LECTURE 5: The skin is made up of two major tissue

THE INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM layers:

Integumentary System EPIDERMIS

 Skin  most superficial layer of skin
 Accessory gland (hair, glands, nails)  epithelial tissue
 Means covering.  prevents water loss and resists abrasion.
 One of the more familiar systems of the DERMIS – connective tissue
body to everyone because it covers the  average thickness of 10 – 20 times
outside of the body and is easily thicker that epidermis
observed.  responsible for most of the skin’s
The appearance of Integumentary System structural strength
can indicate physiological imbalances. SUBCUNTANEOUS TISSUE (hypodermis) –
 Reduced blood flow through the skin layer of connective tissue
during a heart attach can cause a  not part of the skin
person to look pale, whereas increased  connect the skin to underlying muscle or
blood flow as a result of fever can bone
caused a flushed appearance. Layers of the Skin
 Some diseases can cause skin rashes Epidermis
(measles, chicken pox, allergic reaction)  Stratified squamous epithelium.
Function of Integumentary System  In its deepest layers, new cells are
PROTECTION produced by mitosis.
 Provides protection against abrasion  Outermost cells protect the cells lost from
and UV light. the surface.
 Prevents microorganisms from entering  During their movement, the cells change
the body. shape and chemical composition.
 Reduces water loss, thus preventing  KERATINIZATION - reflects the fact that
dehydration. the cells become filled with the protein
SENSATION keratin, which makes them more rigid and
 Has sensory receptors that can detect durable.
heat, cold, touch, pressure, and pain.  Stratified Squamous Epithelium As
VITAMIN D PRODUCTION keratinization proceeds, epithelial cells
 Produces molecule that can be eventually die and form an outer layer of
transformed into vitamin D when exposed dead, rigid cells that resists abrasion and
to UV light, an important regulator of Ca acts as a permeability barrier
homeostasis.  The epidermis prevents water loss and
TEMPERATURE REGULATION resists abrasion.
 The amount of blood flow beneath the  The epidermis, known as the cutaneous
skin’s surface and the activity of sweat membrane, is a keratinized stratified
glands in the skin both help regulate body squamous epithelium.
temperature.  The epidermis is composed of distinct
EXCRETION layers called strata.
 Small amount of waste products are lost  The stratum corneum, the most superficial
through the skin and in gland secretions. stratum of the epidermis, consists of dead
squamous cells filled with keratin.
 Keratin gives the stratum corneum its
structural strength.
 Cells of the deepest strata perform mitosis.
 As new cells form, they push older cells to
the surface, where they slough, or flake off.
  Dermal papillae are projections toward the
DERMIS example: epidermis found in the upper part of the
DANDRUFF dermis.
Excessive sloughing of stratum corneum cells  The dermal papillae contain many blood
from the surface of the scalp. Oil from the scalp vessels.
causes the skin cells to clump together and  The dermal papillae in the palms of the
appear as white flakes. hands, the soles of the feet, and the tips
Causes: of the digits are arranged in parallel,
 dry skin; sensitivity to hair products; and curving ridges that shape the overlying
skin conditions such as seborrheic epidermis into fingerprints and footprints.
dermatitis or eczema
 The overgrowth of a yeast-like fungus Type of Injection - An injection delivers
can also cause dandruff. This substances, such as medicines, to the body by
overgrowth can be caused by stress, puncturing the skin. *
hormones, too much oil on the scalp, or
problems with the immune system. INTRADERMAL INJECTION – administered
CALLUS by drawing the skin taut and inserting a small
In skin subjected to friction, the number of needle at a shallow angle into the dermis.
layers in the stratum corneum greatly  Example: tuberculin skin test
increases, producing a thickened area called a SUBCUTANEOUS INJECTION – achieved by
callus. pinching the skin to form a “tent” and inserting
CORN a short needle into the adipose tissue of
Over a bony prominence, the stratum corneum subcutaneous tissue.
