Edu 2204 Comparative of Education

LECTURE NOTES
COURSE CODE:EDU 2 20 4
COURSE TITLE: COMPARATIVE EDUCATION
LECTURER: DR NENE
SEPTEMBER – 2022
DECEMBER
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EDU 2204: COMPARATIVE EDUCATION
SELECTED TOPICS
TOPIC 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Definition of Comparative Education
1.2 Objectives of Comparative Education
1.3 Scope of Comparative Education
1.4 Importance of Studying Comparative Education
TOPIC 2: METHODOLOGY AND HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF

COMPARATIVE EDUCATION
2.1 Methodology and approaches in Comparative Education

2.2 Historical Developments in Comparative Education
2.3 Stages and periods in the development of Comparative Education
TOPIC 3: EDUCATION SYSTEMS IN EUROPE: BRITAIN AND FRANCE

3.1 Britain
3.2 France
3.3 Russia
TOPIC 4: EDUCATION IN THE U.S.A
TOPIC 5: EDUCATION IN SOUTHERN AMERICA

5.1 Brazil
5.2 Argentina
5.3 Mexico
TOPIC 6: EDUCATION SYSTEMS IN ASIA: CHINA, JAPAN AND INDIA

6.1 China
6.2 Japan
6.3 India
TOPIC 7: EDUCATION SYSTEMS IN AFRICA: THE ANGLOPHONE,

FRANCOPHONE AND LUSOPHONE COUNTRIES
7.1 Education systems in Anglophone Countries

1) Kenya
2) Uganda
3) Tanzania
4) Tanzania
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7.2 Education in Francophone Countries
1) Cameroon
2) Madagascar
7.3 Education in Lusophone Countries

1) Mozambique
2) Angola
TOPIC 8: EDUCATION SYSTEMS IN ETHIOPIA AND SOMALIA

8.1 Ethiopia
8.2 Somalia
TOPIC 9: GLOBAL ISSUES IN EDUCATION

9.1 Global Trends in Education
9.2 Issues in the African Context: Brain drain, Economic hardships and Conflicting
Interests 9.3 Local Context Issues: Exam cheating, Medium of Instruction, Cost-
sharing and Education and unemployment
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EDU 2204: COMPARATIVE EDUCATION
TOPIC 1: INTRODUCTION
Definition of Comparative Education
Generally, Comparative Education is defined as a fully established academic field of study that
examines Education in one Country or group of Countries by using data and insights drawn from
the practices and situations in another country, or countries. It is a field of study that applies
historical, philosophical and social sciences theories and methods to international problems in
Education.
The following are other attempts made to define Comparative Education:
1. Philip Altbach (1998) asserts that Comparative Education is an intersection of the social
sciences, education and cross-national study, which attempts to use cross-national data to
test propositions about the relationship between education and society and between
teaching practices and learning outcomes.
2. F.N. Getao (1996) defined Comparative Education as a discipline, the study of

educational systems in which one seeks to understand the similarities and differences
among educational systems.
3. Epstein (1995) defines Comparative Education as an interdisciplinary field of study that

and social science theories and methods for the comparative analysis of educational
issues.
4. Bray, M (1995 asserts that Comparative Education is a discipline in the social sciences
which entails the scrutiny and evaluation of different educational systems, such as those in
various countries. Professionals in this area of endeavor are absorbed in advancing
evocative terminologies and guidelines for education worldwide, enhancing educational
structures and producing a context to which the success and effectivity of education
programs and initiatives can be assessed.
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5. A Nigerian Curriculum Scholar A. A. Adeyinka in his book; Popular Topics for
Nigerian Tertiary Education Students (1994) gives the following definitions of
Comparative Education:
a) A study of two or more Education systems.
b) A study of how the Philosophy, objectives and aims, policy and practice of Education in
other countries influence the general development, policy and practice of Education in a
particular country.
c) A study of how the development of Education in the past, across the ages and continents,
has influenced the development of education in particular countries.
d) A study of the school systems of two or more countries, and of the administrative
machineries set up to implement or to control the implementation of government policies
at various levels of education systems.
6. Nicholas Hans (1958) sees Comparative Education as the step by step study of different
and often contrasting educational systems with a view of understanding their differences
and similarities .
Objectives of Comparative Education
Harold Noah (1985) and Farooq Joubish (2009) identifies five objectives of Comparative Education:
1) To describe educational systems, processes, or outcomes.

2) To assist in the development of educational institutions and practices.
3) To highlight the relationships between education and society.
4) To establish generalized statements about education that are valid in more than one country.
5) To help the current generation understand the now a days education systems with reference to the past.
Scope of Comparative Education
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There are five perspectives that capture the scope of comparative education. These are:
1) The subject matter and content: This covers the essential components of educational
systems such as structure, aims, content or curriculum, administration, financing, teacher
education.
2) Geographical units of study: These comprises intra-national, international, regional,

continental and global or world systems studies and analysis.
3) Ideological scope: This compares countries' educational systems based on different

political, social and economic ideologies. For example, democratic, communism, socialist,
capitalist, free market and mixed economies.
4) Thematic scope: This scope focuses on educational themes, topical issues or problems
and compares them within one or more geographical units. For example free primary and
secondary education, universal primary education, education for all and universal higher
education.
5) The historical or spatial scope: This deals with the study of the historical development
of the discipline from the earliest (pre-historic) phase known as the period of Travelers'
Tales to the modern phase known as the period of social science perspectives.
Importance of Studying Comparative Education

Educational administrators and other personalities who are involved in reforming or reshaping the
school system of their countries are expected to understand other education systems. Sometimes
teachers, particularly those involved in teaching foreign languages with foreign pronunciation and
unfamiliar spellings need specialized knowledge of foreign methods; so do the planners involved
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in curriculum development. Comparative education is therefore an important determinant of their
thinking. It provides them with the tools necessary for their work.
1. Intellectual Curiosity
Another reason for studying comparative education is simply a healthy curiosity to know about
other peoples. Everyone wants to know how other people carry on their daily activities.
Comparative education seems to satisfy this kind of need. Many people also argue that
comparison is the beginning not only of tolerance but also of wisdom. This is so because one
starts being influenced through understanding different systems. This in itself is knowledge for
the sake of it.
2. Search for Understanding

