Applied Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer THT3701

Learning Unit 1: Basics of heat transfer

Learning outcomes

After studying this unit, you should be able to

• explain how thermodynamics and heat transfer are related to each other
• distinguish thermal energy from other forms of energy, and heat transfer from
other forms of energy transfer
• perform general energy balances as well as surface energy balances
• discuss the basic mechanisms of heat transfer, which are conduction,
convection, and radiation, and Fourier's law of heat conduction, Newton's law
of cooling, and the Stefan–Boltzmann law of radiation
• identify the mechanisms of heat transfer that occur simultaneously in practice
(combined modes of heat transfer)
• solve various heat transfer problems encountered in practice

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Applied Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer THT3701

1.0 Introduction
While teaching heat transfer, one of the first questions students commonly ask is
the difference between heat and temperature. Another common question concerns
the difference between the subjects of heat transfer and thermodynamics. Let me
begin this chapter by trying to address these two questions.

1.1 Difference between Heat and Temperature

In heat transfer problems, we often interchangeably use the terms heat and
temperature. There is a distinct difference between the two. Temperature is a
measure of the amount of energy possessed by the molecules of a substance. It
manifests itself as a degree of hotness and can be used to predict the direction of
heat transfer. The usual symbol for temperature is T. The scales for measuring
temperature in SI units are the Celsius and Kelvin temperature scales. Heat, on
the other hand, is energy in transit. Spontaneously, heat flows from a hotter body
to a colder one. Heat is the form of energy that can be transferred from one system
to another as a result of temperature difference. The usual symbol for heat is Q. In
the SI system, common units for measuring heat are the Joule and calorie.

1.2 Difference between Thermodynamics and heat Transfer

Thermodynamics tells us:

• how much heat is transferred (dQ)

• how much work is done (dW)
• final state of the system
Heat transfer tells us:

• how (with what modes) dQ is transferred

• at what rate dQ is transferred
• temperature distribution inside the body

Heat transfer complementary Thermodynamics

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The basic requirement for heat transfer is the presence of a temperature difference.
There can be no net heat transfer between two bodies that are at the same
temperature. The temperature difference is the driving force for heat transfer, just as
the voltage difference is the driving force for electric current flow and pressure
difference is the driving force for fluid flow. The rate of heat transfer in a certain
direction depends on the magnitude of the temperature gradient (the temperature
difference per unit length or the rate of change of temperature) in that direction. The
larger the temperature gradient, the higher the rate of heat transfer.

The amount of heat transferred during the process is denoted by Q. The amount of
heat transferred per unit time is called heat transfer rate, and is denoted by 𝑄𝑄̇. The
overdot stands for the time derivative, or “per unit time.” The heat transfer rate 𝑄𝑄̇ has
the unit J/s, which is equivalent to W.

The rate of heat transfer per unit area normal to the direction of heat transfer is called
heat flux, and the average heat flux is expressed as
̇ 𝑄𝑄̇ 𝑊𝑊
𝑞𝑞 = 𝐴𝐴 (𝑚𝑚2 ) (1.1)

where A is the heat transfer area.

1.3 Modes of Heat Transfer

1.3.1 Conduction: An energy transfer across a system boundary due to a

temperature difference by the mechanism of inter­molecular interactions.

Conduction is the transfer of energy from the more energetic particles of a substance
to the adjacent less energetic ones as a result of interactions between the particles.
Conduction can take place in solids, liquids, or gases. In gases and liquids, conduction
is due to the collisions and diffusion of the molecules during their random motion. In
solids, it is due to the combination of vibrations of the molecules in a lattice and the
energy transport by free electrons. A cold canned drink in a warm room, for example,
eventually warms up to the room temperature as a result of heat transfer from the
room to the drink through the aluminum can by conduction.

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The rate of heat conduction through a medium depends on the geometry of the
medium, its thickness, and the material of the medium, as well as the temperature
difference across the medium. We know that wrapping a hot water tank with glass
wool (an insulating material) reduces the rate of heat loss from the tank. The thicker
the insulation, the smaller the heat loss. We also know that a hot water tank will lose
heat at a higher rate when the temperature of the room housing the tank is lowered.
Further, the larger the tank, the larger the surface area and thus the rate of heat loss.