can thicken to form a cone-shaped structure  Example: insulin injection
called a corn. INTRAMUSCULAR INJECTION –
accomplished by inserting a long needle at a
Dermis 90-degree angle to the skin into a muscle deep
 Composed of dense collagenous to the subcutaneous tissue.
connective tissue containing fibroblasts,  Example: vaccination and
adipocytes, and macrophages. antibiotic injection
 Nerves, hair follicles, smooth muscles,
glands, and lymphatic vessels extend into Skin Color
the dermis. MELANIN
 Collagen fibers, oriented in many  Group of pigments primarily responsible for
directions, and elastic fibers are skin, hair, and eye color.
responsible for the structural strength of the  Mostly brown to black pigments
dermis and resistance to stretching.  Some are yellowish or reddish.
 Some collagen fibers are oriented in more  Provides protection against UV light.
directions than others, forming cleavage  Produced by melanocyte.
lines.  MELANOCYTE – are irregularly shaped
 Cleavage lines, or tension lines, in the cells with many long processes that
skin, are more resistant to stretching. extend between epithelial cells of the
 It is important for surgeons to be aware of deep part of the epidermis.
cleavage lines.  Melanin transfer to epithelial cell
If the skin is overstretched for any reason, the MELANIN PRODUCTION
dermis can be damaged, leaving stretch  Determined by genetic factors, exposure to
marks. sunlight, and hormones.
Stretch Marks - can develop when a person
increase in size quite rapidly. Genetic factors
 Responsible for the amounts of melanin
produced in different races.
 All races have about the same number of  HAIR BULB – the expanded base of the
melanocytes. root, where hair is produced
 Racial variations in skin color are  A hair has a hard cortex, which surrounds
determined by amount, kind, and a softer center, the medulla.
distribution of melanin.  The cortex is covered by the cuticle, a
 A single mutation can prevent the single layer of overlapping cells that holds
production of melanin. (Albinism) the hair in the hair follicle.

ALBINISM – is a recessive genetic trait that  Hair is produced in the hair bulb, which
causes a deficiency or an absence of melanin. rests on the hair papilla.
Albinos have fair skin, white hair, and  HAIR PAPILLA – an extension of the
unpigmented irises in the eyes. dermis that protrudes into hair bulb.
 Blood vessels within the papilla supply the
Exposure to sunlight hair bulb with the nourishments needed to
 Exposure to UV stimulates melanocytes produce the hair.
to increase melanin production. growth stage, hair is formed by mitosis of
Hormones epithelial cells within the hair bulb; these cells
 Estrogen and melanocyte-stimulating divide and undergo keratinization.
hormone During the resting stage, growth stops and the
 Cause an increase in melanin production hair is held in the hair follicle.
during pregnancy in the mother
 Darkening of nipples, pigmented circular PATTER BALDNESS IN MEN – permanent
areas around the nipples, “the mask of loss of hair. These changes occur when male
pregnancy”, dark line of pigmentation on sex hormones act on the hair follicles of men
the middle of the abdomen who have genetic predisposition for pattern
CAROTENE baldness.
 A yellow pigment found in plants such as
squash and carrots. “Hair color is determined by varying amounts
 Source of vitamin A for humans. and types of melanin. The production and
 Lipid-soluble distribution of melanin by melanocytes occurs
 When consumed, it accumulates in the in the hair bulb by the same method in the
lipids of the stratum corneum and in the skin.”
adipocytes of the dermis and subcutaneous With age, the amount of melanin in hair can
tissue. decrease, causing the hair color to become
faded, or the hair can contain no melanin and
ACCESSORY SKIN STRUCTURES be white. “
The accessory skin structures are: Glands
 Hair
 Glands SEBACEOUS GLANDS
 Nails  Simple, branched acinar gland
Hair  Most connected by a duct to the
 Found everywhere on the skin except on superficial part of a hair follicle
the palms, the soles, the lips, the nipples,  Produce sebum
parts of the genitalia, and the distal  An oily, white substance rich in lipids
segments of the fingers and toes.  Sebum is released by holocrine
secretion and lubricates the hair and the
 HAIR FOLLICLE – where hair arises, an surface of the skin, which prevents
invagination of the epidermis that extends drying and protects against bacteria
deep into the dermis Acne - Inflammation of hair follicles and
 HAIR SHAFT – protrudes above the sebaceous gland.
