Low Voltage Circuit Breakers

Arc flash hazards

 Index
Low voltage selectivity with ABB circuit breakers

Introduction........................................................................................................ 2
Definitions, acronyms and terms used................................................................ 3
Electrical arcs and their dangerous effects on people.......................................... 4
Reference standards.......................................................................................... 5
Arc flash hazard analysis..................................................................................... 6
Minimize arc flash effects.................................................................................... 8
ABB solutions..................................................................................................... 9
Annex A: Arc flash hazard (mathematical approach).......................................... 12

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Introduction

Scope Basic Concepts:

There are essential requirements for electrical safety. Both What is an Arc Flash? According to NFPA 70E (the relevant
domestic and international standards refer to steps and standard from the National Fire Protection Association), Arc
procedures to be taken for protection against hazards from Flash is a “dangerous condition associated with the release
electrical equipment. In particular, high temperatures and of energy caused by an electrical arc.” It is measured in
electrical arcs or arc flash can cause catastrophic dam- terms of arc flash incident energy E (AFIE), which is used to
age. This document illustrates the approach taken in the determine the level of Personal Protective Equipment (PPE),
United States to safeguard against the hazards derived from and in terms of an arc flash protection boundary (FPB).
electrical arcs and their effects on human beings. It also Arc Flash Hazard is the term used to define the danger to
sums up the recommendations of the US standards for all people working on live parts.
personnel working on live electrical equipment.
The Arc Flash Hazard Analysis defines the procedures
which limit the damage of electrical arcs on personnel and,
by measuring the released energy, defines the risk areas
and determines the relevant level of the personal protective
equipment (PPE).
An electrical arc occurs whenever there is a loss of insula-
tion between two conductive objects at sufficient potential
(voltage). Near high power electrical equipment, such as
transformers, service entrance switchgear or generators,
the short-circuit power available is high and consequently
so is the energy associated with the electrical arc in case of
a fault.
The energy released by the arc due to a fault creates a
rise in the temperature and pressure in the surrounding
area. This causes mechanical and thermal stress to nearby
equipment and creates the potential for serious injuries in
the vicinity.

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 Definitions, acronyms and terms used

Arc Flash Arc fault

Dangerous condition associated with the release of energy Short-circuit current resulting from conductors at different
caused by an electrical arc. voltages making less than solid contact. Results in a rela-
Arc Flash Hazards tively high resistance connection compared to a bolted fault.
Dangerous conditions deriving from the release of energy Bolted fault
due to a phase-to-phase or a phase-to-ground fault. Addi- Short-circuit current resulting from conductors at different
tionally, the arc flash analysis aimed at defining the proce- voltages becoming solidly connected together.
dures necessary to minimize the dangerous effects of the Arcing current Ia
arc flash on personnel.
Current flowing through the electric arc plasma, also called
NFPA arc fault current or arc current.
National Fire Protection Association; a voluntary member- Normalized incident energy En
ship organization whose aims are to promote and improve
The amount of energy measured on a surface, at 24”
fire protection and prevention.
(610mm) from the source, generated during an electrical arc
PPE event of 0.2s.
Personal Protective Equipment; safety devices or safe- Incident energy E
guards worn by personnel to protect against environmental
The amount of energy measured on a surface, a certain
hazards. PPE includes helmets, safety goggles, hearing
distance from the source, generated during an electrical arc
protection, face shields, respirators, arm guards, smocks,
event.
gloves, and safety boots.
Curable burn
OSHA
A burn that will not cause irreversible tissue damage. This
Occupational Safety and Health Administration; US De-
is a second degree burn where the skin temperature does
partment of Labor. OSHA develops and enforces federal
not exceed 350°F (175°C) with a duration no longer than
standards for occupational safety and health.
0.1 second and is curable in 7 to 10 days.
IEEE
Clearing time
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers. An Ameri-
The total time between the beginning of the overcurrent
can based global non-profit professional organization active
and the final opening of the circuit at rated voltage by an
in areas ranging from computers and telecommunications
overcurrent protective device
to biomedical engineering, electric power and consumer
electronics among others. Limited Approach Boundary
NEC An electrical shock protection boundary to be crossed by
qualified personnel only (distance from live parts), not to
National Electrical Code. A set of regulations pertaining to
be crossed by unqualified personnel unless escorted by a
electrical installation and design in the interest of the protec-
qualified person.
tion of life and property for the United States. Published
biennially by the NFPA, (NFPA 70). Restricted Approach Boundary
Arc rating An electrical shock protection boundary to be crossed by
qualified personnel only which, due to its proximity to a
Maximum resistance of a determined material to the inci-
shock hazard, requires the use of shock protection tech-
dent energy.
niques and equipment when crossed.
Flash protection boundary
Prohibited Approach Boundary
The distance from exposed conductive parts, within which
A shock protection boundary to be crossed by qualified
a person could receive a second degree burn in case of an
personnel only which, when crossed by a body part or
arc fault
object, requires the same protection as if direct contact is
made with a live part.