Fig. 1.1. Heat conduction through a large plan wall thickness ∆𝑥𝑥 and area A.
Source: Cengel (2003)

Consider steady heat conduction through a large plane wall of thickness ∆𝑥𝑥 = 𝐿𝐿 and
area A, as shown in Fig. 1.1. The temperature difference across the wall is ∆𝑇𝑇 = 𝑇𝑇2 −
𝑇𝑇1. Experiments have shown that the rate of heat transfer Q. through the wall is
doubled when the temperature difference ∆𝑇𝑇 across the wall or the area A normal to
the direction of heat transfer is doubled but is halved when the wall thickness L is
doubled. Thus, we conclude that the rate of heat conduction through a plane layer is
proportional to the temperature difference across the layer and the heat transfer area,
but is inversely proportional to the thickness of the layer. That is,

(𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴)(𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑)
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 ∝
𝑇𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
Or,
𝑇𝑇 −𝑇𝑇 ∆𝑇𝑇
𝑄𝑄̇𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 1∆𝑥𝑥 2 = −𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 ∆𝑥𝑥 (W) (1.2)

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where the constant of proportionality k is the thermal conductivity of the material, which
is a measure of the ability of a material to conduct heat. In the limiting case of ∆𝑥𝑥 → 0,
the equation above reduces to the differential form
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑄𝑄̇𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = −𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 (W) (1.3)

which is called Fourier’s law of heat conduction. Here dT/dx is the temperature
gradient, which is the slope of the temperature curve on a T-x diagram (the rate of
change of T with x), at location x. The relation above indicates that the rate of heat
conduction in a direction is proportional to the temperature gradient in that direction.
Heat is conducted in the direction of decreasing temperature, and the temperature
gradient becomes negative when temperature decreases with increasing x. The
negative sign in eq. (1.3) ensures that heat transfer in the positive x direction is a
positive quantity.

1.3.1.1 Thermal Conductivity

As noted previously, thermal conductivity is a thermodynamic property of a

material. From the state postulate given in thermodynamics, it may be recalled
that thermodynamic properties of pure substances are functions of two
independent thermodynamic intensive properties, say temperature and pressure.
Thermal conductivity of real gases is largely independent of pressure and may
be considered a function of temperature alone. For solids and liquids, properties
are largely independent of pressure and depend on temperature alone.
k = k (T)

Equation 1.3 for the rate of conduction heat transfer under steady conditions can also
be viewed as the defining equation for thermal conductivity. Thus, the thermal
conductivity of a material can be defined as the rate of heat transfer through a unit
thickness of the material per unit area per unit temperature difference. The thermal
conductivity of a material is a measure of the ability of the material to conduct heat. A
high value for thermal conductivity indicates that the material is a good heat conductor,
and a low value indicates that the material is a poor heat conductor or insulator.

Table 1 gives the values of thermal conductivity for a variety of materials.

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Table 1. Thermal Conductivities of Selected Materials at Room Temperature.

Material Thermal Conductivity,
W/m.K
Copper 401
Silver 429
Gold 317
Aluminum 237
Steel 60.5
Limestone 2.15
Bakelite 1.4
Water 0.613
Air 0.0263

Let us try to gain an insight into the basic concept of thermal conductivity for various
materials. The fundamental concept comes from the molecular or atomic scale
activities. Molecules/atoms of various materials gain energy through different
mechanisms. Gases, in which molecules are free to move with a mean free path
sufficiently large compared to their diameters, possess energy in the form of
kinetic energy of the molecules. Energy is gained or lost through
collisions/interactions of gas molecules.

Kinetic energy transfer between Lattice vibration may be transferred

gas molecules between molecules as nuclei attract/repel
each other
Fig. 1.2. Fundamental concept of thermal conductivity from molecular or atomic
scale

Solids, on the other hand, have atoms/molecules which are more closely packed
which cannot move as freely as in gases. Hence, they cannot effectively transfer
energy through these same mechanisms. Instead, solids may exhibit energy
through vibration or rotation of the nucleus. Hence, the energy transfer is typically
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through lattice vibrations.