To facilitate the understanding of other nations, there is a need to study their systems because the
reality of a nation is largely reflected in a country's educational system. The need to understand
other nations is considered as a necessity since understanding others, brings harmony between
nations. Understanding may lead to avoidance of prejudice and this can be viewed as fundamental
to international peace and the banning of destructive wars.
3. Internationalism
Another reason to compare various educational systems is the need to foster internationalism. If
we are to appreciate the values of international issues such as "Education as a human right", this
requires that we learn how others consider and implement these issues. One issue, which seems to
be interpreted differently, is that of free and basic education. Each country approaches it
differently. International organizations involved in providing educational assistance also require
information for the policy options of various countries. Such information is important for
promotion of international understanding.
4. Judging and Appreciating the Local Systems

Comparative education enables the students to appreciate his own education system better when
he understands other people's systems. For example, Kenyan students may appreciate the present
8-4-4 system better when they realize that other systems are not superior to it.
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5. Enlightening Teachers
The purpose of Comparative education should not be limited to that of com paring different
educational systems but should embrace the need to envisage reforms best suited to one's
national, social and economic conditions. This makes comparative education a relevant course not
only for the educational administrators but more so for the intending teachers who should not
remain unaware of other educational systems. Teachers need to broaden their knowledge of
education because they are future education implementers, future curriculum developers and
future participants in educational innovators in their country and even in the whole education
world.
TOPIC 2: METHODOLOGY AND HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF

COMPARATIVE EDUCATION
Methodology and approaches in Comparative Education
Comparative research is the act of comparing/juxtaposing two or more things with a view of
establishing similarities and differences. There is no single methodology for comparative
research. It usually depends on the aspect being studied and the purpose of the comparison.
Comparative research concerns itself with middle-range theories and methods that do not purport
to generalise on social systems but a subset of it. Several approaches have been proposed to the
study of comparative Education. They include:
1. The de Paris Approach

The method suggested by Jullien de Paris involves the use of questionnaire. These are books
containing a series of questions. These questions cover the various levels of education systems e.g
primary and common education, secondary and classical education, higher and scientific
education and normal or teacher training education. They also cover the education of girls,
education as it is related to legislation, and social institutions in the country. De Paris hoped that
every country of the world would accept to answer the questionnaires dealing with all levels of
their education systems and even provide further information through correspondence.
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2. The Problem Approach
Brian Holmes was a professor of comparative education at the University of London from 1957
to 1986. He suggests an elaborate methodological framework called problem approach.
According to Holmes, when there arises a problem, we naturally tend to look for solutions. But
when doing this, we always have a tendency to adopt one solution and try to interpret facts in
such a way that they fit in with our opinion. When we try to apply a preselected solution,
obstacles are bound to crop up. Such obstacles determine the level to which the problem is still to
be solved. When we come to realize that it is impossible to solve the problem via the chosen
solution, we think of an alternative solution or make a compromise with other solutions.
3. The Historical Approach

History knows the truth. All societies or phenomena have a history that is important in
understanding of the phenomena. It applies to all fields of study as it explains their origins,
growth, theories, developments and even crisis. This approach was developed by Kandel and
Butler and focused on the causes educational theory and practice. It argued that past experiences
could be used to formulate hypotheses for the present as this exposed achievements and mistakes
of the past that could be used for present day planning.
They could also used to predict the future and avoid past mistakes in future undertakings. Every
society or system was seen as a product of history which needed to be understood, especially how
each society developed its education. This method was popularized by Isaac Kandel and Michael
Sadler with the argument that educational policies and practices had a cause and effect. Each
national system of education was to be studied separately in a historical context with an analysis
of factors responsible for similarities and differences.
4. The Descriptive/ Statistical Method

Pioneers of comparative education such as Marc Antoinne Jullien and Mathew Arnold
extensively used this method. It emphasizes the collection, interpretation, verification and
comparison of data in education using statistical/ analytical charts to facilitate borrowing of useful
lessons from foreign countries. They believed that only scientific methods could be comparable.
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This method is still being used but faces a limitation on the unreliability and imprecision of
statistical data.
5. The Philosophical Approach
This is very closely related to the national character approach as was proposed by Hall and John
Dewey for the American education system. Philosophy helps us understand the world and how
we can improve it. This approach helps influence the theory and practice of education. It sees
society as living in a process of transmission just like a biological body. It sees life as a self-
reviewing process. This approach enables us to arrive at the best educational practices for each
society i.e what knowledge is of more worth. Comparative educationists philosophically interpret
certain characteristics of the society and then develop the right education system.
6. Methodological Approach
It originates from the works of John Stuart Mills who offered a system of research strategies for
making experimental generalizations through agreement. The basic argument is that if two or
more instances of an issue being studied has only one of several causal circumstances then the
circumstance in which all the instances agree is the causal phenomenon. An education system
could then be compared to a constant e.g. government strategy. The analysis and comparison of
differences is essential.
7. Triangulation
Triangulation implies the application of a variety of methodologies or more than one approach to
the understanding of a given phenomena in order to enhance confidence in the findings. It is one
of the rationales for multimethod research. It enables the researcher to ensure that all dimensions
or variables of the phenomena is taken care of. Contemporary leading scholars in Comparative
Education such as Philip Altbach recommend this method. This was mainly based on their
argument that there may be no single methodology that would provide explanation to all
comparative education phenomena. It enhances reliability and validity of the research. It is
therefore part of multidimensional research. One a position has been established by more
methods, it is more likely to be true. It can include data triangulation, researcher triangulation,
theoretical triangulation or methodological triangulation.
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Historical Developments in Comparative Education
Comparative Education is not a recent phenomenon but is as old as Education itself. It is

important therefore to mention a few individuals who contributed to the development of
Comparative Education. These are:
1. Marc- Antoinne Jullien de Paris