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Electrical arcs and their dangerous effects on people

The arc formation in a cubicle can be described in 4 The faults that may occur in electrical switchgear are pri-
phases: marily:
1. Compression phase: the volume of the air where the • phase-to-ground fault;
arc develops is overheated due to the release of energy. • phase-to-phase fault.
The remaining volume of air inside the cubicle heats up
A three-phase fault is less common, but it is necessary to
from convection and radiation. Initially there are different
remember that phase-to-ground and phase-to-phase faults
temperatures and pressures from one zone to another;
may rapidly evolve into a three-phase fault.
2. Expansion phase: from the first instant of internal
Both types of fault may be caused by accidental contact of
pressure increase, a hole is formed through which the
a person or a tool with live parts.
superheated air begins to escape. The pressure reaches
its maximum value and starts to decrease from the The physical effects of an arc flash are:
release of hot air; • pressure wave in the environment where the arc is
3. Emission phase: due to continued contribution of generated;
energy by the arc, nearly all the superheated air is forced • heating of the materials coming into touch with the arc
out by an almost constant overpressure; flash;
4. Thermal phase: after the expulsion of the air, the tem- • potentially harmful light and sound.
perature inside the switchgear nears that of the electri- Personnel hazards due to the release of energy generated
cal arc. This final phase lasts until the arc is quenched, by an arc event may include:
when all the metals and the insulating materials coming • burns;
into contact undergo erosion with production of gas,
fumes and molten material. • injuries due to ejection of materials;
Should the electrical arc occur in an open configuration • damage to hearing and to eye-sight;
some of the described phases might not be present or have • inhalation of toxic gases
less effect; however, there will always be a pressure wave Burns
and a rise in temperature in the zones surrounding the arc.
The high temperature levels of the gases produced by the
Most faults occur during switchgear maintenance or during electrical arc and the expulsion of incandescent metal par-
manual operation of the equipment (eg: racking in/out of ticles may result in severe burns.
withdrawable equipment). Under these circumstances, not
Flames can cause all types of burns, up to carbonization:
only are personnel in front of the switchgear, and conse-
the red-hot solid metal fragments can cause third degree
quently likely to be engulfed by the electrical arc, but the
burns, superheated steam causes burns similar to hot
fault is very often caused by the operations carried out
liquids and the radiant heat generally causes less severe
(closing a circuit breaker under short-circuit, dropping a
burns.
tool on live bus bars, etc.).
Being in the proximity of an electrical arc is extremely dan- Injuries due to ejected materials
gerous: The ejection of metal particles or other loose items caused
• Pressure: at a distance of 24” (61cm) from an electrical by the electric arc can result in severe injuries to the most
arc associated with a 22 kA arcing fault a person can sensitive parts of the human body, like the eyes. The materi-
be subject to a force of 500lb (225kg); furthermore, als expelled due to the explosion produced by the arc may
the sudden pressure wave may cause rupture of the penetrate the cornea. The extent of the lesions depends on
eardrums or permanent injuries; the characteristics and kinetic energy of these objects.
• Temperatures of an arc can reach about 34,232 ºF Also, the eye area can sustain injuries to the mucosa, such
(19,000°C; the surface of the Sun is 6,000°C) as the cornea or retina, because of the gases released by
the arc and the emission of ultraviolet and infrared rays.
• Sound: electrical arc sound levels can reach 160 db, (a
jet engine at 100’ (30m) is 140 db). Hearing
The electrical arc lasts until the opening of the overcurrent As already mentioned, the electric arc is a true explosion,
protective device on the supply side of the electrical arc. whose sound may cause permanent hearing loss.
Inhalation of toxic gases
The fumes produced by burnt insulating materials and
molten or vaporized metals can be toxic. These fumes are
caused by incomplete burning and are formed by carbon
particles and by other solid substances suspended in the air.
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 Reference standards