Another important mechanism in which materials maintain energy is by shifting

electrons into higher orbital rings. In the case of electrical conductors, the
electrons are weakly bonded to the molecule and can drift from one molecule to
another, transporting their energy in the process. Hence, flow of electrons, which
is commonly observed in metals, is an effective transport mechanism, resulting
in a correlation that materials which are excellent electrical conductors are
usually excellent thermal conductors.

1.3.1.2 Thermal Diffusivity

The product 𝜌𝜌𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝, which is frequently encountered in heat transfer analysis, is called
the heat capacity of a material. Both the specific heat Cp and the heat capacity 𝜌𝜌𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝
represent the heat storage capability of a material. But Cp expresses it per unit mass
whereas 𝜌𝜌𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝 expresses it per unit volume, as can be noticed from their units J/kg·°C
and J/m3·°C, respectively.

Another material property that appears in the transient heat conduction analysis is the
thermal diffusivity, which represents how fast heat diffuses through a material and is
defined as

𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑘𝑘 𝑚𝑚2

𝛼𝛼 = 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
= 𝜌𝜌𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝
( ) (1.4)
𝑠𝑠

Note that the thermal conductivity k represents how well a material conducts heat, and
the heat capacity 𝜌𝜌𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝 represents how much energy a material stores per unit volume.
Therefore, the thermal diffusivity of a material can be viewed as the ratio of the heat
conducted through the material to the heat stored per unit volume. A material that has
a high thermal conductivity or a low heat capacity will obviously have a large thermal
diffusivity. The larger the thermal diffusivity, the faster the propagation of heat into the
medium. As mall value of thermal diffusivity means that heat is mostly absorbed by
the material and a small amount of heat will be conducted further.

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1.3.2 Convection: An energy transfer across a system boundary due to a

temperature difference by the combined mechanisms of intermolecular interactions
and bulk transport. Convection needs fluid matter.

Convection is the mode of energy transfer between a solid surface and the adjacent
liquid or gas that is in motion, and it involves the combined effects of conduction and
fluid motion. The faster the fluid motion, the greater the convection heat transfer. In
the absence of any bulk fluid motion, heat transfer between a solid surface and the
adjacent fluid is by pure conduction. The presence of bulk motion of the fluid enhances
the heat transfer between the solid surface and the fluid, but it also complicates the
determination of heat transfer rates.

Fig. 1.3. Heat transfer from a hot surface to air by convection.

Despite the complexity of convection, the rate of convection heat transfer is observed
to be proportional to the temperature difference, and is conveniently expressed by
Newton’s law of cooling as (see Fig. 1.3):

𝑄𝑄̇𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = ℎ𝐴𝐴𝑠𝑠 (𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠 − 𝑇𝑇∞ ) (W) (1.5)

where h is the convection heat transfer coefficient in W/m2·°C (which is not a

thermodynamic property of the material, but may depend on geometry of surface, flow
characteristics, thermodynamic properties of the fluid, etc.), As is the surface area
through which convection heat transfer takes place, Ts is the surface temperature, and
𝑇𝑇∞ is the temperature of the fluid sufficiently far from the surface. Note that at the
surface, the fluid temperature equals the surface temperature of the solid.
∆𝑇𝑇 = 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠 − 𝑇𝑇∞ Temperature Difference between surface and coolant. (K)

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Table 2. Typical values of h (W/m2K)

Free convection

Forced convection

Boiling/Condensation 2500 ­100,000

1.3.3 Radiation: Radiation heat transfer involves the transfer of heat by

electromagnetic radiation that arises due to the temperature of the body.

Radiation is the energy emitted by matter in the form of electromagnetic waves (or
photons) as a result of the changes in the electronic configurations of the atoms or
molecules. Unlike conduction and convection, the transfer of energy by radiation does
not require the presence of an intervening medium, i.e. radiation does not need
matter. In fact, energy transfer by radiation is fastest (at the speed of light) and it
suffers no attenuation in a vacuum. This is how the energy of the sun reaches the
earth.
In heat transfer studies we are interested in thermal radiation, which is the form of
radiation emitted by bodies because of their temperature. It differs from other forms of
electromagnetic radiation such as x-rays, gamma rays, microwaves, radio waves, and
television waves that are not related to temperature. All bodies at a temperature above
absolute zero emit thermal radiation.