surface of the skin
 HAIR ROOT – protrudes below the surface
 PHYSIOLOGY OF THE INTEGUMENTARY
SWEAT GLANDS SYSTEM
1. Eccrine Sweat Glands Protection
 Simple, coiled, tubular glands and release The integumentary system performs many
sweat by merocrine secretion. protective functions:
 Located in almost every part of the skin but 1. Reduction in body water loss.
most numerous in the palms and soles. 2. Acts as a barrier that prevents
 They produce a secretion that is mostly microorganisms and other foreign
water with a few salts. substances from entering the body.
 Have ducts that open onto the surface of 3. Protects underlying structures against
the skin through sweat pores and are for abrasion.
thermal regulation. 4. Melanin absorbs ultraviolet light and
 Sweat can also be released in the palms, protects underlying structures from its
soles, armpits, and other places because of damaging effects.
emotional stress. 5. Hair protection: The hair on the head acts
2. Apocrine Sweat Glands as a heat insulator, eyebrows keep sweat
 Simple, coiled, tubular glands that produce out of the eyes, eyelashes protect the eyes
a thick secretion rich in organic substances. from foreign objects, and hair in the nose
 The glands open into hair follicles in the and ears prevents the entry of dust and
armpits and genitalia. other materials.
 Become active at puberty because of the 6. The nails protect the ends of the fingers
influence of sex hormones. and toes from damage and can be used in
 The secretion generally is odorless, but defense.
when released quickly breaks down by Sensation
bacterial action giving body odor.  Many sensory receptors are associated
with the skin.
Nails  Receptors in the epidermis and dermis can
detect pain, heat, cold, and pressure.
 Although hair does not have a nerve supply,
sensory receptors around the hair
follicle can detect the movement of a
hair.
Vitamin D Production
1. UV light causes the skin to produce a
precursor molecule of vitamin D.
2. The precursor molecule is carried by the
blood to the liver where it is enzymatically
The nail is a thin plate, consisting of layers of converted.
dead stratum corneum cells that contain a very 3. The enzymatically converted molecule is
hard type of keratin. carried by the blood to the kidneys where it
is converted again to the active form of
vitamin D.
4. Vitamin D stimulates the small intestine to
absorb calcium and phosphate for many
body functions.
  Even though the body can lose large
amounts of sweat, the sweat glands do
not play a significant role in the
Temperature Regulation excretion of waste products.
 Regulation of body temperature is INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM AS A
important because the rate of chemical DIAGNOSTIC AID
reactions within the body can be increased The integumentary system is useful in
or decreased by changes in body diagnosis because it is observed easily and
temperature. often reflects events occurring in other
 Even slight changes in temperature can parts of the body.
make enzymes operate less efficiently Cyanosis
and disrupt the normal rates of chemical  A bluish color to the skin caused by
changes in the body. decreased blood O2 content, is an
 Exercise, fever, and an increase in indication of impaired circulatory or
environmental temperature tend to raise respiratory function.
body temperature. Jaundice
 In order to maintain homeostasis, the  A yellowish skin color, can occur when
body must rid itself of excess heat. the liver is damaged by a disease, such
 Blood vessels in the dermis dilate and as viral hepatitis.
enable more blood to flow within the Rashes and Lesions
skin, thus causing heat to dissipate from  Rashes and lesions in the skin can be
the body. symptoms of problems elsewhere in
 Sweat also assists in loss of heat through the body.
evaporative cooling. Vitamin A Deficiency
 If body temperature begins to drop below  Skin produces excess keratin and
normal, heat can be conserved by the assumes a characteristic sandpaper
constriction of dermal blood vessels, texture.
which reduces blood flow to the skin. Iron Deficiency Anemia
 Less heat is transferred from deeper  The nails lose their normal contour and
structures to the skin, and heat loss is become flat or concave (spoon-shaped)
reduced.
