Engine Characteristics

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4.1. Introduction

To evaluate the performance of an airplane we

need to know the atmospheric characteristics, the
drag polar and the engine characteristics like
variations of thrust (or power ) output and
specific fuel consumption with flight speed and
altitude.
In this chapter we briefly review the engine
characteristics.

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The power plants considered for aircraft
applications are:
Piston engine propeller combination.
Gas turbine engines
Turbo-prop
Turbo-fan
Turbo-jet
Ramjets
Rockets
Combination power plants like ram-rocket and
turboramjet

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Presently piston engine-propeller combination and
gas turbine engines are the power plants used on
airplanes.
Ramjets offer simplicity of construction and have
been proposed for hypersonic airplanes. However a
ramjet cannot produce any thrust when flight
speed is zero. Hence it is proposed to use a rocket
or turbojet engine to bring it (ramjet) to the speed
corresponding to M = 2 or 3 and then the ramjet
engine would take over. Consequently we would
have the combination power plants viz. ramrocket
or turboramjet.
Rockets are some times used on airplanes as
boosters to increase the thrust for a short duration4
e.g. during take-off, transonic acceleration etc.
4.2 Piston Engine Propeller Combination

In this case the output of the engine viz. brake horse

power (BHP), is available at the engine shaft and is
converted into thrust by the propeller.
Let us recapitulate a few facts about the operation of
this engine. In a piston engine a certain amount for
fuel-air mixture is taken in, it is compressed then
ignition takes place which is followed by the power
stroke and the exhaust stroke (See Fig. 4.1).

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Fig. 4.1 Four stroke cycle
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 The volume of the air-fuel mixture taken in, is almost
equal to the swept volume i.e., product of the area of
cross-section of the engine cylinder and the length of
the piston stroke.
The mass of fuel taken in per power stroke is thus
equal to ( swept volume) X (density of air) /(air-fuel
ratio).
4.2.1 Effect of flight speed on output of piston
engine
For a given altitude and r.p.m. (N) the power output
changes only slightly with flight speed. This is
because the piston engines are generally used at low
speeds (M<0.3) and at these low Mach umbers, the
increase in manifold pressure due to the declaration7
 of air in engine manifold is negligible . Hence power
output increases only slightly with flight speed. This
increase is generally ignored.
4.2.2 Effect of altitude on output of piston
engine
For complete combustion of fuel, the air-fuel ratio
has a definite value (around 15, the stoichometric
ratio) . Actual air-fuel ratio is around this value.
As the flight altitude increases the density of air
decreases. Hence for a given r.p.m. and air-fuel
ratio, the mass of air and hence of the fuel taken in
decreases with altitude. Consequently the power
output decreases with altitude. The change in power
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output (P) with altitude is roughly given as :
 (P/P0)=1.13σ – 0.13 (4.1)
where P0 is the power output at sea level under
ISA conditions and σ is the density ratio. See
Fig. 4.2 for typical engine performance.
4.2.3 Propeller
The output of the engine is converted into thrust
by the propeller. A typical engine-propeller
combination is shown in Fig. 4.3. For engines
with larger power output, three or four bladed
propellers may be used. For details of the
geometry of propeller etc., see Ref.1.7 and 3.4.