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Radiation is a volumetric phenomenon, and all solids, liquids, and gases emit, absorb,
or transmit radiation to varying degrees. However, radiation is usually considered to
be a surface phenomenon for solids that are opaque to thermal radiation such as
metals, wood, and rocks since the radiation emitted by the interior regions of such
material can never reach the surface, and the radiation incident on such bodies is
usually absorbed within a few microns from the surface.

The maximum rate of radiation that can be emitted from a surface at an absolute
temperature Ts (in K) is given by the Stefan–Boltzmann law as
𝑄𝑄̇𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒,𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 𝜎𝜎𝐴𝐴𝑠𝑠 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠4 (W/m2) (1.6)
The idealized surface that emits radiation at this maximum rate is called a blackbody,
and the radiation emitted by a blackbody is called blackbody radiation. The radiation
emitted by all real surfaces is less than the radiation emitted by a blackbody at the
same temperature, and is expressed as

𝑄𝑄̇𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 𝜎𝜎𝜀𝜀𝜀𝜀𝑠𝑠 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠4 (W/m2) (1.7)

where: 𝜀𝜀 = emissivity, which is a surface property whose value is in the range 0 ≤ 𝜀𝜀 ≤

1, is a measure of how closely a surface approximates a blackbody for which emissivity
is 1 (𝜀𝜀 = 1 is black body); σ = Steffan Boltzmann constant = 5.67 x 10­8 W/m2 K4;
Ts = Absolute temperature of the surface (K)

The difference between the rates of radiation emitted by the surface and the radiation
absorbed is the net radiation heat transfer. If the rate of radiation absorption is greater
than the rate of radiation emission, the surface is said to be gaining energy by
radiation. Otherwise, the surface is said to be losing energy by radiation. In general,
the determination of the net rate of heat transfer by radiation between two surfaces is
a complicated matter since it depends on the properties of the surfaces, their
orientation relative to each other, and the interaction of the medium between the
surfaces with radiation.

The above equation is derived from Stefan Boltzmann law, which describes a
gross heat emission rather than heat transfer. The expression for the actual

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radiation heat transfer rate between surfaces having arbitrary orientations can be
quite complex. However, when a surface of emissivity and surface area As at an
absolute temperature Ts is completely enclosed by a much larger (or black) surface
at absolute temperature Tsurr separated by a gas (such as air) that does not intervene
with radiation, the net rate of radiation heat transfer between these two surfaces is
given by (Fig. 1.3)

𝑄𝑄̇𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 = 𝜀𝜀𝜀𝜀𝜀𝜀(𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠4 − 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠

4 ) (1.8)

Fig. 1.4. Radiation heat transfer between a surface and the surfaces surrounding it.
Source: Cengel (2003)

where: ε = surface emissivity; A= surface area; Ts = Absolute temperature of

surface (K); Tsurr = absolute temperature of surroundings (K).

Radiation heat transfer to or from a surface surrounded by a gas such as air occurs
parallel to conduction (or convection, if there is bulk gas motion) between the surface
and the gas. Thus, the total heat transfer is determined by adding the contributions of
both heat transfer mechanisms. For simplicity and convenience, this is often done by
defining a combined heat transfer coefficient hcombined that includes the effects of
both convection and radiation. Then the total heat transfer rate to or from a surface by
convection and radiation is expressed as

𝑄𝑄̇𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 = ℎ 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝐴𝐴𝑠𝑠 (𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠 − 𝑇𝑇∞ ) (1.9)

It should be note that the combined heat transfer coefficient is essentially a convection
heat transfer coefficient modified to include the effects of radiation.

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1.4 Combined Mode of Heat Transfer (Simultaneous Heat Transfer

Mechanism)

We mentioned that there are three mechanisms or modes of heat transfer, but not all
three can exist simultaneously in a medium. For example, heat transfer is only by
conduction in opaque solids, but by conduction and radiation in semi-transparent
solids. Thus, a solid may involve conduction and radiation but not convection.
However, a solid may involve heat transfer by convection and/or radiation on its
surfaces exposed to a fluid or other surface. For example, the outer surfaces of a cold
piece of rock will warm up in a warmer environment as a result of heat gain by
convection (from the air) and radiation (from the sun or the warmer surrounding
surfaces). But the inner parts of the rock will warm up as this heat is transferred to the
inner region of the rock by conduction.