The Standards dealing with prevention of arc flash effects The standards give the following guidelines:
are: • defining a safety program with clear responsibilities;
• OSHA 29 Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) Part 1910 • procedures for arc flash hazard assessment;
Subpart S,
• defining appropriate personal protective equipment
• NFPA 70-2008 National Electrical Code, (PPE) to be provided for the employees;
• NFPA 70E-2009 Standard for Electrical Safety Require- • training program for the employees regarding arc flash
ments for Employee Workplaces, hazards;
• IEEE Standard 1584-2008 Guide for Performing Arc • choosing suitable tools for a safe workplace;
Flash Hazard Calculations.
• labeling equipment; labels shall be placed on the
The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) equipment by the plant owner and not by the manufac-
regulates workers’ safety and health and has asked the turer. The labels shall indicate the minimum protective
National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) to prepare a distance, the energy level which can be released and
standard to safeguard employees working in the proximity required personal protective equipment (PPE).
of energized electrical equipment (NFPA 70E). OSHA is not
obliged to comply with NFPA 70E, but does recognize it as
a standard for industrial applications. OSHA Standards require circuits to be de-energized prior
OSHA 29 CFR requires that employers assess the arc flash to work on them unless de-energizing introduces additional
hazard (CFR 1910.132). Should this hazard be present or hazards or is unfeasible. Some examples include de-ener-
likely in determined areas, the standard itself requires the gizing emergency lighting, which might increase health and
use of suitable personal protective equipment (clothing and safety hazards, or the performance of a particular test that
tools), which personnel shall wear within certain boundaries. requires the equipment be energized.
If the requirements of NFPA 70E standard are applied, com- Therefore if personnel worked on a completely de-energized
pliance with OSHA 29 CFR is guaranteed. switchboard and no operations were performed manually,
no arc flash hazard would be present.
The NEC (NFPA 70) concerns electrical installations and
personnel health and safety in general, whereas NFPA 70E Of course, this can rarely be achieved, so a detailed assess-
is a document that is specifically for people working on ment of the incident energy is required. Based on this analy-
electrical devices. sis, the appropriate personnel protective equipment can be
provided and the limited approach boundaries defined.
These standards require:
• to assess whether there are arc flash hazards (if the
electrical equipment was de-energized, for example,
the hazard would not be present);
• to calculate the energy released by the arc, if present;
• to determine the flash protection boundary;
• to provide appropriate personal protective equipment
(PPE) for the personnel working within the flash protec-
tion boundary;
• to appropriately label the equipment. These warn-
ing labels are placed on the equipment by the plant
owner and not by the manufacturer. The labels shall
indicate the minimum protective distance, the energy
level which can be released and the required personal
protective equipment (PPE).

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Arc flash hazard analysis

To perform the arc flash hazard analysis, the following de- • the risk category of the PPE to be used within the flash
tails of the electrical installation are required: protection boundary.
• short-circuit power at the supply point or short-circuit Ik Dc
current and voltage values; Short Arc Flash Risk category
circuit Hazard analysis & protective
• ratings of any possible power transformer; current boundary
• single line diagram;
NFPA 70E defines six flash hazard risk categories and the
• size and length of cables;
requirements of the PPE to be used according to the arc
• protective equipment scheme used. rating, i.e. to the maximum resistance of a determined ma-
Then: terial to the incident energy.
1. the short-circuit currents are calculated; Outside the area limited by the flash protection boundary, a
2. the risk area and the energy released by the arc (the person would sustain no more than a curable burn (second
formulas are given by NFPA and IEEE) are calculated; these degree burns or less). The maximum incident energy caus-
values depend on the trip time of the protection functions ing curable burns has been measured in 1.2 cal/cm2 (5 J/
and on the short-circuit values; cm2). As a result, within the flash protection boundary, the
level of PPE required reduces the incident energy on the
3. the risk category is defined to determine the minimum
human body to quantities lower than this value.
requirements for the personal protective equipment (PPE).
After calculation of the flash protection boundary Dc and of
To summarize:
the incident energy E within the area, the appropriate level
Arc flash analysis input: of personal protective equipment (PPE) shall be used.
• short-circuit current value for bolted fault Ik; As the risk category rises, so does the cost of protective
• protective equipment scheme. clothing. More importantly, this clothing may be uncomfort-
Arc flash analysis output: able and awkward, making work more difficult and subject
• the flash protection boundary Dc, the distance from live to mistakes.
parts within which a person could receive a second In summary the arc flash hazard analysis is calculated using
degree burn, if an electrical arc were to occur; the short-circuit level present in the network and the specific
• the incident energy E protective and switching devices to be installed. The use
of a circuit breaker with faster opening times reduces the