2. Sir Michael Sadler
3. Isack Kandel
4. Friendrick Schneider
Marc- Antoinne Jullien de Paris

Many scholars of the last and this century agree that the first comprehensive schemes for the
study of the educational systems of the world was devised by Marc-Antoine Jullien de Paris in
1817. Because Jullien seems to have been the first person to discover a methodological approach
to, and the purpose of, comparative education, he is considered as the father of the discipline. In
his methodological approach Jullien envisaged an 'analytical' study of education in all countries
with the intention of improving national systems by means of making necessary modifications or
changes based on local conditions. His wish apparently was to treat comparative education like
other social sciences, such as sociology, economics, psychology and anthropology.
He intended to arrange in analytical tables and charts the facts or data collected all over the world.
This was necessary for easy comparison before deductions could be made and principles or rules
governing education systems were drawn. Jullien's detailed scheme remained dormant until it
was rediscovered in the 20th century.
Michael Sadler
Sir Michael Sadler contributed to the development of comparative education by emphasizing the
use of the analytical approach. He cautioned against borrowing indiscriminately from other
systems.
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He therefore shifted the attention of comparatists to the need to understand what he called Things outside
the school system. To make his intention clearer in 1900 he published a book showing how one can learn
all kinds of things from the study of fort systems. He pointed out that any national education system is a
living thing, which grows out of a whole history of forgotten struggles and difficulties. Sir Michael
Sadler's point was that schools ought to be studied within the national and cultural contexts because there
exists outside the school system issues which are more important than those inside.
It was his view that issues outside the school system are helpful when explaining what goes on in the
school because they strongly influence what goes on in the school system.
Sadler had in mind among other things, issues pertaining to the political ideology of the country,
social differences, the economic state of the country and its philosophical orientation. His caution
against borrowing from foreign system specified that 'an educational idea or practice from another
country can only work if it is well understood and adapted within the socio-cultural context of the
country'.
Isack Kandel
Kandel was a professor of Education at Teachers College, Columbia University. He did
tremendous work in comparative education particularly in the 1930's. Kandel's main theoretical
contribution is in his suggestion that a historical and philosophical approach should be adopted in
the study of comparative education.
Kandel paid particular attention to what became known as the National Character. Although he
did not specify its historical background, his system was based on an approach to comparative
education which seeks to understand the historical background and the philosophy of the nation
being studied.
He maintained the view that through the study of the history of a nation and the historical
evolution of its philosophical ideas, a national education system can be understood. Like Sir
Michael Sadler, Kandel wished to predict the future of education rather than borrow from the
study of other systems. This view did not really limit Kandel's interest in internationalism.
Friedrick Schneider
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Friedrick Schneider's work was a Director of the Institute of Comparative Education, Salzburg.
During the 1940's Schneider, a German, adopted the historical approach to the study of the
educational problems of many other countries. In his study, he identified ten factors which he
believed usually determine any national education. He outlined them as follows:
1. The National Philosophy, which is based on the people's view of the world around them.
2. The geography of the country, which relates to the physical and environmental conditions.
3. Language used in the country, literature and artistic creativity.
4. Science and philosophy in terms of how they have been developed.
5. Social and political stratification.
6. Economic structure.
7. Religion.
8. History
9. International Influences
10. The internal dynamics of the school systems.
It should be pointed out here that Schneider's main emphasis was not on all these factors but
mainly on the history, philosophy and internal dynamics of the school systems for a thorough
understanding of comparative education. Schneider's contribution to comparative education
occurred during and after the World War II of 1939-45. Progress in comparative education after
the War showed a shift in its main interest. It now centred on the reconstruction that followed the
War.
Stages and periods in the development of Comparative Education

