ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

Lecture
PRELIMINARY
 Chemical - The chemical level of organization
CHAPTER 1 - The Human Organism involves how atoms, such as hydrogen and carbon,
interact and combine into molecules.
ANATOMY  Cells - are the basic structural and functional units
Human anatomy and physiology are the study of of organisms, such as plants and animals.
structure and function of the human body. Molecules can combine to form ORGANELLES
(or′gă-nelz; little organs), which are the small
Anatomy (ă-nat′ŏ-mē) is the scientific discipline that structures that make up some cells.
investigates the structure of the body.  Tissue - A tissue (tish′ū) is a group of similar cells
The word anatomy means to and the materials surrounding them.
dissect, or cut apart and separate, the parts of the body  Organ - An organ (ōr′găn; a tool) is composed of
for study. two or more tissue types that together perform one
or more common functions.
Two basic approaches to the study of anatomy:  Organ System - An organ system is a group of
organs classified as a unit because of a common
 Systemic anatomy is the study of the body by function or set of functions.
systems, such as the cardiovascular, nervous,  Organism - is any living thing considered as a
skeletal, and muscular systems. whole, whether composed of one cell, such as a
 Regional anatomy is the study of the organization bacterium, or of trillions of cells, such as a human.
of the body by areas. Within each region, such as
the head, abdomen, or arm, all systems are studied CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE
simultaneously. This is the approach taken in most 1. Organization refers to the specific relationship of
medical and dental schools. the many individual parts of an organism, from
cell organelles to organs, interacting and working
Two general ways to examine the internal together. Living things are highly organized.
structures of a living person: 2. Metabolism (mĕ-tab′ō-lizm) is the ability to use
energy to perform vital functions, such as growth,
 Surface anatomy is the study of external features, movement, and reproduction. Plants capture
such as bony projections, which serve as energy from sunlight to synthesize sugars (a
landmarks for locating deeper structures. process called photosynthesis), and humans obtain
 Anatomical imaging involves the use of x-rays, energy from food.
ultrasound, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI),
and other technologies to create pictures of
internal structures, such as when determining if a
bone is broken or a ligament is torn.
(Both surface anatomy and anatomical imaging 3. Responsiveness is the ability of an organism to
provide important information for diagnosing disease.) sense changes in the environment and make the
adjustments that help maintain its life.
PHYSIOLOGY 4. Growth refers to an increase in size of all or part
Physiology (fiz-ē-ol′ō-jē; the study of nature) is the of the organism. It can result from an increase in
scientific discipline that deals with the processes or cell number, cell size, or the amount of substance
functions of living things. surrounding cells.
Human Physiology is the study of a specific
organism, the human. 5. Development includes the changes an organism
undergoes through time. Human development
Systemic Physiology are subdivisions that emphasize begins when the egg is fertilized by the sperm and
specific organizational level. ends with death.
6. Reproduction is the formation of new cells or
STRUCTURAL AND FUNCTIONAL new organisms. Without reproduction of cells,
ORGANIZATION OF THE HUMAN BODY growth and tissue repair are impossible. Without
reproduction of the organism, the species becomes
The body can be studied at six structural levels: extinct.

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ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
Lecture
PRELIMINARY
HOMEOSTASIS
Homeostasis (hō′mē-ō-stā′sis; homeo-, the same; - TERMINOLOGY AND THE BODY PLAN
stasis, to stop) is the existence and maintenance of a
relatively constant environment within the body Note: Words are often modified by adding a prefix or
despite fluctuations in either the external suffix. For example, the suffix -itis means an
environment or the internal environment. inflammation, so appendicitis is an inflammation of
the appendix.
These conditions are called VARIABLES because
their values can change. One familiar variable is body Directional Terms:
temperature, which can increase when the environment ANTERIOR means that which goes before.
is hot or decrease when the environment is cold. POSTERIOR means “that which follows,
(VARIABLE e.g., body temperature, which can
increase when the environment is hot or decrease The term SUPERIOR is used for above, or up.
when the environment is cold.) INFERIOR is used for below, or down.