Table 1
Flash Hazard Risk Range of Calculated Incident Energy Min. PPE Rating
Clothing Required
Category [cal/cm2] [cal/cm2]
0 0 ≤ E ≤ 1.2 N/A 4.5-14.0 oz/yd2 untreated cotton
1 1.2 < E ≤ 4 4 Flame Retardant (FR) shirt and pants
2 4<E≤8 8 Cotton underclothing plus FR shirt and pants
3 8 < E ≤ 25 25 Cotton underclothing plus FR shirt, pants, over-
alls or equivalent
4 25 < E ≤ 40 40 Cotton underclothing plus FR shirt, pants, plus
double layer switching coat and pants or equiva-
lent
5 40 < E ≤ 100 100 Cotton underclothing plus FR shirt, pants, plus
multi-layer switching suit or equivalent

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 Arc flash hazard analysis

amount of available energy, which reduces the cost of per-

sonal protective equipment. The smaller amount of released
energy, the more economical the PPE.

NFPA 70E and IEEE 1584 Standards provide the formulas

for calculation of the flash protection boundary Dc and the
incident energy E, which defines the minimum PPE require-
ments. These formulas can be simplified as follows:
Dc = f(Ibf, t)
E = f(Ibf, t)
Ia = f(Ibf)
where:
• Ia is the current which flows in the electrical arc (which is
lower than the bolted fault current), called arcing current;
• Ibf is the current calculated by short-circuit analysis,
called the bolted fault current;
• t is the clearing time and is obtained by the trip curves The choice of protection devices with fast tripping times
corresponding to current Ia. reduces the incident energy and consequently the PPE
category and the relevant costs.
NOTE: t is the clearing time corresponding to Ia (arcing cur-
rent), not the time corresponding to Ibf (bolted fault) However, this often clashes with the requirement for selec-
tive coordination in which the tripping time is necessarily
Once the incident energy has been calculated, the risk cat-
high, in order to clear the fault.
egory is defined in Table 1.
While the flash hazard analysis is performed primarily to
The incident energy E depends on the tripping time of the
determine the risk areas, it can also improve the choice of
protection device, which is dependent on its settings.
the protective and switching devices. The use of a circuit
breaker with fast trip times reduces the incident energy, as
the examples on the following pages demonstrate.