The development of comparative education has been marked by five different stages, each characterized by a
different motive. However these stages may intersect in time.
i) Travellers Tales: This was the earliest stage which was prompted by simple curiosity and
was mainly based on tales brought home by travelers to foreign parts. They gave descriptions of
educational systems and practices abroad which were then used to review the education systems
of their homelands. Since they were not professionals in education, their attention to education
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was fragmented, generally unsystematic and subjective. Major contributors at this stage included
Herodotous( the Greek historian), Xenophon (on Persian education), Cicero, (Greek education)
and Erasmus. Though their works were very subjective and had no empirical basis, they made
significant contributions to the education of these countries.
ii) Educational borrowing: During this period, the desire to learn useful lessons from
foreign practices was the major motivation. It begun at the beginning of the 19th C after the
industrial revolution, the French revolution and coincided with colonization. It also coincided
with the rise of national systems of education in Europe. Different countries sent educationists
abroad to gather useful educational experiences for the development of their own systems. They
were predominantly educational practitioners, experts, politicians and activists. They were mainly
concerned with educational theory, methodology, finance, and organization. Marc Antoine
Jullien De Paris (France), Mathew Arnold (England) and Henry Benard, (USA) were the most
prominent contributors at this stage. Julien lived during the time of the Napoleonic times and saw
education as a positive way to improve the French society. This stage also lacked objectivity and
was mainly utilitarian and descriptive.
iii)The Rise of International Educational Cooperation: This was the period just towards the
end of the 19th C. Exchange of information about foreign countries and particularly about foreign
education was considered desirable simply to break down the barriers of ignorance that divided
nation from nation. It was characterised by extensive exchanges of scholars, students,
publications, increase in international contacts and networks to promote international
understanding and sharing of knowledge.
The main concern was how different contexts shaped education systems. Scholars were concerned
with being able to predict the likely sucess of educational borowings in implementing reforms.
Michael Sadler and Isac Kandel were major contributors at this time. .
iv)The Rise of the Social Sciences: This period begun at the onset of the 20thC and laid the
foundation for the search for explanations for the wide variety social phenomena. The social
sciences such as economics, philosophy, psychology, and sociology took a centre stage. The
main concern was to provide scientific explanations for relationships between education and
society, as the two influenced each other. The interaction between education and society was to
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be analysed by looking at how historical, economic, social and contemporary factors shaped
education. Interest was not only in the nature of the relationships, but the possibility of using the
conclusions for educational reform for better societies. Studies were also made on how education
determines national character. This period marked the beginning of empirical studies of
comprative education.
v) Comparative Education as a Discipline: This stage has been marked with the fruitful growth
of comparative education as a scientific discipline in education. It was fueled by the aftermaths of
WW2. The devastations of WW2 was followed by unprecedented international cooperation which
enhanced more international interactions through education.
Education was one of the main ways of promoting international interactions and peace after the
war. The end of the war resulted into the establishment of new and influential international
agencies such as the United Nations (UN), the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World
Bank which have been crucial in the growth of the discipline. Through UNESCO,UNICEF and
UNDP comparative education has flourished.
Comparative education now became characterized with social science explanations and use of
empirical methods to clarify the relationships between education and society. The methods of
explanation have become more scientific and robust. This has strengthened the explanatory
power and relevance of Comparative Education as a social science field. Many governments are
concerned with improving their education systems. Institutions also want to inculcate best
practices. Professional associations and research centres on comparative education are also
continuing to flourish.
They collect, analyze and document educational data/information for use in comparisons. The
Comparative and International Education Society (CIES) and Association of International
Educators (NAFSA) foster cross cultural understanding, scholarship and academic achievement
through international study of educational idealism, practices and systems. Many top universities
have also established departments of comparative education. The contemporary effects of
globalization, internationalization of education and the growth of the “knowledge society” or the
network society is continuing to make comparative education more relevant than ever before. The
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field has grown steadily from its precarious beginnings to its current state of academic
institutionalization and respectability.
TOPIC 3: EDUCATION IN EUROPE: BRITAIN, FRANCE AND RUSSIA
Britain
The Great Britain also known as the United Kingdom is a sovereign country in north-western
Europe, off the north-western coast of the European mainland. The United Kingdom includes the
island of Great Britain, the North-Eastern part of the island of Ireland, and many smaller islands
within the British Isles. It consists of consists of four countries namely:
1. England
2. Scotland
3. Wales
4. Northern Ireland
Education in the United Kingdom is a devolved matter with each of the countries of the United
Kingdom having separate systems under separate governments. The UK Government is
responsible for England; whilst the Scottish Government, the Welsh Government and the
Northern Ireland Executive are responsible for Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland,
respectively.
Stages of Education in Britain
In each Constituent country, there are five stages of Education namely:
1. Early years
2. Primary
3. Secondary
4. Further education
5. Higher education
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The law states that full time education is compulsory for all children between the ages of 5 (4 in
Northern Ireland) and 16, the compulsory school age. In England, compulsory education or
training has been extended to 18 for those born on or after 1 September 1997.This full-time
education does not need to be at a school and some parents choose to home educate. Before they
reach compulsory school age, children can be educated at nursery if parents wish, though there is
limited government funding for such places. Further Education is non-compulsory, and covers
non-advanced Education which can be taken at further, including tertiary education colleges and
Higher Education institutions
The fifth stage, Higher Education, is study beyond A levels or BTECs and their equivalent
which, for most full-time students, takes place in universities and other Higher Education
institutions and colleges.
The National Curriculum established in 1988, provides a framework for education in England and
Wales between the ages of 5 and 18. Though the National Curriculum is compulsory, some
private schools, academies, free schools and home educators design their own curricula. In
Scotland the nearest equivalent is the Curriculum for Excellence Programme, and in Northern
Ireland there is something known as the Common Curriculum.
Further Education
Further education (FE) refers to post-secondary education in England and Wales. It covers a wide
curriculum of study and apprenticeships, including A-levels, BTEC, NVQ and others, ranging
from entry level to top level that leads to higher education. The sixth form is post-16 study taken
after completing GCSE (General Certificate of Secondary Education) at school. Academic further
education is generally offered by sixth form colleges or by 11-18 schools with an attached sixth
form. Further education colleges generally provide a wider curriculum and more vocational
Higher Education
In the United Kingdom, higher education is offered by universities and non-university institutions
i.e colleges, institutes, schools and academies and provide both research-oriented and higher
professional education. Universities provide degree programmes that culminate to a degree i.e
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bachelor's, master's, or doctoral degree and non-degree programmes that lead to a vocational
qualification such as a certificate or diploma.
British higher education is highly valued around the globe for its quality and rigorous academic
standards. The prestige of British higher education emanates from the alumni of its world
renowned institutions. Prominent people that have reached the apex in their respective fields have
been products of British higher education. Britain is home to some of the world's most prominent
institutions of higher learning and ranked among the top universities in the world. Institutions
such as the University of Cambridge, the University of Oxford, Imperial College London, and
UCL consistently rank among the world's top ten universities.
Entry qualifications
Students that sit for the GCSE usually take 20 to 25 examinations and they usually take 9 GCSEs.
Most student will take Maths, English literature, English Language and double science, which
total to 5 GCSEs, students normally take a further 4 GCSEs in a variety of different subjects.
Sitting at the exam culminates the end of 11 years of mandatory education. A General Certificate
of Secondary Education (GCSE) is awarded for each subject passed and World Education
Services issues a high school diploma after the evaluation of a minimum of three GCSEs.
Pre-university education in the United Kingdom is a two-year senior secondary programme that
leads to a new round of examinations, the General Certificate of Education, Advanced Level (also
known as GCE A-levels). As with the GCSE, students who sit for the exam choose the subjects
and the number of examinations (the average number taken is three). WES awards undergraduate
credit based on the nature and number of subjects passed. Each university has their own set of
admission policies and the minimum entry requirements for each particular higher education
programme that they offer. The General Certificate of Education Advanced Level (GCE "A
Levels") is an entry qualification for universities in the United Kingdom and many other
universities across the world.
Students that are interested in pursuing higher education will usually enrol in pre-university and
further education programmes. Pre-university education takes up to two years which culminates
with a new set of examinations, the General Certificate of Education, Advanced Level (GCE
Alevels). Similarly with the GCSE, students who take the exam choose their subjects of interest
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and the number of examinations. Most students take three subjects on average and the WES
grants undergraduate credit based on the nature and number of subjects passed. Bachelor's
degrees at the bare minimum typically require two to three GCE A Level passes, and a minimum
number of GCSE passes with a grade C or above.
Vocational Education
Technical and vocational education in the United Kingdom is introduced during the secondary
school years and goes on until further and higher education. Secondary vocational education is
also known as further education. It is separate from secondary education and doesn't belong to the
category of higher education. Further education incorporates vocational oriented education as
well as a combination of general secondary education. Students can also go on to a further
education college to prepare themselves for the Vocational Certificate of Education (VCE), which
is similar to the A-levels.
Enducation Funding
Almost all state-funded schools in England are maintained schools, which receive their funding
from Local Authorities, and are required to follow the national curriculum. In such schools, all
teachers are employed under the nationally-agreed School Teachers' Pay and Conditions
Document.Since 1998, there have been 4 main types of maintained school in England:
1. Community schools in which the Local Authorities employs the schools' staff, owns the
schools' lands and buildings and has primary responsibility for admissions.
2. Voluntary controlled schools, which are usually church schools, with the lands and
buildings often owned by a charitable foundation. However, the Local Authorities employs
the schools' staff and has primary responsibility for admissions.
3. Voluntary aided schools linked to a variety of organizations. They can be faith schools or
non-denominational schools, such as those linked to London Livery Companies. The
charitable foundation contributes towards the capital costs of the school, and appoints a
majority of the school governors. The governing body employs the staff and has primary
responsibility for admissions.
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4. Foundation Schools, in which the governing body employs the staff and has primary
responsibility for admissions. The school land and buildings are owned by the governing
body or by a charitable foundation. The Foundation appoints a minority of governors.
Many of these schools were formerly grant maintained schools. In 2005 the Labour
government proposed allowing all schools to become Foundation schools if they wished.
The 1988 Education Reform Act made considerable changes to the education system. These
changes were aimed at creating a 'market' in education with schools competing with each other
for 'customers' (pupils). The theory was that bad schools would lose pupils to the good schools
and either have to improve, reduce in capacity or close.
The reforms included the following:
1. The National Curriculum was introduced, which made it compulsory for schools to teach certain
subjects and syllabuses. Previously the choice of subjects had been up to the school.
2. National curriculum assessments were introduced.