 However, with smaller amounts of warm BURNS
blood flowing through the skin, the skin
temperature decreases.  A burn is injury to a tissue caused by
 If the skin temperature drops below 15°C, heat, cold, friction, chemicals, electricity,
dermal blood vessels dilate. or radiation.
 Burns are classified according to their
Heat Exchange in the Skin depth.
 Radiation  Partial-thickness burns are classified as
 Convection first-degree and second-degree.
 Conduction  A full-thickness burn is a third-degree
 Evaporation burn.
Partial-thickness burns
Excretion Parts of stratum basale remains viable, and
 The integumentary system plays a minor regeneration of the epidermis occurs from
role in excretion, the removal of waste within the burn area, as well as from the edges
products from the body. of the burn.
 In addition to water and salts, sweat First-degree burns (superficial)
contains small amounts of waste products,  Burn involves only the epidermis and is
such as urea, uric acid, and ammonia. red and painful.
 Slight edema, or swelling, may be present.
 They can be caused by sunburn or brief
exposure to very hot or very cold
objects, and they heal without scarring in
NOTE:
 about a week.
Limiting exposure to the sun and using sunscreens that block UV light can reduce the likelihood of
developing skin cancer.
 Gray or whiteburns
Second-degree hair also results from decrease in or lack of melanin production.
(partial-thickness)
 Burns damage both sunlight
 Skin that is exposed to shows signs
the epidermis andof aging more rapidly than non-exposed skin.
the SKIN CANCER
 If dermal damage is minimal, symptoms  Most common cancer
include redness, pain, edema, and blisters.  Mainly caused by UV light exposure
 Healing takes about 2 weeks, and no  Develop on the face, neck, or hands
scaring results.  Fair-skinned people more prone (have less
 If the burn goes deep into the dermis, the protection from the sun), 50 y/o above (had
wound appears red, tan, or white; can take long exposure to the sun)
several months to heal and might scar. Types of Skin Cancer
Basal cell carcinoma
Full-thickness burns  cells in stratum basale affected
Third-degree burns  cancer removed by surgery
 Damage the complete epidermis and Squamous cell carcinoma
dermis.  cells above stratum basale affected
 The region of third-degree burn is usually  can cause death
painless because sensory receptors in Malignant melanoma
the epidermis and dermis have been  arises from melanocytes in a mole
destroyed.  rare type
 Third-degree burns appear white, tan,  can cause death
brown, black, or deep cherry red. Limiting exposure to the sun and using
sunscreens that block UV light can reduce the
Burn Healing likelihood of developing skin cancer.
 In all second-degree burns, the epidermis,
UVA vs. UVB
including the stratum basale where the
Ultraviolet light is classified into two types
stem cells are found, is damaged.
based on their wavelengths:
 The epidermis regenerates from
epithelial tissue in hair follicles and sweat  UVA – has longer wavelength than UVB,
glands, as well as from the edges of the exposure to UVA causes most tanning of
wound. the skin but is associated with the
 Deep partial-thickness and full- development of malignant melanoma.
thickness burns take a long time to heal, (photoaging)
and they form scar tissue with disfiguring  UVB – shorter wavelength, exposure to
and debilitating wound contractures. UVB causes most burning of the skin and
Treatments of Burns associated with the development of basal
 To prevent complications of deep partial- cell and squamous cell carcinomas.
thickness and full-thickness burns and to (sunburn)
speed healing, skin grafts are often
performed. EFFECTS OF AGING ON THE
 Split skin graft – the epidermis and part INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
of the dermis are removed from another
part of the body and placed over the  Blood flow decreases and skin
burn becomes thinner due to decreased
 When it is not possible or practical to move amounts of collagen
skin from one part of the body to a burn  Decreased activity of sebaceous and
site, physicians sometimes use artificial sweat glands make temperature
skin or grafts from human cadavers. regulation more difficult
 Loss of elastic fibers cause skin to sag
and wrinkle