Heat transfer is by conduction and possibly by radiation in a still fluid (no bulk fluid
motion) and by convection and radiation in a flowing fluid. In the absence of radiation,
heat transfer through a fluid is either by conduction or convection, depending on the
presence of any bulk fluid motion. Convection can be viewed as combined conduction
and fluid motion, and conduction in a fluid can be viewed as a special case of
convection in the absence of any fluid motion (see Fig. 1.5).

Fig. 1.5: Although there are three mechanisms of heat transfer, a medium may
involve only two of them simultaneously. Source: Cengel and Ghajar (2015).

Thus, when we deal with heat transfer through a fluid, we have either conduction or
convection, but not both. Also, gases are practically transparent to radiation, except
that some gases are known to absorb radiation strongly at certain wavelengths.

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Ozone, for example, strongly absorbs ultraviolet radiation. But in most cases, a gas
between two solid surfaces does not interfere with radiation and acts effectively as a
vacuum. Liquids, on the other hand, are usually strong absorbers of radiation.

Finally, heat transfer through a vacuum is by radiation only since conduction or

convection requires the presence of a material medium (Yunus, et al. (2015).

1.5 Application Areas of Heat Transfer

Heat transfer is commonly encountered in engineering systems and other aspects of

life, and one does not need to go very far to see some application areas of heat
transfer. In fact, one does not need to go anywhere. The human body is constantly
rejecting heat to its surroundings, and human comfort is closely tied to the rate of this
heat rejection. We try to control this heat transfer rate by adjusting our clothing to the
environmental conditions.

Many ordinary household appliances are designed, in whole or in part, by using the
principles of heat transfer. Some examples include the electric or gas range, the
heating and air-conditioning system, the refrigerator and freezer, the water heater, the
iron, and even the computer, the TV, and the DVD player. Of course, energy-efficient
homes are designed on the basis of minimizing heat loss in winter and heat gain in
summer. Heat transfer plays a major role in the design of many other devices, such
as car radiators, solar collectors, various components of power plants, and even
spacecraft. The optimal insulation thickness in the walls and roofs of the houses, on
hot water or steam pipes, or on water heaters is again determined on the basis of a
heat transfer analysis with economic consideration (Yunus, et al. (2015).

1.6 Summary
In this unit, the basics of heat transfer are introduced and discussed. The science of
thermodynamics deals with the amount of heat transfer as a system undergoes a
process from one equilibrium state to another, whereas the science of heat transfer
deals with the rate of heat transfer, which is the main quantity of interest in the design
and evaluation of heat transfer equipment. Heat transfer is the exchange of the
sensible and latent forms of internal energy between two mediums as a result of a
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temperature difference. The amount of heat transferred per unit time is called heat
transfer rate and is denoted by 𝑄𝑄.̇ The rate of heat transfer per unit area is called heat
flux, 𝑞𝑞̇ .
Heat can be transferred in three different modes: conduction, convection, and
radiation. Conduction is the transfer of energy from the more energetic particles of a
substance to the adjacent less energetic ones as a result of interactions between the
particles and is expressed by Fourier’s law of heat conduction. Convection is the mode
of heat transfer between a solid surface and the adjacent liquid or gas that is in motion
and involves the combined effects of conduction and fluid motion. The rate of
convection heat transfer is expressed by Newton’s law of cooling. Radiation is the
energy emitted by matter in the form of electromagnetic waves (or photons) as a result
of the changes in the electronic configurations of the atoms or molecules.

1.7 Worked Examples

Problem 1
Air flows over a rectangular plate having dimensions 0.5 m x 0.25 m. The free
stream temperature of the air is 300°C. At steady state, the plate temperature
is 40C. If the convective heat transfer coefficient is 250 W/m2.K, determine the
heat transfer rate from the air to one side of the plate.

Known: air flow over a plate with prescribed air and surface temperature and
convection heat transfer coefficient.