3. League tables began showing performance statistics for each school.
4. Formula funding introduced, which meant that the more children a school could attract to it, the
more money it got.
5. Open Enrolment and choice for parents were brought back, so that parents could choose or
influence which school their children went to.
6. Schools could, opt out of local government control; becoming grant maintained schools and
receiving funding direct from central government.
After the WW2 newly emerging countries such as USA and Japan challenged the supremacy of
England in education, especially in scientific innovations. England was largely surpassed in
Science and Technology but remains a very high achiever in education. Not only have the politics
of education changed in important ways, but the substance of the debate about education has also
shifted in recent years. The rationale for education reform is increasingly based on economic
needs, especially about international competitiveness. The Thatcher governments passed a series
of laws that changed education in England dramatically. The reforms largely involved efforts to
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create more of a market-like organization in education. Almost all commentators agree that the
reforms in England have been driven by an explicit ideology based on the superiority of market
mechanisms over state provision of services, and a strong distrust of the views of professional
educators. Britain emphasized on reform within an alternative pluralist culture. However, Britain
is still a major power in the world and has a very strong and impeccable university tradition.
France
Introduction
France officially the French Republic is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe,
with several overseas regions and territories. Metropolitan France extends from the
Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, and from the Rhine to the Atlantic
Ocean. It is one of three countries to have both Atlantic and Mediterranean coastlines.
Education
History
While the French trace the development of their educational system to Napoléon, the modern era
of French education begins at the end of the nineteenth century. Jules Ferry, a lawyer holding the
office of Minister of Public Instruction in the 1880s, is widely credited for creating the modern
school by requiring all children between the ages of 6 and 12 both boys and girls to attend. He
also made public instruction mandatory, free of charge, and secular.
Levels of Education in France
The French Educational system is highly centralized and organized, with many subdivisions. It is divided
into three stages:
1. Primary Education (enseignement primaire)

2. Secondary Education (enseignement secondaire)
3. Higher Education (enseignement superieur)
21
Primary Education
Schooling in France is mandatory as of age 6, the first year of primary school. Many parents start
sending their children earlier though, around age 3 as nursery classes are usually affiliated to a
borough's primary school. Some even start earlier at age 2 in section classes, which are essentially
daycare centres. The last year of this section is an important step in the educational process as it
is the year in which pupils are introduced to reading.
After nursery, the young pupils move on to primary school. It is in the first year that they will
learn to write and develop their reading skills. Much akin to other educational systems, French
primary school students usually have a single teacher (or perhaps two) who teaches the complete
curriculum, such as French, mathematics, science and humanities to name a few.
Secondary Education
French secondary education is divided into two schools:
1. The college for the first four years directly following primary school;
2. The lycee for the next three years.
The completion of secondary studies leads to the baccalaureat.
Baccalaureat
They enroll in a particular diploma. The baccalaureat (also known as bac) is the end of lycee
diploma students sit in order to enter university or professional life. It is generally taken at age 18
if the pupil has not repeated a class during secondary school. The term baccalaureat refers to the
diploma and the examinations themselves.
22
Higher Education
Higher education in France is organized in three levels or grades which correspond to those of other
European countries, facilitating international mobility.
1. Licence and Licence Professionnelle (Bachelor)

