designfeature By David Lohbeck, National Instruments

UNDERSTANDING SAFETY-ISOLATION RULES AND

TESTING REQUIREMENTS ENABLES YOU TO ADDRESS
POTENTIAL SAFETY-ISOLATION VULNERABILITIES.

Safety isolation protects users

and electronic instruments
afety isolation is important for both man- by lightning strikes during storms or power

S ufacturers and consumers. Its purpose is to surges from heavy-duty equipment, motors, and
physically separate hazardous circuits and device switching. Even short-lived transients of
transient sources from users and to protect prod- 1500V or more lasting for as short as a few mi-
ucts and their surroundings. Manufacturers need croseconds can damage semiconductor devices in
to adequately protect consumers. Design engineers products, alter data communication, and degrade
must understand safety-isolation rules and testing performance.
requirements to address
potential safety-isolation GROUNDED
PRINTED-WIRING-BOARD
vulnerabilities and to better ASSEMBLY
METAL ISOLATION BARRIER:
guarantee successful test- ENCLOSURE DOUBLE-REINFORCED,
3-MM MINIMUM SPACING ON
lab certification. Con- PRINTED-WIRING BOARD; FOUR
sumers must be able to in- OPTOISOLATORS ACROSS
ISOLATION BARRIER.
terpret manufactur-
Figure 1
ers’ specifications,
and they often rely on safe- T1
250V
ty certifications to guide
them when making pur-
chasing decisions with per-
formance and safety in
mind. The isolation princi-
ples in this article are based
on the product-safety stan- HAZARDOUS
dards for IEC 61010-1 for LIVE
3.3 TO 5V
test-and-measurement in-
NONHAZARDOUS
struments and IEC 60950- SAFETY-
1 for information-technol- EXTRA-LOW
VOLTAGE
ogy equipment.
Increasing voltage capa- T2
bilities of measurement in-
struments—often 1000V
and higher—is a concern
because users can receive PROTECTIVE-
severe electric shocks or EARTH
GROUND T3 BASIC
burns, and a potential exists INSULATION
for fire damage to instru- DOUBLE
ments and their surround- NOTES: T1 TO T3 =INSULATION TEST POINTS. INSULATION
ings. Other hazards include ORANGE=HAZARDOUS-VOLTAGE AREA.
YELLOW=ISOLATION BARRIER.
sudden transient overvolt- GREEN=NONHAZARDOUS VOLTAGE; USER-TOUCHABLE CIRCUITS.
ages occurring within the
electrical distribution sys- This isolation circuit includes basic insulation, double insulation, protective Earth (safety ground), insulation test
tem of buildings caused points, hazardous-voltage area (red), isolation barrier (yellow), and nonhazardous voltage.

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designfeature Safety isolation

(a) OPTOISOLATOR (b) CONNECTOR (c) TRANSFORMER

Examples of component-isolation spacing include 6-mm minimum creepage (a), 3-mm minimum clearance (b), and 0.4-mm
Figure 2
distance through insulation (c).