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Minimize arc flash effects

The standards state that before working on electrical equip- • Circuit breakers with fast tripping times: a fast trip
ment, the equipment must be de-energized. This solution may clash with the selectivity requirements; typically
eliminates arc flash hazard but is sometimes difficult to the nearer to the supply source the circuit breaker is,
apply. the higher the trip times shall be set. Also, the higher
To minimize the arc flash effects, it is necessary to limit the the short-circuit power, the higher the requirement for
energy released so that personnel are not in harm’s way. service continuity, as in the main circuit breaker;
Measures may be divided into passive measures and active • Zone selectivity: this co-ordination type allows setting of
measures. Passive measures limit the effects of the incident a fast trip time only for the circuit breaker immediately
energy, such as distance and barriers. Active measures upstream of the fault. Thus it is possible to achieve a
limit the incident energy level. high selective coordination while keeping a fast trip;
Passive measures • Choosing ‘fast’ setting values for maintenance opera-
tions only: the ‘dual setting’ function of the ABB Emax
Passive measures can be barriers or procedures:
allows adoption of two different parameter sets. Nor-
• Arc-proof switchgear: designed to direct the arc energy mally the settings can comply with the selectivity limits,
to vent out the top of the switchgear, and limit the en- trip thresholds and times. During maintenance opera-
ergy directed to the front; tions, a command can be sent to the trip unit so that it
• Remote control operation of protection and switching switches to the ‘fast’ setting mode and operates more
devices; keep personnel at a safe distance from the safely.
equipment; In particular, with ABB circuit breakers it is possible to limit
• Closed door racking-in/out of the withdrawable circuit released energy by:
breakers: ABB Emax circuit breakers allow closed door • Choosing protective devices with fast trip times; keep-
operations and have their primary connections isolated ing in mind that shorter trip times may interfere with
by shutters; selectivity requirements;
• Remote or longer operating mechanisms so that • Using zone selectivity; zone selectivity allows the set-
racking-in/out operations can be carried out at a safe ting of a faster time only for the circuit breaker im-
distance; mediately upstream of the fault. Thus, it is possible to
• Barriers between personnel and equipment during achieve a high level of selective co-ordination and keep
racking-in/out or opening/closing operations; fast tripping;
• Reduction of the short-circuit current by disconnection • Using dual settings: this function allows two different
of unnecessary power supply sources: for example, parameters to be set. Under normal conditions, the
disconnecting parallel transformers and opening bus settings allow standard selectivity, trip thresholds and
ties; times. During maintenance, a command is sent to the
• Remote control devices for racking-in/out of the circuit trip unit so that it switches to the ‘fast’ setting and
breaker at a safe distance. operates more safely.
Active measures The choice of the protective device depends on the sys-
tem requirements. Circuit breakers equipped with high
The passive measures described above might not be ad- performance trip units (Table 2) allow a low risk category to
equate with a high available short-circuit current; limiting the be obtained and at
time of the energy release becomes necessary. In order to the same time high
reduce the released energy, the following measures can be selectivity levels.
taken:

Table 2
PR223EF
PR122 PR123 PR332 PR333
(IEC only)
Zone selective ● ● ● ● ●
Dual setting — — ● — ●

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 ABB Solutions

Here are some examples showing how the choice of protective

devices and coordination type can affect the risk category.
Time-current selectivity
In the scheme below, thanks to the settings of the circuit break-
ers, ‘economical’ time-current selectivity can be achieved.

Time current curve

1000s
U n = 480 V
u k = 5%
E4 1a lbf
E4 100s

E3
Ib f = 48.11 kA

10s

E3

1s

0.1s

1kA 10kA 100kA 1000kA

E4H 3200 PR122/P-LSI In=3200A 4p: Zone selectivity

L: I1: 0.85 t1: 102s Zone selectivity allows the fault area to be precisely
S: t=const I2: 5.4 t2: 0.14s identified and de-energized.
I: - off When current values exceed the protective setting, a
block signal is sent to the upstream protective device
E3N 2500 PR122/P-LI In=2500A 4p
and verifies that a similar block signal has not been
L: I1: 0.80 t1: 36s sent to the downstream protection before tripping,
I: I3: 8.00 insuring only the protective device on the supply side
To achieve selectivity, function I of the upstream circuit breaker of the fault trips.
shall be set to OFF and a minimum time of 0.14s shall be set for This selectivity allows faster tripping times than time-
function S. current selective coordination as it is unnecessary to
By using the formulas of the standards, the following results are increase the time delay closer to the supply source.
obtained: The circuit breaker which does not receive the block
Dc = 4.21ft = 1.29m signal trips quicker.
Ia = 23.30 kA Applying zone selectivity to the previous example, the
supply side circuit breaker (E4) trips in a short time
E = 8.83cal / cm2 (called selectivity time, adjustable from 0.04 to 0.2s)
With reference to Table 1, a PPE of category 3 shall be used. only if the fault occurs immediately on its load side,
This example shows that the choice of time-current selective co- otherwise it remains blocked.
ordination actually results in a cost increase because it requires a
high PPE category.