Find: heat transfer rate from the air to the plate

Schematic:

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Assumptions: (1) temperature is uniform over plate area, (2) heat transfer
coefficient is uniform over plate area
Analysis: the heat transfer coefficient rate by convection from the airstreams to
the plate can be determined from Newton’s law of cooling written in the form,

𝑄𝑄̇𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 𝑄𝑄. 𝐴𝐴 = ℎ𝐴𝐴(𝑇𝑇∞ − 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠 )

where A is the area of the plate. Substituting numerical values,

𝑊𝑊
𝑄𝑄̇𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = �250 . 𝐾𝐾 � (0.25 𝑚𝑚 𝑥𝑥 0.50 𝑚𝑚)(300℃ − 40℃) = 8125 𝑊𝑊
𝑚𝑚2

Problem 2
A sphere of diameter 10 mm and emissivity 0.9 is maintained at 80°C inside an
oven with a wall temperature of 400°C. What is the net transfer rate from the
oven walls to the object?

Known: spherical object maintained at a prescribed temperature within a oven.

Find: heat transfer rate from the oven walls to the object

Schematic:

Assumptions: (1) oven walls completely surround spherical object, (2)

steady­state condition, (3) uniform temperature for areas of sphere and oven walls,
(4) oven enclosure is evacuated and large compared to sphere.

Analysis: heat transfer rate will be only due to the radiation mode. The rate equation
is
𝑄𝑄̇𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 = 𝜀𝜀𝜀𝜀𝐴𝐴𝑠𝑠 (𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠4 − 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
4 )

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where 𝐴𝐴𝑠𝑠 = 𝜋𝜋𝐷𝐷2 , the area of the sphere

𝑊𝑊
𝑄𝑄̇𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 = (0.9) �5.67 𝑥𝑥 10−8 �(𝜋𝜋0.012 𝑚𝑚2 ) [(400 + 273)4 − (80 + 273)4 ]𝐾𝐾4 = 3.04 𝑊𝑊
𝑚𝑚2 . 𝐾𝐾 4

Problem 3
A surface of area 0.5 m2, emissivity 0.8 and temperature 1500C is placed in a
large, evacuated chamber whose walls are maintained at 25 0C. Find the rate at
which radiation is emitted by the surface? What is the net rate of radiation
exchange between the surface and the chamber walls?

Known: Area, emissivity and temperature of a surface placed in a large,

evacuated chamber of prescribed temperature.

Find: (a) rate of surface radiation emission, (b) net rate of radiation exchange
between the surface and chamber walls.

Schematic:

Assumptions: (1) area of the enclosed surface is much less than that of chamber
walls.

Analysis:
(a) the rate at which radiation is emitted by the surface is
𝑄𝑄̇𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 𝑄𝑄𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 . 𝐴𝐴 = 𝜎𝜎𝜎𝜎𝜎𝜎𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠4
𝑊𝑊
𝑄𝑄̇𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = �5.67 𝑥𝑥 10−8 � (0.5 𝑚𝑚2 )(0.8)[(150 + 273) 4 𝐾𝐾 4 ] = 726 𝑊𝑊
𝑚𝑚2 . 𝐾𝐾4

(b) The net rate at which radiation is transferred from the surface to

the chamber walls is

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Applied Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer THT3701

𝑄𝑄̇𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 = 𝜀𝜀𝜀𝜀𝐴𝐴𝑠𝑠 (𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠4 − 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠

4 )

𝑊𝑊
𝑄𝑄̇𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 = (0.8) �5.67 𝑥𝑥 10−8 �(0.5 𝑚𝑚2 ) [(423)4 − (298)4 ]𝐾𝐾 4 = 547 𝑊𝑊
𝑚𝑚2 .𝐾𝐾 4

Problem 4

Consider a person standing in a room at 18°C. Determine the total rate of heat transfer
from this person if the exposed surface area and the skin temperature of the person
are 1.7 m2 and 32°C, respectively, and the convection heat transfer coefficient is 5
W/m2.°C. Take the emissivity of the skin and the clothes to be 0.9 and assume the
temperature of the inner surfaces of the room to be the same as the air temperature.
Solution:

The total rate of heat transfer from a person by both convection and radiation to the
surrounding air and surfaces at specified temperatures is to be determined.
Assumptions 1 Steady operating conditions Tsurr

exist. 2 The person is completely surrounded by 18°C

the interior surfaces of the room. 3 The

Qrad
surrounding surfaces are at the same
32°C
temperature as the air in the room. 4 Heat
Qconv
conduction to the floor through the feet is
negligible. 5 The convection coefficient is
constant and uniform over the entire surface of
the person.