Product users must not underesti- resistance, and the duration of time. The circuits and enclosures.
mate hazards potentials associated with human body can conduct current that Galvanic isolation is the most popu-
high voltage. Each year, electricity caus- results in burns or shock when the cur- lar method. Transformers and optoiso-
es more than 30,000 workplace injuries rent is above safe levels (Table 1, Refer- lators are examples of galvanic isolation.
and more than 1000 workplace deaths. ence 1). Even low currents can cause in- Transformers use separate windings to
Although many of us are familiar with jury, and 100 mA flowing through the magnetically convert power from inputs
the unpleasant sensation of a mild body for only two seconds can cause to outputs. Optoisolators convert input
shock, a severe electrical shock can cause death. Coupling high currents with ex- signals into light and then convert it
ventricular fibrillation and cardiac ar- tra-low voltages can also cause severe in- back for the output signals.
rest. Shocks and burns of varying de- juries. Safety standards limit voltage, It is important to clearly differentiate
grees of severity are the most common current, and transient levels through between a product’s rated voltage and its
injuries. Other injuries can result from various isolation techniques. isolation voltage. The rated voltage of
an electric current that acts as a trigger Isolation means that no direct elec- the product is the allowable continuous
that initiates a chain reaction of trical connection, or conductor, exists operating voltage that the manufactur-
mishaps, including involuntary muscle between two or more circuits or be- er specifies; isolation voltage is based on
reaction that cause bruises, bone frac- tween circuits and accessible parts. Its a qualification test voltage that stresses
tures, and injury from colliding with ob- purpose is to limit transient overvolt- the insulation of the product. Isolation-
jects or falling. Proper understanding of ages and to electrically segregate circuits voltage testing is a short test to ensure
the possible effects of electrical hazards that if connected directly could allow adequate safety insulation if an unfore-
may help prevent some of these injuries. the flow of harmful voltage, current, en- seen event occurs, such as a lighting
Basic electronics teaches us that an ergy, or charge. Isolation prevents unac- strike to a power line or a dielectric
electric circuit has three properties: volt- ceptable current from flowing as a result breakdown within the product. For ex-
age (electric force), current (electron of a potential ac or dc difference be- ample, a product with 2300V rms iso-
flow), and resistance (an inhibitor of tween the circuits. It also allows the iso- lation and 30V rating can operate to
current flow). Current is the most dan- lated circuits to communicate magnet- only 30V. In this case, 2300V rms goes
gerous component, and as voltage in- ically via a transformer or by using light well beyond the rated 30V operating
creases, so does the hazard. Insulators re- via an optoisolator. You use safety iso- limit of the product. Isolation voltage is
sist flow, and conductors allow flow. All lation to isolate hazardous, or “live,” for safety testing and specification.
objects are either resistors or conduc- voltages greater than 30V rms and 42.4V Users should not operate a product at
tors, and electricity flows along the path peak or 60V dc from user-accessible isolation voltages.
of least resistance toward earth ground. SELV (safety extra-low-voltage) circuits. Working voltage is the highest possi-
The effects of current flow through a Safety isolation also minimizes the pos- ble root-mean-square value of the ac
human body are a function of the mag- sibility of transient voltage arc-over or and dc voltage across insulation when
nitude of the current, the human body’s -through insulation to user-touchable the product is operating at its rated volt-

TABLE 1—THRESHOLD AND UL LIMITS FOR CONTINUOUS 60-Hz CURRENT AND THEIR EFFECTS
Threshold for continuous Limit used by UL
15- to 100-Hz for continuous 60-Hz
Physiological effect Reaction current (mA) sinusoidal current (mA)
Involuntary muscular reaction Perception level, tingling sensation 0.5 0.51
Inability to let go (tetanized muscle) Painful shock, freezing current, "can't let go" 10 5.0
Ventricular fibrillation Heart rhythm affected, death may occur 35 20
Notes:
1. Ordinarily, a limit of 0.75 mA applies to stationary or fixed, cord-connected products with equipment-grounding conductors.
2. Data in column 3 is described in IEC Publication 479.
3. Table adapted from Reference 1.

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designfeature Safety isolation

age. Product designers and test labs use

the measured working voltage to deter-
mine the required insulation spacings
from tables and figures in the
Figure 3
safety standards. Safety marks include UL, TUV, VDE, and others.