Homeostatic mechanisms, such as sweating or

shivering, normally maintain body temperature near an
average normal value, or set point. Most homeostatic ANTERIOR is used for front.
mechanisms
are governed by the nervous system or the endocrine POSTERIOR is used for back.
system. (Producing a normal range of values)
DORSAL (Surface) means “back.

LINEAR STRUCTURES
PROXIMAL means nearest
DISTAL means distant
Homeostasis is the condition in which body functions,
body fluids, and other factors of the internal MEDIAL means toward the midline
environment are maintained within a range of values LATERAL means away from the midline.
suitable to support life.
SUPERFICIAL refers to a structure close to the
Negative Feedback (decrease) surface of the body.
Negative-feedback mechanisms maintain homeostasis. DEEP is toward the interior of the body.
(The maintenance of normal body temperature is an
example BODY PARTS AND REGIONS
of a negative-feedback mechanism) There are three
components. The central region of the body consists of
head, neck, and trunk.
(1) A receptor monitors the value of a variable, such There is Upper Limb, Lower Limb
as body temperature, by detecting stimuli.
(2) a control center, such as part of the brain, Body Parts and Regions
determines the set point for the 1. The body can be divided into the head, neck,
variable and receives input from the receptor about the trunk, upper limbs, and lower limbs.
variable; and
(3) an effector (ē-fek′tŏr), such as the sweat glands, 2. The abdomen can be divided superficially into
can change the value of the variable when directed by four quadrants or nine regions, which are useful
the control center. A changed variable is a stimulus for locating internal organs or describing the
because it initiates a homeostatic mechanism. location of a pain.

Positive Feedback (increase) Planes

Positive feedback mechanisms make deviations from 1. A sagittal plane divides the body into left and
normal even greater. Although a few positive-feedback right parts, a transverse plane divides the body
mechanisms normally exist in the body, into superior and inferior parts, and a frontal
most positive-feedback mechanisms are harmful.
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Lecture
PRELIMINARY
plane divides the body into anterior and posterior
parts.

2. A longitudinal section divides an organ along its

long axis, a transverse section cuts an organ at a
right angle to the long axis, and an oblique section
cuts across the long axis at an angle other than a
right angle.

Body Cavities
1. The thoracic cavity is bounded by the ribs and the
diaphragm.
The mediastinum divides the thoracic cavity into
two parts.
2. The abdominal cavity is bounded by the
diaphragm and the abdominal muscles.
3. The pelvic cavity is surrounded by the pelvic
bones.

Serous Membranes
1. The trunk cavities are lined by serous
membranes. The parietal part of a serous
membrane lines the wall of the cavity, and the
visceral part covers the internal organs.
2. The serous membranes secrete fluid that fills the
space between the parietal and visceral
membranes. The serous membranes protect
organs from friction.
3. The pericardial cavity surrounds the heart, the
pleural cavities surround the lungs, and the
peritoneal cavity surrounds certain abdominal and
pelvic organs.
4. Mesenteries are parts of the peritoneum that hold
the abdominal organs in place and provide a
passageway for blood vessels and nerves to
organs.
5. Retroperitoneal organs are found “behind” the
parietal peritoneum. The kidneys, the adrenal
glands, part of the pancreas, parts of the intestines,
and the urinary bladder are examples of
retroperitoneal organs.

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ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
Lecture
PRELIMINARY
2. A covalent bond results when a pair of electrons
CHAPTER 2 – THE CHEMICAL BASIS OF LIFE is shared between atoms with similar
electronegativities. A polar covalent bond is an
BASIC CHEMISTRY unequal sharing of electron pairs.

Chemistry is the scientific discipline concerned with Hydrogen Bonds

the atomic composition and structure of substances and A hydrogen bond is the weak attraction between the
the reactions they undergo. oppositely charged regions of polar molecules.
Chemistry is the study of the composition and Hydrogen bonds are important in determining the
structure of substances and the reactions they undergo. three-dimensional structure of large molecules.