Properties The emissivity of a person is given

to be ε = 0.9.

Analysis The person is completely enclosed by

the surrounding surfaces, and he or she will lose
heat to the surrounding air by convection and to
the surrounding surfaces by radiation. The total
rate of heat loss from the person is determined
from
Q rad = εσAs (Ts4 − Tsurr
4
) = (0.90)(5.67 × 10 −8 W/m 2 .K 4 )(1.7 m 2 )[(32 + 273) 4 − (18 + 273) 4 ]K 4 = 128.6 W

Q conv = hAs ∆T = (5 W/m 2 ⋅ K)(1.7 m 2 )(32 − 18)°C = 119 W

and

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Applied Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer THT3701

Q total = Q conv + Q rad = 128.6 + 119 = 247.6 W

Problem 5

The inner and outer surfaces of a 5-m x 6-m brick wall of thickness 30 cm and thermal
conductivity 0.69 W/m·°C are maintained at temperatures of 26°C and 8°C,
respectively. Determine the rate of heat transfer through the wall, in W.

Brick wall

30 cm

26°C 8°C

Solution

The inner and outer surfaces of a brick wall are maintained

at specified temperatures. The rate of heat transfer through Brick wall
the wall is to be determined.
Assumptions 1 Steady operating conditions exist since
the surface temperatures of the wall remain constant at the 0.3 m

specified values. 2 Thermal properties of the wall are 26°C 8°C

constant.

Properties The thermal conductivity of the wall is given to be k = 0.69 W/m⋅°C.

Analysis Under steady conditions, the rate of heat transfer through the wall is
𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥 (26−8)°𝐶𝐶
𝑄𝑄̇cond = 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 = (0.69  W/m ⋅ °𝐶𝐶)(5 × 6  m2 ) = 1242 𝑊𝑊
𝐿𝐿 0.3  𝑚𝑚

Problem 6

The inner and outer surfaces of a 0.5-cm-thick 2-m x 2-m window glass in winter are
10°C and 3°C, respectively. If the thermal conductivity of the glass is 0.78 W/m · °C,
determine the amount of heat loss, in kJ, through the glass over a period of 5 hours.
What would your answer be if the glass were 1 cm thick?
Solution

The inner and outer surfaces of a window glass are maintained at specified
temperatures. The amount of heat transfer through the glass in 5 h is to be determined.

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Applied Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer THT3701

Assumptions 1 Steady operating conditions exist since the surface temperatures of

the glass remain constant at the specified values. 2 Thermal properties of the glass
are constant.
Glass
Properties The thermal conductivity of the glass is given

to be k = 0.78 W/m⋅°C.

Analysis Under steady conditions, the rate of heat

transfer through the glass by conduction is 10°C 3°C

∆T (10 − 3)°C 0.5 cm

Q cond = kA = (0.78 W/m ⋅ °C)(2 × 2 m 2 ) = 4368 W
L 0.005m

Then the amount of heat transfer over a period of 5 h becomes

Q = Q cond ∆t = (4.368 kJ/s)(5 × 3600 s) = 78,620 kJ

If the thickness of the glass doubled to 1 cm, then the amount of heat transfer will go
down by half to 39,310 kJ.
Problem 7

(a) Air at 20°C blows over a hot plate 50 by 75 cm maintained at 250°C. The convection
heat-transfer coefficient is 25 W/m2·°C. Calculate the heat transfer.
(b) Assuming that the plate in 7(a) above is made of carbon steel (1%) 2 cm thick and
that 300 W is lost from the plate surface by radiation, calculate the inside plate
temperature. Take thermal conductivity as 43 W/m.°C.