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Fig 4.2 Typical piston engine performance
Fig 4.3 Typical engine-propeller combination
(source: www.google.com)
 The variation of specific fuel consumption (SFC)
depends on r.p.m. and the output power. But the
power output depends on r.p.m and manifold
pressure. Hence SFC or specific fuel consumption
is plotted as function of (i) r.p.m. and B.H.P or (ii)
r.p.m. and manifold air pressure (M.A.P.). Typical
variations of fuel flow rate are shown in the left
hand side of Fig. 4.2. From fuel flow rate the SFC
is obtained from the following equation.
SFC = fuel flow rate in Newton's per hour
BHP in kW
Remarks:
i) In Fig. 4.2 the fuel flow rate is in US gallons per
hour & the power output is in horse power. It may 12
 be noted that one us gallon equals 3.78 liters.
According to Ref.3.7,chapter 10, the density of
aviation gasoline is 0.72 and that of aviation
kerosene is around 0.8
(ii) SFC in metric units is also expressed as mg/W-s.
4.2.4 Propeller efficiency
If the propeller produces a thrust T when the
airplane moves with a speed V∞ then the power
output, called thrust horse power and denoted by
THP, is (TV∞ / 1000) in kW. The efficiency of the
propeller is:
ηρ = THP / BHP =TV∞ /(1000xBHP) ( 4.2 )
Note: T is in Newton, V∞ is in m/s and THP and BHP13
are measured in kW. The units used in Fig. 4.2,
Fig.4.4 Typical chart for three blade propeller
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reproduced from manufacturer’s charts, are in FPS
system.
The propeller efficiency depends on the pitch of the
propeller (β) and the advance ratio ( J=V/nd);
Where V is flight speed, n is revolutions per
second (rps) and d is the diameter of propeller.
Figure 4.4.shows typical variation of ηρ.
The efficiency (ηρ )is zero when V∞ is zero
(Eq.4.2). It increases with V∞, reaches a maximum
and then decreases.
For a single pitch or fixed pitch propeller, the
efficiency is high (80 to 85%) only over a narrow
range of flight speeds ( Fig. 4.4 ).
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For commercial airplanes the variable pitch
propellers are used which given high efficiency over
a wide range of speeds. In this case the pitch of
the propeller can be changed in flight.
Propellers with variable pitch are expensive and
heavy. Hence personal airplanes, where cost of the
airplane is an important consideration, have fixed
pitch propellers.
Variation of THP with velocity
THP equals ηρ x BHP. Thus variation of THP with V
depends on the variations, with velocity, of ηρ and
BHP. Note further that BHP depends on r.p.m and
altitude. Typical variations of THP, for a chosen
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engine r.p.m., are shown in Fig.4.5.
Fig. 4.5 Variations of THP with flight speed
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4.2.5 Selection of propeller and its performance:
The description in this section is based on Ref.3.4.
FPS units are used in that text. The propeller
performance is expressed in terms of the following
coefficients:
Advance ratio J=V/nd
Power coefficient: Cp=P/ρn3d5 = 550BHP/ ρn3d5

Thrust coefficient: CT = T/ρn3d4

Speed power coefficient : Cs = V (ρ/Pn2)1/5
Propeller efficiency : ηρ =TV/P = TV/(550XBHP)
= J (CT/Cp)
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Thrust = T= (550BHP/V), ηρ=CT/Cp (550BHP/nd)
T=Thrust (lbs); P=power (ft lbs/s)=550 BHP
V=velocity (ft/s), BHP=break horse power
n=Rotational speed (rev/s), d=Diameter of
propeller
Typical η vs Cs and J vs Cs with β as parameter
are shown in Fig.4.4.for a three blade propeller.
This type of plot is also referred to as design
chart for propeller.

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4.2.6 Selection of propeller diameter:
The steps are as follows
(a) Choose a level flight conditions say hcr and Vcr .
(b) Obtain lift coefficient (CL) in this flight from:
CL= W/(0.5ρV2crS). Obtain corresponding CD
from drag polar of the airplane.
(c )Obtain THP required during the flight from:
THP=0.5ρV3crSCD.
(d) Assume ηρ=0.8
(e) Obtain BHP =THP/0.8. Then RPM (N) which will
give this power output at chosen hcr is known
from the engine curves ( Fig.4.2). Calculate
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n=N/60.
(f) Calculate Cs = V (ρ/Pn2)1/5
(g) From propeller chart like Fig. 4.4, obtain β which
gives maximum ηp, for the value of Cs in step
(f). For these values of β & Cs obtain J, which
lies on dotted curve corresponding to ηpmax. Note
the ηmax value.
(h) Then obtain propeller diameter (d) from :
d= V/n J
(i) If ηmax obtained in step (g) is significantly
different from ηp of 0.8 assumed in step (d),
then iterate by using new ηp value.
Finally round off the propeller diameter to
nearby standard value. 21
4.2.7 Obtaining ηp for choosen h,V,N & P:
A propeller absorbs power (BHP) developed by
the engine and delivers THP. The efficiency of
the propeller (THP/BHP) depends on BHP,V,N and
β. It may be noted that for calculation of airplane
performance, we need to know THP at different
engine rpm’s at different flight speeds and
altitudes. The steps to obtain ηρ for chosen h,
BHP, N and V are as follows:
(a) Obtain atmospheric density (ρ) at chosen
altitude (h)
(b) Obtain Cp from Cp =P/ρη3d5
(c )Calculate J=V/nd
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(d) If Cp vs. J curves are available for different values
of β,then read value of β from this curve.
For these values of β and J obtain ηp. Alternatively
obtain Cs which can also be expressed as J/(Cp)0.5.
For a fixed pitch propeller (i.e. β is constant) the
propeller chart like Fig.4.6 gives ηp for known
values of Cs and β. For a variable pitch propeller the
value of β which will give maximum efficiency for a
known value of Cs can be obtained from propeller
chart like Fig.4.4. The corresponding value of ηp is
also known. It is interesting to note from Fig.4.4
that for a three bladed propeller a maximum
efficiency of above 85% can be obtained over a
wide range of Cs by using a variable pitch propeller.23
(e) Calculate THP= ηρ BHP
and T=(THP x 1000)/V when THP is in kW.
(f) Calculate ηp for various velocities at the chosen
altitude.
(g) Vary the altitude and get THP vrs V at different
heights. Typical curves are shown in Fig.4.5.
Remarks:
1) Reference 3.4 gives characteristics for two and
three blade propellers.
2) Loss of propeller efficiency at high speeds
A propeller blade is like a rotating wing with
forward motion. The resultant velocity at the
propeller tip (VRtip) would be highest and equal 24