MATTER, MASS, AND WEIGHT

Molecules and Compounds
MATTER - All living and nonliving things are 1. A molecule is two or more atoms chemically
composed of matter. combined to form a structure that behaves as an
MASS – is the amount of matter in an independent unit.
Object. 2. A compound is two or more different types of
WEIGHT – is the gravitational force acting on an atoms chemically combined. A compound can be a
object of a given mass. molecule (covalent compound) or an organized
array of ions (ionic compound).
Elements and Atoms
Dissociation
1. An ELEMENT is the simplest type of matter Dissociation is the separation of ions in an ionic
having unique chemical and physical properties. compound by polar water molecules.
2. An ATOM is the smallest particle of an element
that has the chemical characteristics of that CHEMICAL REACTIONS
element. An element is composed of only one kind
of atom. Classification of Chemical Reactions
1. A synthesis reaction is the combination of
Atomic Structure reactants to form a new, larger product.
1. Atoms consist of neutrons, positively charged 2. A decomposition reaction is the breakdown of
protons, and negatively charged electrons. larger reactants into smaller products.
2. An atom is electrically neutral because the number
of protons equals the number of electrons.
3. Protons and neutrons are in the nucleus, and
electrons can be represented by an electron cloud
around the nucleus. 3. An exchange reaction is a combination of a
4. The atomic number is the unique number of decomposition reaction, in which reactants are
protons in each atom of an element. The mass broken down, and a synthesis reaction, in which
number is the number of protons and neutrons. the products of the decomposition reaction
5. The chemical reactivity of an atom is determined recombine.
by its electronegativity.
Reversible Reactions
1. In a reversible reaction, the reactants can form
6. An atom that has closer to 8 electrons in its products, or the products can form reactants.
valence shell has a stronger electronegativity than 2. The amount of reactant relative to the amount of
an atom that has only 1 or 2 electrons in its product is constant
valence shell. at equilibrium.

Electrons and Chemical Bonding Energy and Chemical Reactions

1. An ionic bond results when an electron is
transferred from an atom with a weaker 1. Energy is the capacity to do work. Potential energy
electronegativity to an atom with a stronger is stored energy that could do work, and kinetic
electronegativity.
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Lecture
PRELIMINARY
energy does work by causing the movement of an
object. Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide
2. Energy exists in chemical bonds as potential 1. Oxygen is involved with the extraction of energy
energy. from food molecules.
3. Energy is released in chemical reactions when the 2. Carbon dioxide is a by-product of the breakdown
products contain less potential energy than the of food molecules.
reactants. The energy can be lost as heat, used to
synthesize molecules, or used to do work. Water
4. Energy must be added to reactions when the 1. Water stabilizes the body temperature.
products contain more potential energy than the 2. Water provides protection by acting as a lubricant
reactants. or a cushion.
5. Energy can be neither created nor destroyed, but 3. Water is necessary for many chemical reactions.
one type of energy can be changed into another. 4. Water transports many substances.

Rate of Chemical Reactions ORGANIC MOLECULES

1. The rate of a chemical reaction increases when the Organic molecules contain carbon atoms bound
concentration of the reactants increases, the together by covalent bonds.
temperature increases, or a catalyst is present.
2. A catalyst (enzyme) increases the rate of a
chemical reaction without being altered
permanently.
Carbohydrates
1. Carbohydrates provide the body with energy.
2. Monosaccharides are the building blocks that form
more complex carbohydrates, such as
disaccharides and polysaccharides.