ISOLATION AND INSULATION The requirements in safety standards They base insulation on spacing, or sep-
Users have access to voltage and cur- establish permissible voltage and current aration, distances and dielectric-with-
rent through touchable connectors, ca- limits for accessible parts. Potentially stand, or isolation, tests. The standards
bles, and user-interface devices you find harmful voltages, hazardous live, are list the required spacings, creepage, and
on most products. Voltages must be less those greater than 42.4V peak/60V dc clearance. Creepage is a spacing distance
than or equal to 42.4V⫼60 peak dc to that are in many areas of a device, such as measured over a surface, such as be-
meet safe limits and to be SELV. SELV 115/230V ac primary circuits and in tween two traces on a printed-wiring
circuits are considered safe to touch and measuring circuits connected to voltages board or across the surface of an op-
are double-insulated from hazardous in excess of these levels. Manufacturers toisolator. Clearance is the shortest dis-
voltages in case of a single fault. SELV must protect, or isolate, users from haz- tance through air, such as from the pin-
circuits are commonplace and find use ardous voltages during a product’s nor- to-pin of a connector. For example, a
in product inputs/outputs and inter- mal operation and during a single fault, 250V-rated product with a peak work-
connection, such as logic circuits for such as a component short circuit. ing voltage of 300V requires 3 to 4 mm
printers, PC keyboards, and telecom- Manufacturers use various levels or of creepage on the printed-wiring board
munications devices. types of insulation to obtain isolation. and 6 mm of creepage on other parts be-
tween hazardous and
MEASUREMENT CIRCUITS
nonhazardous voltages
(Figure 1). Dielectric-
PC I/O MODULE E withstand testing meas-
SAFETY- BUS 250V, CATEGORY 2
EXTRA-
ures the amount of volt-
LOW- + 4 age the insulation can
VOLTAGE
_
AC/DC withstand for a specified
LOGIC + 3
115/230V POWER SUPPLY _ period of time, such as
AC MAINS
D
2300V rms for one
minute across the isola-
+
L _ 2 tion barrier. This article
N
C
uses the terms “isola-
G tion” and “insulation”
+ 1
_ interchangeably.
There are five types of
B insulation: functional,
basic, supplementary,
G G G GND double, and reinforced.
V AC VOLTAGE TO Functional insulation is
SAFETY EXTRA-LOW-VOLTAGE
SPACING—DOUBLE, A necessary only for the
REINFORCED INSULATION correct functioning of a
product. Functional or
NOTES:
operational insulation
1. ISOLATION IS FOR EXAMPLE ONLY. OTHER DESIGNS MAY REQUIRE ADDITIONAL OR DIFFERENT ISOLATION. does not protect or iso-
REFER TO THE STANDARDS FOR REQUIREMENTS. late against electrical
2. CREEPAGE DISTANCE FOR SPACINGS ON PRINTED-WIRING BOARDS IS 3 MM FOR DOUBLE AND 1.5 MM
FOR BASIC. DISTANCES CAN INCREASE FOR OTHER CIRCUITS OR COMPONENTS, SUCH AS OPTOISOLATORS, shock. Basic insulation is
TRANSFORMERS, CONVERTERS, RELAYS, AND CONNECTORS. REFER TO THE STANDARDS FOR VALUES a single level of insula-
IN ALL CASES.
3. CHANNEL-TO-CHANNEL SPACINGS CAN REQUIRE ISOLATION, DEPENDING ON THE INSTALLATION AND tion that provides basic
RESULTS OF TESTING, INCLUDING HIGH POTENTIALS, FAULTS, AND GROUNDS. protection against shock.
4. DESIGNS USING METAL ENCLOSURES, METAL GROUND CONNECTIONS, OR BOTH THAT DO NOT RELIABLY
BOND, OR GROUND, TO EARTH REQUIRE DOUBLE, 2300V-RMS, ONE-MINUTE ISOLATION.
Supplementary insula-
5. MEASUREMENT CIRCUITS CAN REQUIRE ADDED SAFETY GUARDING, CIRCUIT PROTECTION, OR BOTH. tion is an independent
REFER TO THE STANDARDS FOR REQUIREMENTS. insulation that manufac-
turers apply in addition
Figure 4 A system isolation for a typical 250V I/O-measurement system shows isolation: “A” channel-to-bus to basic insulation to re-
isolation is double: 2300V rms/one minute. “B” channel-to-ground isolation is basic: 1350V rms/one minute. “C” chan- duce the risk of electrical
nel-to-channel isolation is none (functional) or basic: 1350V rms/one minute. “D” channel-to-channel/bus isolation is shock in the event of a
double: 2300V rms/one minute. “E” channel-to-channel isolation is none (functional) or basic: 500V rms/one minute. failure of basic insula-
Channels 1 and 2 are 250V continuous, and channels 3 and 4 are less than 42.4V peak/60V dc continuous. “GND” is a tion. Double insulation
safety ground reliably connected to earth. comprises both basic and
62 edn | September 30, 2004 www.edn.com
 designfeature Safety isolation