to:
VRtip= {V∞2 + (2 π n R)2}1/2, where R is the
radius of propeller.
When the Mach number corresponding to VRtip
exceeds the critical Mach number for the airfoil
used on the propeller, the drag coefficient of
the airfoil would increase and the lift coefficient
decreases (see section 3.3). Consequently the
efficiency of the propeller decreases. This loss
of efficiency can be delayed to higher flight
Mach numbers by use of advanced propellers
(Fig.4.6). These propellers have swept blades
and can be used on turboprop airplanes up to
flight Mach number of 0.7.
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Fig 4.6 Advanced propeller design.
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4.3 Gas Turbine Engines

A gas turbine engine consists of a diffuser to

decelerate the air-stream entering the engine, a
compressor, a combustion chamber, a turbine, a
jet pipe and a nozzle (Fig. 4.7).
The hot gases leaving the combustion chamber,
expand partly in the turbine and partly in the
nozzle.
The need for three variants of gas turbine engines
viz. turbodrop, turbofan & turboprop can be
explained by considering their propulsive
efficiencies.

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 Fig 4.7 Turbojet engine
(Source : http://www.aerospaceweb.org) 28
4.3.1 Propulsive efficiency
Propulsive efficiency is the ratio of useful work
done by the airstream and the energy supplied
to it.
In a gas turbine engine, the velocity of the air
stream (V∞) is augmented to Vj , the velocity of
the jet stream, thereby imparting kinetic energy
at the rate of :
.
(m/2)[Vj2 - V∞2]
.
Where m is the mass flow rate.
The engine develops a thrust T and hence results
in a useful work of TV∞ . Noting that:
. 29
T=m (Vj - V∞), (4.3a)
 the propulsive efficiency (ηpropulsive) is:
.
m (V j − V ∞ ) (V ∞ )
ηpropulsive =
m
.(V j − V ∞ )
=
2
V j
(4.3)
1 +
2 2

2 V∞

4.3.2 Why turboprop, turbofan and turbojet

engines?
The overall efficiency of a gas turbine engine is the
product of items like cycle efficiency, combustion
efficiency, mechanical efficiency and propulsive
efficiency. The cycle efficiency depends on the
engine cycle and in turn on the maximum 30
temperature / pressure in the engine. The
 combustion efficiency and mechanical efficiency are
generally of the order of 95%. Thus propulsive
efficiency finally decides the overall efficiency of a
gas turbine engine as a propulsive system.
Remark: The action of a propeller is also similar to that
of a jet engine i.e. it also enhances velocity of the
free stream from V∞ to Vj where, in this case, Vj is
the velocity of the stream far behind the propeller.
Hence the propulsive efficiency of a propeller is also
given by eq. (4.3).
To appreciate the use of turboprop, turbofan and
turbojet in various speed ranges, let us consider the
variation of propulsive efficiency with flight speed.31
 Consider a subsonic jet engine with convergent nozzle.
The Mach number at the exit, in this case, would be
unity and the temperature of the exhaust gases would
be around 600 K. Under these conditions, Vj, the
velocity of jet exhaust would be around 500 m/s. Now
let us apply Eq.(4.3) and obtain propulsive efficiency at
different flight speeds (V∞). The results are given in the
Table 4.1.