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ABB Solutions

Time current curve

1000s

E4 1a lbf
100s

E3

10s

1s

0.1s
Zone selectivity

1kA 10kA 100kA 1000kA

By setting the selectivity time at 0.07s, the following values Dual settings
are obtained: The PR123 and PR333 trip units for Emax air circuit breaker
Dc = 2.72ft = 0.83m can store two parameter sets A and B for each protective
Ia = 23.30 kA function. These two sets can be switched alternately by
an external device. The switching command can be given
E = 3.67cal / cm2
whenever the installation requirements demand it (for ex-
Thanks to the faster tripping time, a PPE of category 1 is ample if the network configuration is modified) or for mainte-
sufficient. nance requirements of the switchboard.
The use of zone selectivity allows a lower risk category solu- The following example shows how the two parameter sets
tion, while maintaining high selective coordination. A and B can be adjusted so that set A can be used under
normal conditions to achieve selective coordination and
set B when maintenance operations are carried out on the
switchboard to insure a fast trip time under fault conditions.

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 ABB Solutions

Time current curve - Set A Time current curve - Set B

1000s 1000s

E4 1a lbf
100s 100s
E3

10s 10s

1s 1s

0.1s 0.1s

1kA 10kA 100kA 1000kA 1kA 10kA 100kA 1000kA

E4H 3200 PR122/P-LSI In=3200A 4P E4H 3200 PR122/P-LSI In=3200A 4P

L: I1: 0.85 t1: 102s L: I1: 0.85 t1: 3s
S: t=const I2: 5.4 t2: 0.14s S: t=const I2: 1.5 t2: 0.05s
I: off I: off

Set A allows time-current selectivity, whereas Set B adopts the minimum setting values of the protection functions L and S
and allows the following calculation:
Dc = 2.52ft = 0.77m
Ia = 23.30 kA
E = 3.15cal / cm2
The risk category is equal to 1.

Summary table
Time-current selectivity Zone selectivity Dual setting
Dc 1.29 m 0.83 m 0.77 m
E 8.83 cal/cm2 3.67 cal/cm2 3.15 cal/cm2
PPE Category 3 1 1
additional wiring NO YES NO
PR122 or PR123 upstream and
ABB trip unit required PR121 or PR122 or PR123 PR123
downstream
Loss of coordination during
NO NO possible
maintenance operations
selectivity time needs to
switching from set A to set
long trip times for multi-tiered take into consideration any
Notes B can be automatic and/or
selectivity chains downstream CB without zone
remotely operated
selectivity

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Annex A: Arc flash hazard (mathematical approach)

A.1 Arc flash hazard analysis IEEE 1584 gives the formula to calculate the arcing current
The arc flash hazard analysis is the process to determine Ia; for voltage values lower than 1000V:
the risk category, the level of the PPE required and to define Log(Ia)=K+0.662•Log(Ibf)+0.0966•U+0.000526•G+0.5588•U•
all the measures for minimizing personnel exposure to haz- Log(Ibf)-0.00304•G•Log(Ibf)
ardous conditions. This analysis requires knowledge of the Ia = 10Log(Ia)
short-circuit currents and the clearing time of the protective
devices used or to be used. where:
The necessary formulas to perform this analysis are below. • Ia is arcing current in kA;
• K is a constant equal to :
A.2 Calculation of the flash protection boundary
-0.153 for open systems;
Dc (NFPA 70E 130.3(A))
-0.097 for enclosed systems;
The flash protection boundary, indicated by Dc, is the dis-
tance from exposed live parts within which a person could • Ibf is the short-circuit current rms value in kA for bolted
receive a second-degree burn if an electric arc flash were to fault;
occur. It can be set at a certain value under standard condi- • U is the rated voltage of the system in kV;
tions or it can be calculated. • G is the distance between the conductors in mm, see
NFPA70E states that the flash protection boundary Dc can Table 4 of IEEE 1584;
be fixed at 4 ft (1.22 m) under the following conditions: Once the current Ia is known, the tripping time of the pro-
• Un ≤ 600 V; tective device can be determined. This time depends on the
• Ibf = 50 kA (bolted fault) of 50 kA; protective device used and is derived from the trip curves
given by the manufacturer in correspondence with the arc-
• Tripping time of 6 cycles (0.1s at 60 Hz);
ing current, and not with the bolted fault current.
This boundary can also be calculated using the combination
To determine the incident energy, first calculate the normal-
‘current x cycle’ of a 300 kA cycle (in this example a 20 kA
ized incident energy En at a distance of 24” (610mm) for an
fault extinguished in 0.25 s, which corresponds to 15 cycles
arc lasting 0.2 s:
at 60 Hz).
Log(En)=K1+K2+1.081•Log(Ia)+0.0011•G
When the current-quenching time combination exceeds
a 300 kA cycle, the flash protection boundary Dc can be En=10Log(En)
calculated by using the following formulas: where:
Dc = √2.65•MVAbf•t or Dc = √53•MVA•t • En is the normalized incident energy in J/cm2;
where: • K1 is a constant equal to:
• MVAbf is short-circuit power for the bolted fault at the -0.792 for open systems;
analysis point in MVA; -0.555 for enclosed systems;
• MVA is the transformer power1 (for transformers with • K2 is a constant equal to:
power lower than 0.75 MVA, it is necessary to multiply
the transformer power by 1.25); 0 for ungrounded or high resistance ground sys-
tems;
• t is the clearing time of the protective device in s.
-0.113 for solidly grounded systems;
A.3 Calculation of the incident energy E (IEEE • G is the distance between the conductors in mm, see
1584) Table 4 of IEEE 1584;
The energy released by the electric arc depends on the Once the normalized incident energy is known, it is possible
current flowing through the fault. In turn, the current flowing to calculate the incident energy E:
through the electric arc, named arcing current Ia, depends x
on the bolted fault current. Generally speaking, Ia is lower ( ) (610
t
E=4.184•Cf•En• 0.2 D)
•
than Ibf due to the arc impedance.