2. Master (Master)
3. Doctorat (Doctorate)
Universities in France
The public universities in France are named after the big cities near which they are located,
followed by a numeral if there are several. Paris, for example, has thirteen universities, labelled
Paris I to XIII. Some of these are not in Paris itself, but in the suburbs. In addition, most of the
universities have taken a more informal name which is usually that of a famous person or a
particular place. Sometimes, it is also a way to honor a famous alumnus, for example the science
university in Strasbourg is known as Universite Louis Pasteur while its official name is
Universite Strasbourg I.
The French system has undergone a reform, the Bologna process, which aims at creating
European standards for university studies, most notably a similar time-frame everywhere, with
three years devoted to the Bachelor's degree
( license in French), two for the Master's, and three for the doctorate. French universities have
also adopted the ECTS credit system (for example, a licence is worth 180 credits). However the
traditional curriculum based on end of semester examinations still remains in place in most
universities. This double standard has added complexity to a system which also remains quite
rigid. It is difficult to change a major during undergraduate studies without losing a semester or
even a whole year. Students usually also have few course selection options once.
Education Administration in France
23
All educational Programmes in France are regulated by the Ministry of National Education .The
head of the ministry is the Minister of National Education, one of the highest-ranking officials in
the cabinet.
The teachers in public primary and secondary schools are all state civil servants, making the
ministry the largest employer in the country. Professors and researchers in France's universities
are also employed by the state.
At the primary and secondary levels, the curriculum is the same for all French students in any
given grade, which includes public, semi-public and subsidized institutions. However, there exist
specialized sections and a variety of options that students can choose.
In the Metropolitan territory, the school year extends from early-September to early-July. The school
calendar is standardized throughout the country, and is the sole domain of the ministry.
Russia
Russia also the Russian Federation is a country which is partly in Eastern Europe and partly in
Asia. It is the largest country in the world by land area. About 145 million people live in Russia.
The official name for Russia in English is The Russian Federation. The capital city of Russia is
Moscow.
Russia is a very large and diverse country. Its government is now based on a democratic form of
rule. The president is chosen in direct elections. The official language is Russian. Russia produces
a lot of energy made from oil and natural gas.
Education in Russia is provided predominantly by the state and is regulated by the Ministry of
Education and Science. Regional authorities regulate education within their jurisdictions within
the prevailing framework of federal laws.
Before 1990 the course of school training in Soviet Union was 10-years, but at the end of 1990
the 11-year course had been officially entered. Education in state-owned secondary schools is
24
free; first tertiary (university level) education is free with reservations: a substantial number of
students are enrolled for full pay. Male and female students have equal shares in all stages of
education, except tertiary education where women lead with 57%.
Levels
Pre-school Education and Primary Education
Regional and local authorities regulate kindergartens, unlike schools. The Ministry of Education
and Science regulates only a brief pre-school preparation programme for the 5–6 year old
children. In 2004 the government attempted to charge the full cost of kindergartens to the parents;
widespread public opposition caused a reversal of policy. Currently, local authorities can legally
charge the parents not more than 20% of costs.
The Soviet system provided for nearly universal primary (nursery, age 1 to 3) and kindergarten (age 3
to 7) service in urban areas, relieving working mothers from daytime childcare needs.
Secondary school
Eleven-year secondary education in Russian is compulsory since September 1, 2007. Until 2007,
it was limited to nine years with grades 10-11 optional; federal subjects of Russia could enforce
higher compulsory standard through local legislation within the eleven–year federal programme.
Moscow enacted compulsory eleven–year education in 2005, similar legislation existed in Altai
Krai, Sakha and Tyumen Oblast. A student of 15 to 18 years of age may drop out of school with
approval of his/her parent and local authorities, and without their consent upon reaching age of
18. Expulsion from school for multiple violations disrupting school life is possible starting at the
age of 15. The eleven-year school term is split into elementary (grades 1-4), middle (grades 5-9)
and senior (grades 10-11) classes.
Absolute majority of children attend full Programme schools providing eleven-year education;
Vocational training option
25
They provide students with a working skill qualification and a high school certificate equivalent
to 11-year education in a normal school; the Programme, due to its work training component,
extends to 3 years.
Education for the disabled
Physical disability
Children with physical disabilities, depending on the nature, extent of disability and availability of
local specialized institutions, attend either such institutions or special classes within regular
schools.
Tertiary (University level) Education
According to a 2005 UNESCO report, more than half of the Russian adult population has attained
a tertiary Education.
TOPIC 4: EDUCATION IN THE U.S.A
The United States of America (U.S.A) is a federal republic consisting of 50 states and a federal
district. The 48 contiguous states and the federal district of Washington, D.C. are in central North
America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is the northwestern part of North
America, west of Canada and east of Russia which is across the Bering Strait in Asia, and the
state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-North Pacific. The country also has five populated
and nine unpopulated territories in the Pacific and the Caribbean.
Education
Each State in America has the power to establish its own system of education. The local districts
under the States also have the power to establish schools boards and to found schools as well. The
power of the States to set up schools does not in any way, prevent the church from establishing
schools in any of the states.
26
Levels of Education in U.S.A
The Education Levels in America include:
1. Nursery Education
2. Elementary or Primary Education
3. Secondary Education
4. Teacher Education and
5. University and Adult Education
Nursery Education
At the beginning, nursery education was part of primary school between 1868 and 1873. By 1888,
nursery education had spread to many places in America. The Lanham Education Act of 1940
also enhanced the development of nursery education in America by giving subventions from the
federal government to nursery education.
Later, individuals who had interest in the education of children started to part-take in the running of
nursery schools. Also, the churches were participating in the running of nursery school.
The Primary Education

Primary Education in America is the education given to the children which has the duration
of six years. The purpose of American primary education includes:
1. Turning out well-adjusted citizens.

2. Helping the children to be active participants in the building of their own lives and also to
assist them in understanding the roles expected of them in establishing a better American
society.
The Primary school subjects include:

i) Mathematics ii) Science iii)
Geography iv) History
27
v) Social Studies vi)
English language vii)
English literature
viii) French ix)
German x) Spanish
However, religious subjects are not included in the school curriculum as Americans have
freedom of worship. In the primary schools, the promotion of the pupils is always based on
continuous assessment and not on any promotion examination. It is the duty of the Local Schools
Board to provide some of the school materials.
A public primary school is headed by the principal who is the administrative head of the school.
While the primary school teachers are expected to have a university degree, the principals are in
addition expected to have master’s degree of educational administration and supervision.
The failure of the Federal Government to include Religious Instructions in the school
curriculum was one of the reasons that forced the Catholic to establish their own schools where
religious instruction was included in the school curriculum. By implication, there are both private
and public primary schools in America.
Secondary Schools in America