V∞ (m/s) 100 125 166.7 250 333.3 400

Vj / V∞ 5 4 3 2 1.5 1.25
ηρ % 33.3 40.0 50.0 66.7 80.0 88.9
Table 4.1 Variation of propulsive efficiency with
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flight speed
 Remarks:

i) Turboprop engine
It is seen from the Table 4.1 that ηp will be low if
a pure-jet engine is used at low speeds.
An analysis of Eqs. (4.3 and 4.3a) points out that
for having adequate thrust and high propulsive
efficiency at low flight speeds, a small increment
in velocity should be given to a large mass of air.
This is effectively done by a propeller.
Thus for airplane with flight Mach number less
than about 0.5, a turbo-prop engine is used
(Fig.4.8). In this case the turbine drives the

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 34
Fig. 4.8 Turboprop engine
 compressor and also the propeller through a gearbox
(Fig 4.8). The gear box is needed because the turbine
r.p.m. would be around 15000-20000 where as the
propeller rotates at about 3000 r.p.m.
For practical reasons the expansion of the gases
coming out of the combustion chamber is not allowed
to take place completely in the turbine and a part of
the expansion is carried out in the nozzle. About 80 to
90% of the total output is produced through the
propeller and the rest 20 to 10% as output from the jet
coming out of the nozzle.
ii) Turbofan engine
As the flight Mach number increases beyond about 0.7,
the propeller efficiency decreases rapidly due to 35
formation of shock waves at the tip of the propeller
blade. Hence for airplanes flying near Mach number of
unity, a turbo-fan engine is used (Fig.4.9).In this
engine a major portion of the power output (about
60%) is obtained as jet thrust and the rest as thrust
from a fan. A fan has a smaller diameter as compared
to the propeller and it is generally placed inside a duct.
A ducted fan has a higher propulsive efficiency than a
propeller.
It is seen (Fig. 4.9) that all the air taken in by the fan
does not go through the turbine. Incidentally the part
of the engine consisting of the compressor, combustion
chamber, turbine and nozzle is called gas generator.
The ratio of the mass of the air that passes through
the fan to the mass of air that passes through the gas
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generator is called the bypass ratio.
 Fig 4.9 Turbo fan engine
Source : http://www.aerospaceweb.org 37
 Early turbofan engines had bypass ratio of 1:1.
Currently it is around 6.5:1 and is likely to
increase in the future.
iii) At supersonic Mach numbers, up to three, a
turbo-jet engine is used. In this engine entire
power output is through the jet thrust.

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4.3.3 Characteristics of gas turbine engines

Turboprop engine:
As noted earlier, in this engine, a major portion
of the output is available at the propeller shaft
(SHP) and a small fraction through the jet thrust
(Tj). Hence the output is represented as:

THP = ηp SHP + (TjV∞/1000) (4.4)

Where SHP=shaft horse power available at
propeller shaft in kW.
ηp = propeller efficiency
Tj = Jet thrust
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 The total output of a turbo-prop engine, also
called equivalent shaft horse power (ESHP), can
be defined as :
ESHP = SHP +(TjV∞ /0.8x1000) (4.5)
Note: For the sake of defining ESHP, the value of ηρ
is taken as 0.8 in Eq.(4.5) and ESHP and SHP are
in kW.
Characteristics of a typical turbo-prop engine are
shown in Fig. 4.10.
In a gas turbine engine the mass flow rate
through the engine and pressure rise due to the
deceleration of air in the diffuser, increase with
increase of Mach number. Hence power out put 40
shows some increase with flight Mach number.
Fig 4.10 PT6A-25 Turboprop engine characteristics41
 Figure 4.10 also shows the influence of ambient
temperature on power output. It is seen that there
is a significant fall in ESHP as the ambient
temperature rises.
Remark:
i) From the curves regarding fuel flow rate in Fig.4.10,
we can obtain BSFC at various speeds and altitudes
as: BSFC = (Fuel flow/hr)/ESHP)
ii) Reference 3.7 gives curves for a large turbo-prop
engine viz. 6500 sea level static power. The sea
level static power is the engine output at sea level
at zero velocity.
iii) Reference 1.7 gives characteristics of an engine of
around 1700 hp. 42
Turbofan engine:

In the older type of turbo-fan engines the thrust

output used to remain fairly constant with flight
speed.
In modern turbofan engines the performance at
low speeds and low altitudes (up to about 5 km)
has been improved so that the ratio of the sea
level static thrust and that (thrust) in high speed
high altitude flight, is much higher (see Fig.4.11).
The sea level static thrust is the engine output at
M=0 at sea level. Higher sea level static thrust
helps in reducing the distance required for take-
off. 43
Remark:

Chapter 9 of Ref.4.2 gives the performance, in

non-dimensional terms, for engines with bypass
ratios of 3,6.5,8 and 13. The curves are also
presented for take-off rating, climb rating and
cruise rating. The take off rating is the engine
output which can be availed for about 5 min. The
engine can be run at climb rating for about half
an hour and at cruise rating for long periods.
The values of specific fuel consumption (TSFC)
are also marked in Fig.4.11.

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Fig 4.11 Typical turbo fan engine characteristics
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 Turbojet engine:
The characteristics of a supersonic turbo-jet engine
are shown in Figs.4.12 (a to d). It is seen that at
subsonic speeds the thrust is fairly constant, but it
increases considerably at supersonic speeds. This
rise is due to increased pressure in the intake
obtained by deceleration of the supersonic flow. The
Mach number at which the peak value of thrust
occurs depends on the design of the engine.
Remarks:
i) In Figs.12(a to d) the speed is in knots. One knot
equals 1.852 kmph.
ii) Bypass supersonic turbofan engines are also being
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considered for supersonic flight. Ref.3.7, gives, in
Appendix E, typical curves for an engine with sea level
static thrust of 30000 lb (133 kN). Similarly Ref.4.3
chapter 8, also presents curves for an engine with
33000 lb (146.3 kN) sea level static thrust.
Figures 4.12 (a to d) also indicate the values of
specific fuel consumption (TSFC) and the air flow rate.

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Fig.4.12 (a) Performance of supersonic turbojet
48
engine at sea level
Fig.4.12 (b) Performance of supersonic turbojet
engine at h = 15000 ft 49
Fig.4.12 (c) Performance of supersonic turbojet
engine at h = 30000 ft. 50
Fig. 4.12(d) Performance of supersonic turbojet
engine at h = 45000 ft 51
(Adapted from Ref.4.2,chapter 6).
General Remarks:
The detailed information about engine performance
(i.e. variations with altitude and flight velocity of the
thrust/power and TSFC/BSFC) is generally available
only in a limited number of cases. To get the
performance characteristics of engine with other
ratings, we need to carry out scaling of the available
data. For this purpose we multiply the values of
thrust/power of the engine, whose characteristics are
known, by a suitable factor which will bring the
output of the existing engine equal to the output of
the desired engine. It is a
will be the same for the two engines. This kind of
scaling is generally applicable for outputs within
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± 25% (Ref.4.3, chapter 8).
Exercises:

4.1) What are the different types of engines used

on airplanes? In which speed/Mach number range
are they used?
4.2) Sketch a typical BHP vrs altitude curve for a
piston engine. Why does a piston engine rapidly
loose power with altitude? Supercharger is
needed to delay this loss of power to higher
altitudes. Look for information on supercharger
from books ( e.g. Ref.1.7) / websites.
4.3) what are the essential differences between
turboprop, turbofan and turbojet engines?
54
 Derive an expression for propulsive efficiency and
justify the range of flight Mach numbers these engines
are used.
4.4) A propeller of 2 m diameter is mounted on an
airplane flying at a speed of 216 kmph. If the velocity
in the propeller slip stream far behind the propeller be
81 m/s, calculate the propulsive efficiency and the
thrust developed by the propeller. [Hint. Assume that
the simple momentum theory is reasonably accurate
for calculation of thrust and propulsive efficiency.
Further the mass handled by propeller is roughly equal
to ρAV1, where ρ is the atmospheric density, A is the
area of a circle of the diameter equal to the propeller
diameter and V1 is the velocity through the disk which
55
is average of the free stream velocity and the velocity
far behind the propeller.
[Answer: ηp= 85.1% , T = 5695 N]

4.5) Neatly sketch the following:

(a) variation of propeller efficiency vrs. flight
velocity with propeller pitch angle as parameter.
(b) Variation of thrust vrs. Mach number with
altitude as parameter for a turbofan engine with
bypass.

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