1 NFPA 70E considers the short-circuit voltage of the transformers equal to 5%.

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 Annex A: Arc flash hazard (mathematical approach)

where: The distance D from the arc, at which the energy is calcu-
• E is the incident energy in J/cm2; lated, is the distance to the face and chest of the human
body, not to the arms and hands. Table 3 of IEEE 1584
• Cf is a factor equal to:
(page 9) gives the distances according to type of equipment
1 for Voltages exceeding 1 kV; involved.
1.5 for Voltages less than or equal to 1 kV;
A.4 Simplified formulas IEEE 1584 (5.7 Low-volt-
• En is the normalized incident energy in J/cm2;
age circuit breakers)
• t is the tripping time of the protective device;
IEEE 1584 (5.7 Low-voltage circuit breakers) gives simplified
• D is the distance from the arc in mm; formulas for calculation of incident energy and of the flash
• x is a factor depending on the distance between the boundary for LV circuit breakers. These formulas do not
conductors (see Table 4 of IEEE 1584). require the use of time-current curves and are applicable
The trip time is read from the time-current curves of the when the following is true:
protective devices. The calculated short-circuit current (Ibf) • working distance 460 mm;
and the relevant arcing current Ia are important as differ- • short time delay
ent values can affect the incident energy significantly. As
• 700 ≤ Ibf ≤ 106000
a result, both the maximum and minimum values of these
currents need to be considered and all the figures obtained • I1 ≤ Ibf ≤ I2
must be evaluated carefully. A lower short-circuit current where:
may even cause the circuit breaker to trip slower so that the I1 is the current causing the instantaneous tripping of
incident energy released is higher than that released by a the circuit breaker
greater fault current. Therefore, the calculation is performed I2 is the breaking capacity of the circuit breaker
by considering both 100% as well as 85% of the Ia and the
worst results are considered (this is especially critical for With current values lower than I1, the incident energy in-
fuses, whose trip times at 100% and at 85% of a specific creases very quickly as the fault current decreases.
fault current can be quite different).