Secondary education in America is the type of education given to the adolescents on the basis of
three years in the Junior Secondary School and three years in the Senior Secondary School. This
can be referred to as 3 - 3 secondary education system.
The aims and objectives of American Secondary Education include:
1. Creating a strong egalitarian society where everybody will have equal opportunity.
2. Preparing students for survival in the future.
3. Preparing the students for their colleges and universities.
28
Some States in America provide free secondary education and freetextbooks for their citizens
particularly up to the age of sixteen years. The products of primary schools are always admitted
into the secondary schools.
There are both public as well as private secondary schools in America. The Ordinance Act 1785
which made it mandatory for each township to set its sixteenth section for the use of education as
well as the North West Ordinance of 1887 greatly enhanced the development of education in
America.
However, the problem of sub-standardized secondary schools and willingness to provide secondary
education for many American children led to the introduction of Junior High School.
In the Junior High School, the students are expected to spend three years after their primary
education that is between the age of 12-15 years. After successfully completing the Junior
Secondary Education, the students will start their Senior High School Education which is
meant for the students, who are academically inclined.
The public senior high schools are tuition free. Provision of learning materials for schools and
the general financing of schools are responsibilities of the local schools district.
In America, private high schools or secondary schools are also allowed by the constitution.
However, unlike the public high schools, tuition is not free and the teaching of religious education
is allowed. It is on record that America has started operating 6-3-3-4 education system, yet, the
old system of 8-4 years is still in operation (eight years of primary education and four years of
secondary education).
Teacher Education in the United States of America

Teacher education in America like in other places refer to the professional training being given to
the would-be teachers.
The aims and objectives of American Teacher Education include:
29
1. Preparing teachers for the needs and aspirations of American as a
democratic nation.
2. Preparing teachers who will later assist in the training of

American children for the purpose of promoting their culture.
The establishment of Jefferson College in Washington among others in the 1800s marks the
beginning of teacher education in America.
The preparation of primary school teachers is always done by the normal schools. These normal
schools are recognized by the State Boards of Education for the training of primary school
teachers.
The subjects being offered in these training institutions include:

i) Administration ii) Psychology iii) Philosophy iv) History of
education
On the other hand, the secondary school teachers are expected to be university degree holders
after a period of four years either in a college or in the university. In most cases, teachers'
appointment is always on contract basis and it is renewable yearly, provided the concerned
teacher is still interested in working in his school. At the same time, the school district board of
education has the constitutional power to terminate the contract appointment of any of its
teachers.
The American University Education

In America, higher education is provided in the colleges of education, higher technical institutes
and universities. In 1862, the American Government passed the Morrill Act which made it
compulsory for the Americans to make land available to the American Federal Government for
the development of Universities and higher institutions of learning.
There are two major categories of higher education in America namely:
30
1. The state universities and colleges which are maintained by the state
2. Independent universities and colleges which are run by various churches and private individuals.
In these private colleges and universities, high school fees are changed. A
degree programme lasts for four years.
Adult Education in America

The beginning of Adult education can be traced to the establishment of Lyceum in
Massachusetts in 1826. Also, the Smith Lever Act of 1914 as well as the Adult education
Association of the United States in 1951 greatly contributed to the development of Adult
Education in America. Adult education in American is run by private individuals such as
lawyers, physicians, architects, teachers and musicians for the purpose of self culture,
community instruction as well as the mutual discussion of common public interest. In 1906, the
university extension was started and this has been extended to most of the universities in America.
Technical Education
There have been some technical institutions as early as the middle century. But there was no
serious attempt to promote technical education until when the Mosco technical school was able to
perform creditably well at the international exhibitions in the 1970s. Thereafter, more technical
institutions began to spring up in America.
Also, the Morill Act of 1862 assisted in the development of technical education, private individuals
started founding both commercial as well as business colleges.
The Smith-Hughes Act among other things recommended that a Federal Board of vocational
education should be set up. It was on the basis of this that the Federal Board of vocational
education was
established in which a substantial amount of money was set aside by the federal government for the
general promotion of vocational and technical education throughout America.
31
Home Schooling
Many select moral or religious reasons for homeschooling their children. The second main category is
unschooling those who prefer a non-standard approach to education.
Most homeschooling advocates are wary of the established educational institutions for various reasons.
1. Some are religious conservatives who see nonreligious education as contrary to their
moral or religious systems, or who wish to add religious instruction to the educational
curriculum and who may be unable to afford a church-operated private school or where
the only available school may teach views contrary to those of the parents .
2. Others feel that they can more effectively tailor a curriculum to suit an individual student's
academic strengths and weaknesses, especially those with singular needs or disabilities.
3. Still others feel that the negative social pressures of schools such as bullying, drugs,
crime, sex, and other school-related problems are detrimental to a child's proper
development. Parents often form groups to help each other in the homeschooling process,
and may even assign classes.
Extracurricular Activities
A major characteristic of American schools is the high priority given to sports, clubs and
activities by the community, the parents, the schools and the students themselves. Extracurricular
activities are educational activities not falling within the scope of the regular curriculum but
under the supervision of the school. These activities can extend to large amounts of time outside
the normal school day; home-schooled students, however, are not normally allowed to participate.
Student participation in sports programs, drill teams, bands, and spirit groups can amount to hours
of practices and performances. Most states have organizations that develop rules for competition
between groups. These organizations are usually forced to implement time limits on hours
practiced as a prerequisite for participation. Many schools also have non-varsity sports teams;
however, these are usually afforded less resources and attention.
32
Sports programs and their related games, especially football and/or basketball, are major events for
American students and for larger schools can be a major source of funds for school districts.
High school athletic competitions often generate intense interest in the community.
Education of students with special needs

Commonly known as special classes, are taught by teachers with training in adapting curricula to meet
the needs of students with special needs.
Administration of Education in America

Education in America is decentralized. Therefore, it is the responsibility of each estate as well
as the private individuals to take care of their schools. In 1867, the National Office of Education
was set up and it is being headed by the Education Commissioner who is an appointee of the
president of America. The federal government always assists the state governments in the funding
of technical and vocational education.
The state universities are financially aided by the Federal Government. At the State level, there
is a state department of education under the headship of Education Director who is elected by the
people within the state for a period of two to four years. Locally, each local government has a
local board of education, usually headed by a Superintendent of schools in the district. His duties
include: appointing teachers and other personnel who will be working with him. He also works on
the finance of schools founded by the local government.
Financing Education in America

In the whole of America, less than 60 per cent of the total cost of both public primary and
secondary schools comes from the taxes levied by the local schools boards. Also, the state
government always sets aside about 40 per cent of its annual budget for the running of the public
schools. The bulk of this money is generated from the state taxes as well as the taxes paid by the
state workers.
33
In the private schools, starting from the primary school up to the university, the students pay
school fees in addition to the taxes being paid by the parents. Also, some well to-do
individuals in America always assist the private schools financially.
TOPIC 5: EDUCATION IN SOUTHERN AMERICA: BRAZIL,