Solution

(a) From Newton’s law of cooling:

𝑄𝑄̇𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = ℎ𝐴𝐴𝑠𝑠 (𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠 − 𝑇𝑇∞ ) = (25)(0.50)(250 − 20) = 2156 𝑊𝑊

(b) The heat conducted through the plate must be equal to the sum of convection and
radiation heat losses:
𝑄𝑄̇𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 𝑄𝑄̇𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 + 𝑄𝑄̇𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟

∆𝑇𝑇
−𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
= 2.156 + 0.3 = 2.456 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
∆𝑥𝑥
(−2456)(0.02)
∆𝑇𝑇 = = −3.05℃
(0.5)(0.75)(43)
The inside plate temperature is therefore:
𝑇𝑇𝑖𝑖 = 250 + 3.05 = 253.05℃

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Applied Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer THT3701

Problem 8
A horizontal steel pipe having a diameter of 5 cm is maintained at a temperature of
50°C in a large room where the air and wall temperature are at 20°C. The surface
emissivity of the steel may be taken as 0.8. Using the data of table below, calculate
the total heat lost by the pipe per unit length.

Approximate values of convection heat-transfer coefficients. Source: Holman,

2010

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Applied Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer THT3701

Solution

The total heat loss is the sum of convection and radiation. From Table we see that an
estimate for the heat-transfer coefficient for free convection with this geometry and air
is h = 6.5W/m2·°C.
The surface area is πdL, so the convection loss per unit length is
𝑄𝑄̇
� � = ℎ(𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 )(𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠 − 𝑇𝑇∞ ) = (6.5)(𝜋𝜋)(0.05)(50 − 20) = 30.63 𝑊𝑊/𝑚𝑚
𝐿𝐿 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐

The pipe is a body surrounded by a large enclosure so the radiation heat transfer can
be calculated from Equation (1.8). With T1 = 50°C = 323 K and T2 = 20°C = 293 K, we
have
𝑄𝑄̇
� � = 𝜀𝜀𝜀𝜀𝐴𝐴𝑠𝑠 (𝑇𝑇14 − 𝑇𝑇24 ) = (0.8)(𝜋𝜋)(0.05)(5.67 𝑥𝑥 10 −8 )(3234 − 2934 ) = 25.04 𝑊𝑊/𝑚𝑚
𝐿𝐿 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟

The total heat loss is therefore

𝑄𝑄̇ 𝑄𝑄̇
𝑄𝑄̇𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 = � � + � � = 30.63 + 25.04 = 55.67 𝑊𝑊/𝑚𝑚
𝐿𝐿 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝐿𝐿 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟

1.8 Revision Questions

1.1 Write down the expressions for the physical laws that govern each mode of heat
transfer, and identify the variables involved in each relation.
1.2 Define thermal conductivity and explain its significance in heat transfer.
1.3 What are the mechanisms of heat transfer? How are they distinguished from each
other?
1.4 What is the physical mechanism of heat conduction in a solid, a liquid, and a gas?
1.5 Consider two walls of a house that are identical except that one is made of 10-cm-
thick wood, while the other is made of 25-cm-thick brick. Through which wall will the
house lose more heat in winter?
1.5 One face of a copper plate 3 cm thick is maintained at 400°C, and the other face
is maintained at 100°C. How much heat is transferred through the plate? 3.7 MW/m2.
1.6 An electric current is passed through a wire 1 mm in diameter and 10 cm long. The
wire is submerged in liquid water at atmospheric pressure, and the current is increased
until the water boils. For this situation h = 5000W/m2.°C, and the water temperature

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Applied Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer THT3701

will be 100°C. How much electric power must be supplied to the wire to maintain the
wire surface at 114°C? 21.99 W
1.7 Two infinite black plates at 800°C and 300°C exchange heat by radiation. Calculate
the heat transfer per unit area. 69.03 kW/m2
1.8 A horizontal steel pipe having a diameter of 5 cm is maintained at a temperature
of 50°C in a large room where the air and wall temperature are at 20°C. The surface
emissivity of the steel may be taken as 0.8. Using the data of Table below, calculate
the total heat lost by the pipe per unit length.

1.9 References

Cengel, YA . 2003. Heat and mass transfer – fundamentals & applications. 2nd edition.
McGraw Hill Education.

Cengel, YA & Ghajar, AJ. 2015. Heat and mass transfer – fundamentals &
applications. 5th edition. McGraw Hill Education.

Mills, AF. 2014. Basic heat and mass transfer. Pearson new international edition.
Pearson Education Limited.

Holman, J.P. Heat transfer. 2010. 10th edition. McGraw Hill Higher Education.

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