ACIDS AND BASES Lipids

1. Lipids are substances that dissolve in nonpolar
Acids are proton (H+) donors, and bases are proton solvents, such as alcohol or acetone, but not in
acceptors. polar solvents, such as water. Fats, phospholipids,
and steroids are examples of lipids.
The pH Scale. 2. Lipids provide energy (fats), serve as structural
1. A neutral solution has an equal number of H+ and components (phospholipids), and regulate
OH− and a pH of 7.0. physiological processes (steroids).
2. An acidic solution has more H+ than OH− and a 3. The building blocks of triglycerides (fats) are
pH less than 7.0. glycerol and fatty acids.
3. A basic solution has fewer H+ than OH− and a pH 4. Fatty acids can be saturated (have only single
greater than 7.0. covalent bonds between carbon atoms) or
unsaturated (have one or more double covalent
Salts bonds between carbon atoms).
Salt forms when an acid reacts with a base.
Proteins
Buffers 1. Proteins regulate chemical reactions (enzymes),
Buffers are chemicals that resist changes in pH when serve as structural components, and cause muscle
acids or bases are added. contraction.
2. The building blocks of proteins are amino acids.
INORGANIC MOLECULES 3. Denaturation of proteins disrupts hydrogen bonds,
1. Inorganic chemistry is mostly concerned with non- which changes the shape of proteins and makes
carbon-containing substances but does include them nonfunctional.
such carbon-containing substances as CO2 and 4. Enzymes are specific, bind to reactants according
carbon monoxide. to the lock-and key model, and function by
2. Some inorganic chemicals play important roles in lowering activation energy.
the body.
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ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
Lecture
PRELIMINARY

Nucleic Acids: DNA and RNA

1. The basic unit of nucleic acids is the nucleotide,
which is a monosaccharide with an attached
phosphate and organic base.
2. DNA nucleotides contain the monosaccharide
deoxyribose and the
organic bases adenine, thymine, guanine, and
cytosine. DNA occurs as a double strand of joined
nucleotides and is the genetic material of cells.
3. RNA nucleotides are composed of the
monosaccharide ribose. The organic bases are the
same as for DNA, except that thymine is replaced
with uracil.

Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)

ATP stores energy, which can be used in cell
processes.

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ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
Lecture
PRELIMINARY
swell nor shrink; in a hypertonic solution, cells
CHAPTER 3 - Cell Structures and shrink and undergo crenation.
Their Functions
Cell Structure Carrier-Mediated Transport Mechanisms

1. Cells are highly organized units containing 1. Carrier-mediated transport is the movement of a
organelles, which perform specific functions. substance across a membrane by means of a carrier
2. The nucleus contains genetic material, and molecule. The substances transported tend to be
cytoplasm is the living material between the large, water-soluble molecules or ions.
nucleus and the cell membrane. 2. Facilitated diffusion moves substances from a
higher to a lower concentration and does not
Functions of the Cell require energy in the form of ATP.
1. Cells are the basic unit of life. 3. Active transport can move substances from a
2. Cells protect and support the body, as well as lower to a higher concentration and requires ATP.
provide for cell metabolism, communication, and 4. Secondary active transport uses the energy of one
inheritance. substance moving down its concentration gradient
to move another substance across the cell
Cell Membrane membrane. In cotransport, both substances move
1. The cell membrane forms the outer boundary of in the same direction; in counter transport, they
the cell. It determines what enters and leaves the move in opposite directions.
cell.
2. The cell membrane is composed of a double layer Endocytosis and Exocytosis
of phospholipid molecules in which proteins float. 1. Endocytosis is the movement of materials into
The proteins function as membrane channels, cells by the formation of a vesicle. Receptor-
carrier molecules, receptor molecules, enzymes, mediated endocytosis involves cell receptors
and structural components of the membrane. attaching to molecules, which are then transported
into the cell. Phagocytosis is the movement of
Movement Through the Cell Membrane solid material into cells. Pinocytosis is similar to
Diffusion phagocytosis, except that the material ingested is
much smaller and is in solution.
1. Diffusion is the movement of a solute from an area 2. Exocytosis is the secretion of materials from cells
of higher concentration to an area of lower by vesicle formation.
concentration within a solvent. At equilibrium, the
distribution of molecules is uniform. Organelles
2. A concentration gradient is the concentration of a
solute at one point in a solvent minus the Nucleus
concentration of that solute at another point in the 1. The nuclear envelope consists of two separate
solvent divided by the distance between the points. membranes that form nuclear pores at many points
3. Lipid-soluble molecules pass through the cell on the surface of the nucleus.
membrane readily by dissolving in the lipid 2. DNA and associated proteins are found inside the
portion of the membrane. Small molecules and nucleus as chromatin. DNA is the hereditary
ions can pass through membrane channels. material of the cell and controls cell activities.
3. Nucleoli consist of RNA and proteins and are the
sites of ribosomal subunit assembly.
Osmosis
Ribosomes
1. Osmosis is the diffusion of water across a 1. Ribosomes are the sites of protein synthesis.
selectively permeable membrane. 2. A ribosome is composed of one large and one
2. Osmotic pressure is the force required to prevent small subunit.
movement of water across a selectively permeable
membrane. Rough and Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
3. In a hypotonic solution, cells swell (and can 1. Rough ER is ER with ribosomes attached. It is a
undergo lysis); in an isotonic solution, cells neither major site of protein synthesis.