Table 3: Simplified formulas

≤480 V 575 - 635 V
Incident energy Flash boundary Incident energy Flash boundary
Rating Breaker type Trip unit type
[J/cm2] [mm] [J/cm2] [mm]
100-400 MCCB TM or M 0.189•I bf+0.548 9.16•I
bf+194 0.271•I bf+0.180 11.8•Ibf+196
600-1200 MCCB TM or M 0.223•Ibf+1.590 8.45•Ibf+364 0.335•Ibf+0.380 11.4•Ibf+369
600-1200 MCCB E, LI 0.377•Ibf+1.360 12.50•I bf+428 0.468•I bf+4.600 14.3•Ibf+568
1600-6000 MCCB or ICCB TM or E, LI 0.448•Ibf+3.000 11.10•Ibf+696 0.686•Ibf+0.165 16.7•Ibf+606
800-6300 ACB E, LI 0.636•I
bf+3.670 14.50•I bf+786 0.958•I
bf+0.292 19.1•Ibf+864
800-6300 ACB E, LS 4.560•Ibf+27.230 47.20•Ibf+2660 6.860•Ibf+2.170 62.4•Ibf+2930

These formulas have been calculated using circuit breakers from

different manufacturers and are meant to give the ‘worst case’
maximum energy values and arc flash boundary.
Of course, more accurate calculations can be obtained by using
the specific tripping curves provided by the circuit breaker manu-
facturers.

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Annex A: Arc flash hazard (mathematical approach)

A.5 Numerical example

An electrician is sent to rack out a 480V circuit breaker; the with:
breaker has provisions for closed door racking. What Personal
• K1=-0.555 (fault in enclosed system)
Protective Equipment (PPE) is required?
• K2 = -0.113 (system grounding)
This example analyzes the arc flash hazard by assuming a voltage
of 480V and the circuit breaker racking out. • Ia = 23.3 kA
Transformer data: • G = 32mm = 1.25”
Then:
• 2000 kVA
Log(En)=0.8453⇒En=7j/cm2
• 13.8kV/480V
• 2400 A The incident energy E shall be:
x
• 5% Z E=4.184•Cf•En•( t )•(610)
with 0.2 D
Circuit breaker data:
• Emax E4S-A 3200A 65 kA • Cf = 1.5 (voltage lower than 1 kV)
From the formula of NFPA 70E: • En = 7 J/cm2
Dc=√53•MVA•t=√53•2•0.07=2.72ft=0.83m • t = 0.07s
(tripping time is assumed to be 70ms) • D = 610 mm (typical distance in compliance with
Table 3 of IEEE 1584)
The arcing current is:
• x = 1.473
Log(Ia)=K+0.662•Log(Ibf)+0.0966•U+0.000526•
Therefore:
G+0.5588•U•Log(Ibf)-0.00304•G•Log(Ibf)
E=15.30J/cm2=3.67cal/cm2
with:
A PPE of category 1 allows the released energy to be
• K=-0.097 (fault inside switchgear)
reduced to a value lower than 1.2 cal/cm2.
• Ibf=2,000,000•100=48.11 kA
√3•480•5 Please note that a trip time of 0.1s would result in
energy of 5.25 cal/cm2 requiring PPI category 2. The
• U=480 V correct setting of the circuit breaker causes a sig-
• G=32mm=1.25” nificant reduction in the released energy and conse-
Then: quently the costs of using the appropriate PPE.
Log(Ia)=1.3674⇒Ia=101.3674=23.30 kA The following graphs show risk categories which can
The normalized incident energy En is equal to: be obtained with an ABB Emax air circuit breaker and
an ABB Tmax molded-case circuit breaker. From the
Log(En)=K1+K2+1.081•Log(Ia)+0.0011•G
figures, the risk category results are dependent on
the current thresholds and on the times set for the
protection functions.

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 Annex A: Arc flash hazard (mathematical approach)

Emax E3 3200 Time current curve

100s

EMax = 27.45 cal/cm2 Category 4

Emin = 1.62 cal/cm2 Category 1
(Ibf=80 kA)
10s

E=3.13cal/cm2 Category 1
(Ibf=125 kA

1s

0.1s

Configurable Non-configurable
tripping time tripping time
0.01s
1kA 10kA 100kA 1000kA

Tmax T5 400 Time current curve

100s

EMax = 2.03 cal/cm2 Category 1

Emin = 0.20 cal/cm2 Category 0
10s (Ibf=6 kA)

E=0.26cal/cm2 Category 0
(Ibf=60 kA
1s

0.1s

Non-configurable
Configurable tripping time
tripping time
0.01s

0.1kA 1kA 10kA 100kA

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Contact us

ABB Inc.
Low Voltage Control Products & Systems

1SXU210204G0201 November, 2009

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Phone: 888-385-1221
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