supplementary insulation. Reinforced in- Safety-critical components carry haz-

sulation is a single insulation system that ardous voltages and can affect the safe-
provides electrical-shock protection ty compliance of a product. Compo-
equivalent to double insulation. nents that bridge, or isolate, hazardous
Double, reinforced, and basic insula- voltage and SELV circuits are especially
tions are the most important insulation safety-critical, because dangerous volt-
types for safety isolation. The minimum ages could become user-accessible if a
spacing requirements for safety insula- manufacturer fails to meet safety re-
tion are double from hazardous live to quirements. Safety-critical components
SELV—for example, 3 mm on printed- in Figure 1 include optoisolators, a
wiring board—and basic from haz- 250V connector, a printed-wiring
ardous live to safety ground—for ex- board, and a fuse on each 250V I/O line.
ample, 1.5 mm to a grounded enclosure. Safety-critical components must meet
When a manufacturer fails to reliably the relevant component standards and
ground a metal enclosure or ground cir- the end product’s safety requirements.
cuit, you need double insulation from Always demand evidence of compliance
hazardous live to the ungrounded en- in the way of safety marks on safety-
closure or circuit. You use functional in- critical components. The CE (European
sulation between circuits to maintain Conformity) marking is the self-decla-
the operation of the product, but you do ration symbol of a manufacturer, not an
not rely on it for safety isolation. You independent certification or safety-ap-
should use basic insulation between proval mark, and, as such, you should
hazardous voltage circuits, but the re- not rely on it for safety. The best prac-
quirement depends on the applicable tice is to use only safety-critical compo-
safety standard, function of the product, nents that an independent safety agency
environment, and testing. tested and approved to ensure they meet
Electrical breakdown can occur be- isolation requirements (Figure 3). You
tween two conductive parts either may need two marks on safety-critical
through air (clearance) or along a sur- components because the United States
face (creepage). Insulating materials, uses UL (Underwriters Laboratories)
such as printed-wiring-board and com- standards, and the European Union uses
ponent surfaces, can become partially EN (European Norms) and the IEC (In-
conductive when you expose them to ternational Electrotechnical Commis-
deposits or deterioration from humidi- sion) standards, which in many cases
ty, contamination, chemicals, and alti- differ. Certifying agencies include UL,
tude. Conductive insulating materials CSA (Canadian Standards Association),
can allow electrical tracking, or creep- VDE (Verband Deutscher Elektringe-
age, over the material’s surface. Clear- nieure), TUV (Technischer Überwach-
ance helps prevent electrical arc-over ungsverein, or Technical Inspection As-
between conductive parts that air ion- sociation), and Demko (Danmarks
ization causes. Factors affecting air ion- Elektriske Materielkontrol). Safety-crit-
ization include humidity, pollution, and ical components include transformers,
temperature. Electrical breakdown can optoisolators, power supplies, relays,
also occur through void-free solid insu- and fuses.
lation of components and between
traces on inner layers of printed-wiring VERIFICATION
boards. To address solid-insulation re- Once the spacings and components of
quirements, safety standards may spec- a product are in order, you can perform
ify a distance through insulation at re- isolation tests to verify the design and
duced levels that include spacings, production of the product and to ensure
dielectric tests, surge tests, or a combi- conformity with the standards. You use
nation of all three. Spacing examples dielectric-withstand testing, also known
include optoisolator input-to-output- as electric strength and high potential,
pin spacing, connector pin-to-shell to verify isolation. The product must
spacing, printed-wiring-board trace-to- pass a one-minute V rms or V dc test.
trace spacing, and wiring-to-enclosure The tester performs a one-minute test
spacing. Always refer to the standards on a representative test sample for de-
for all creepage, clearance, and solid sign verification, and a one- to two-sec-
(void-free) insulation requirements ond routine test on 100% of production
(figures 1 and 2). before shipping. Dielectric-withstand
64 edn | September 30, 2004 www.edn.com
 designfeature Safety isolation