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Lecture
PRELIMINARY
2. Smooth ER does not have ribosomes attached and
is a major site of lipid synthesis.

Golgi Apparatus
The Golgi apparatus is a series of closely packed
membrane sacs that collect, modify, package, and
distribute proteins and lipids produced by the ER.

Secretory Vesicles
Secretory vesicles are membrane-bound sacs that carry
substances from the Golgi apparatus to the cell
membrane, where the vesicle contents are released.

Lysosomes and Peroxisomes Gene Expression

Lysosomes and peroxisomes are membrane-bound sacs 1. Cell activity is regulated by enzymes (proteins),
containing enzymes. Within the cell, lysosomes break and DNA controls enzyme production.
down phagocytized material. Peroxisomes break down 2. During transcription, the sequence of nucleotides
fatty acids, amino acids, and hydrogen peroxide. in DNA (a gene) determines the sequence of
nucleotides in mRNA; the Mrna moves through
the nuclear pores to ribosomes.
3. During translation, the sequence of codons in
mRNA is used at ribosomes to produce proteins.
Mitochondria Anticodons of tRNA bind to the codons of mRNA,
Mitochondria are the major sites for the production of and the amino acids carried by tRNA are joined to
ATP, which cells use as an energy source. form a protein.
Mitochondria carry out aerobic respiration (requires
O2). Cell Cycle
1. The cell cycle consists of a series of events that
Cytoskeleton produce new cells for growth and for tissue repair.
1. The cytoskeleton supports the cytoplasm and
organelles and is involved with cell movements. 2. The two phases of the cell cycle are interphase and
2. The cytoskeleton is composed of microtubules, cell division.
microfilaments, and intermediate filaments.
3. DNA replicates during interphase, the nondividing
Centrioles phase of the cell cycle.
Centrioles, located in the centrosome, are made of
microtubules. They facilitate chromosome movement 4. Cell division occurs through mitosis, which is
during cell division. divided into four stages:
 Prophase—each chromosome consists of two
Cilia, Flagella, and Microvilli chromatids joined at the centromere.
1. Cilia moves substances over the surface of cells.  ∙ Metaphase—chromosomes align at the center of
2. Flagella are much longer than cilia and propel the cell.
sperm cells.  ∙ Anaphase—chromatids separate at the
3. Microvilli increases the surface area of cells and centromere and migrate to opposite poles.
thus aids in absorption.  ∙ Telophase—the two new nuclei assume their
normal structure, and cell division is completed,
Whole-Cell Activity producing two new daughter cells.
A cell’s characteristics are ultimately determined by
the types of proteins it produces, which are determined Differentiation
by the genetic information in the nucleus.
Understanding how genetic information is used in the Differentiation, the process by which cells develop
cell and distributed to daughter cells is important for specialized structures and functions, results from the
understanding basic cellular activity. selective activation and inactivation of DNA sections.

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ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
Lecture
PRELIMINARY

Apoptosis
Apoptosis is the programmed death of cells. Apoptosis
regulates the number of cells within various tissues of
the body.

Cellular Aspects of Aging

Aging may be due to the presence of “cellular clocks,”
the function of “death genes,” DNA damage, free
radicals, or mitochondrial damage.