if the
aircraft climbs with the throttle lever set, the engine thrust will decrease with altitude because of the
decreasing air density.

23. In many modern engines, with full authority electronic engine control systems, this is
overcome by automatic compensation that adjusts engine speed to maintain thrust at a value
demanded by the pilot’s throttle lever angle. Engine thrust is displayed as engine pressure ratio (EPR)
on an EPR gauge, an example of which is illustrated at Figure 23-4.

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 Gas Turbine Engine Performance and Operation

FIGURE 23-4
EPR Gauge

24. To select the required thrust (EPR), the pilot adjusts the throttle lever angle until the
command EPR needle on the gauge is aligned with the reference bug set by the thrust management
computer in the electronic engine control system. The control system will automatically adjust fuel
flow, and thus engine speed, to maintain the required thrust with varying altitude, airspeed and inlet
air temperature. In other words, thrust is maintained at a constant (flat) value regardless of changes
in air density.

25. Such a system is known as a flat rated thrust system and engines equipped with it are known
as flat rated engines.

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 Gas Turbine Engine Performance and Operation

Gas Turbine Operation and Monitoring

26. Control of a gas turbine engine is usually by means of a single lever, known as the throttle or,
more correctly, power lever. This is used to select the desired thrust. Engine rpm is normally
governed within certain limits.

27. The characteristics of the gas turbine engine differ in a number of respects from the piston
engine and these affect the way in which it must be operated, both on the ground and in the air.

28. The much greater air mass flow through the engine means that there is a considerable influx
of air at the intake, even when the engine is operating at idle rpm. On the ground great care must be
taken to ensure that foreign objects are not drawn into the intake, since even quite small solid objects
can cause significant damage to fan and compressor blades. Small nicks in these blades are sufficient
to create damaging out-of-balance forces at high rpm.

29. The jet efflux from a turbo-jet or turbo-fan engine is of sufficiently high velocity to be
hazardous to personnel and ground equipment to a considerable distance behind the engine.
Personnel and equipment should be kept clear of the hazard areas forward of and behind the engines.
It is not unknown for ground personnel to have been ingested by a running aircraft turbine engine.

30. It is important to monitor the turbine gas temperature, particularly during engine start, since
the turbine nozzle guide vanes and first stage blades are highly susceptible to damage from
overheating.

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 Gas Turbine Engine Performance and Operation

31. The gas turbine compressor only operates close to maximum efficiency at high rpm, typically
above 85% of maximum rpm. This must be borne in mind when the engines are being operated at
low rpm in flight, as a turbine engine accelerates much more slowly than a piston engine.
Consequently demands for an increase in power take considerably longer to be met. The fuel
scheduling system will almost certainly be ‘slugged’ to limit the rate at which fuel flow increases, to
avoid compressor stall and surge.

32. The high air mass flow of the engine also means that it is susceptible to the ingestion of water
in sufficient quantity to extinguish the flame in the combustion chambers when flying in heavy rain
or snow. In these conditions continuous ignition should be selected.

33. In any aircraft, encountering a bird when in flight can be damaging to the airframe. Gas
turbine compressor and fan blades are particularly prone to damage from bird ingestion and many
engines have been wrecked in such encounters. Great care must be exercised when flying at low level,
as during approach and take-off.

Instrumentation
34. The engine operating parameters indicated to the pilot are listed below.

Thrust. Generally indicated in the form of engine pressure ratio (EPR). Usually the pressure ratio
between jet pipe pressure and LP compressor inlet pressure, although on large fan engines it is often
an integration of fan discharge/turbine outlet pressure to LP compressor inlet pressure.

Torque. The power output of a turboprop engine is usually measured by a torquemeter. Power
assessment is made by comparison between the torquemeter reading and a reference value.

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 Gas Turbine Engine Performance and Operation

RPM. Engine speed is measured usually as a percentage of maximum rpm. On multi-spool

engines HP spool rpm (N2) is always measured, LP spool or fan speed (N1) is usually indicated as
well.

TGT. Turbine gas temperature, also referred to as jet pipe temperature (JPT), exhaust gas
temperature (EGT), turbine inlet/entry temperature (TIT or TET) is the most critical of engine
temperatures. It is measured by a system of thermocouples.

Lubricating Oil Temperature and Pressure. At the high rotational speeds of gas turbines,
monitoring of oil temperature and pressure is essential to safe operation.

Fuel Temperature and Pressure. Indication of the LP fuel supply is provided.

Fuel Flow. An indication of the fuel flow is given for each engine, since it provides a valuable
indication of unit performance. Frequently a fuel-used indicator is included in the engine
instrumentation.

Vibration Monitoring. Gas turbine engines have very low levels of vibration in normal
operation so vibration is an indication of incipient potential failure. Typical causes of vibration are
damaged fan, compressor or turbine blades - each of which could lead to catastrophic engine failure.
Vibration monitors transmit a signal of relative amplitude of vibration within critical frequency
ranges appropriate to the engine and its components.

35. The various powerplant-monitoring instruments and systems, and their operation, are dealt
with in detail under Powerplant and System Monitoring Instruments, at the end of this book.

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 021 Airframe & Systems

Auxiliary Power Units

Location
Fuel System
Starting and Ignition
Fire Protection and Cooling Systems
Shutting Down
Ram Air Turbine

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