test values can vary somewhat between a product meets isolation and other
the standards, such as basic insulation safety requirements is to purchase cer-
of 1350V rms for test-and-measure- tified products that bear a safety mark.
ment instruments or 1500V rms for in- Safety marks are evidence of isolation
formation-technology products rated at and safety conformity. Look for them on
250V. Product specifications occasion- products with ratings greater than
ally show component-isolation specifi- 42.4V peak or when isolation claims are
cations when the isolation of the end greater than 400V rms.
product is most important and not the Safety isolation protects information-
isolation of a single component within technology and measurement products
the product. Additional safety tests, such and users from electrical hazards. In-
as ground-bond and leakage, may be formation-technology and measure-
necessary for safety conformity. Refer to ment instruments operate as intended
the relevant safety standards for perti- and are considered safe when you design
nent tests and requirements. them following all isolation and appli-
The following process illustrates one cable safety rules. Figure 4 shows the ba-
method of dielectric-withstand testing sics of isolation and specification, as
using Figure 1. they relate to a typical 250V I/O-meas-
1. Set up test sample and instrument: urement system. The circuit shows safe-
a. Test sample for temperature and ty-isolation types in order of priority:
humidity preconditioning for 48 channel-to-bus, channel-to-ground,
hours. Refer to the standard for re- and channel-to-channel. Double, rein-
quirements. forced insulation barriers separate haz-
b. Connect the 250V circuits together ardous live from nonhazardous volt-
(T1). ages. For products using hazardous
c. Connect the 3.3 to 5V circuits to- voltages—greater than 42.4V peak or
gether (T2). 60V dc—the channel-to-bus and chan-
d. Establish a connection point on the nel-to-ground isolation are critical to
metal enclosure (T3). protect the product and user. Channel-
e. Set the V rms or V dc value current to-channel isolation may be necessary,
(V rms/120 k⍀), 10-sec or less depending on the product design, the
ramp, and one-minute dwell time. safety standard, or the safety test. Even
2. Test 1: 250V to SELV, double insula- though it is not mandatory in some cas-
tion: es, channel-to-channel isolation is often
a. Connect one lead of the test in- a quality-, functional-, or market-driv-
strument to T1 and the other to T2. en requirement (Reference 2).왏
b. Perform one-minute 2300V rms or
3250V dc dielectric-withstand test Reference
from T1 to T2. 1. Skuggevig, Walter, Electrical Stim-
c. Record the pass/fail result. ulation and Electropathology, 1992,
3. Test 2: 250V to enclosure, basic insu- Cambridge Press.
lation: 2. Product Certification, www.ni.com/
a. Connect one lead of the test in- certification.
strument to T1 and the other to T3.
b. Perform a one-minute, 1350V rms Author’s biography
or 1900V dc dielectric test from T1 David Lohbeck is compliance-engineering
to T3. manager at National Instruments
c. Record the pass/fail result. (Austin, TX). Previously, he has worked
In this test, substitute double insulation for Motorola, Dell, and TUV in the field
of 2300V rms or 3250V dc if the metal of international product safety, machine
enclosure is not reliably grounded. safety, and electromagnetic compatibili-
If you lack the expertise to assess iso- ty. Lohbeck is the author of CE Marking
lation or perform the tests, you can send Handbook: A Practical Approach to
the product to a qualified safety lab for Global Safety Certification. You can
evaluation and certification. Manufac- reach him at [email protected].
turers can use certification and marks to
limit their risks, demonstrate safety
compliance, increase market potential, Talk to us
and, most importantly, protect the con- Post comments via TalkBack at the online
sumer. The best route to ensuring that version of this article at www.edn.com.
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