ARGENTINA AND MEXICO
Brazil
Introduction
Education in Brazil has had many changes. It first began with Jesuit missions, that controlled
education for a long time. Then, two hundred years after their arrival, their powers were limited
by Marquis de Pombal ( or the King). Shortly after the Jesuits' power was limited, the Brazilian
government took over education and it is now is run by the Brazilian government through the
Ministry of Education.
History of Education in Brazil
When Kingdom of Portugal's explorers arrived in Brazil in the 16th century and started to
colonize their new possessions in the New World, the territory was inhabited by indigenous
peoples and tribes who had no writing system or school education.
The Society of Jesus (Jesuits) was, since its beginnings in 1540, a missionary order.
Evangelisation was one of the main goals of the Jesuits and they were committed to teaching and
education, in Europe and overseas. The missionary activities, in the cities and in the countryside,
were complemented by a strong commitment to education. This took the form of the opening of
schools for boys, first in Europe but rapidly extended to America and Asia. The foundation of
34
Catholic missions, schools, and seminaries was another consequence of the Jesuit involvement in
education.
As the spaces and cultures where the Jesuits were present varied considerably, their evangelizing
methods were very often quite different from one place to another. However, the society's
engagement in trade, architecture, science, literature, languages, arts, music and religious debate
corresponded to the same main purpose of Christianization.
In a period when the world had a largely illiterate population, the Portuguese Empire was home to
one of the first universities founded in Europe - the University of Coimbra, which is one of the
oldest universities in continuous operation. Throughout the centuries of Portuguese rule, Brazilian
students, mostly graduated of the Jesuit missions and seminaries, were allowed and even
encouraged to enroll at higher education in mainland Portugal.
The Structure of Education
Education is divided into three levels, with grades in each level:
1. Pre-school Education (educacao infantil): Found in public institutions and private institutions.
2. Basic Education (ensino basico): Found in public institutions and institutions, and mandatory
for those between the ages of 6 and 17. It consists of elementary school (ensino fundamental)
and high school (ensino medio).
3. Higher Education (ensino superior): This including graduate degrees and is found in public
institutions and private institutions.
Pre-school Education (educacao infantil)
Pre-school education is optional and exists to aid in the development of children under 6. It aims
to assist in all areas of child development, including motor skills, cognitive skills, and social skills
while providing fertile ground for the later acquisition of knowledge and learning. There are day
nurseries for children under 2, kindergartens for 2- to 3-year-olds, and preschools for children 4
and up. City governments provide public preschools.
35
Elementary School (ensino fundamental)
Elementary school is mandatory for children ages 6–14. There are nine years as opposed to the
former eight grades. Generally speaking, the only prerequisite for enrolling in first year is that a
child should be 6 years old, but some education systems allow children younger than 6 to enroll
in first year as long as they turn 6 during the first academic semester. Older students who have not
completed their elementary education are allowed to attend, though those over 18 are separated
from the younger children.
The National Council of Education (Conselho Nacional de Educacao) establishes a core
curriculum consisting of: Portuguese language, history, geography, science, mathematics, arts and
physical education for years 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5. As for years 6, 7, 8 and 9, one or two foreign
languages are also compulsory usually English and an optional language.
Each education system supplements this core curriculum with a diversified curriculum defined by
the needs of the region and the abilities of individual students.
Elementary education is divided in two stages:
1. Ensino Fundamental I (years 1–5)

2. Ensino Fundamental II (years 6–9).
During Ensino Fundamental I each group of students is usually assisted by a single teacher. In Ensino
Fundamental II, there are as many teachers as subjects.
The length of the school year is set by the National Education Bases and Guidelines Law ( Lei de
Diretrizes e Bases da Educacao) to at least 200 days. Elementary schools must provide students
with at least 800 hours of activities per year. The school calendar is set by individual schools,
which often organize their calendars according to planting and harvesting seasons in rural areas.
High School (ensino medio)
Students must have finished their elementary school before they enroll in high school. Secondary
education takes three years. The minimum is 2,200 hours of teaching over four years. Secondary
education core curriculum comprises:
36
1. Portuguese including Portuguese language, essay studies, Brazilian and Portuguese literatures
2. Foreign language usually English, also Spanish and very rarely French
3. History
4. Geography
5. Mathematics
6. Physics
7. Chemistry
Biology. Philosophy and Sociology, which were banned during the military dictatorship (1964– 1985),
have become compulsory again.
High school education is provided by all levels of government.
Technical Education (ensino tecnico)
The movement of the eleventh or twelfth grade of high school or the end of those grades is
mandatory for those wishing to pursue technical education, through courses in several areas of
knowledge. In addition, students must pass an entrance examination for their specific course.
These institutions usually have a greater number of hours per week. The instruction of the
technical course lasts from one year and a half to two years.
Higher Education (ensino superior)
The secondary education is mandatory for those wishing to pursue higher education. In addition,
students must pass a competitive entrance examination known as vestibular for their specific
course of study. The number of candidates per available place in the freshman class may be in
excess of 30 or 40 to one in the not so competitive courses at the top public universities. The most
competitive ones excess 80 or 150. In some courses with small number of vacancies, this number
can be as high as 200 medical school, for example.
Teacher training and qualification
Students can obtain teacher training in secondary schools through vocational programs. In
addition to the required courses to graduate, students take teacher training courses which includes
37
a supervised internship and need 300 hours of teaching practice. Students can be certified through
the secondary school program. However, to teach secondary schools, most teaching students need
higher education to obtain either a master's or doctorate's. Schools do offer school administration
training, but it is not compulsory for students hoping to become an administrator.
International Education
As of January 2015, the International Schools Consultancy (ISC) listed Brazil as having 136 international
schools. ISC defines an 'international school' in the following terms:
A school is said to be an international school if the school delivers a curriculum to any

combination of pre-school, primary or secondary students, wholly or partly in English outside an
Englishspeaking country, or if a school in a country where English is one of the official
languages, offers an English-medium curriculum other than the country’s national curriculum and
is international in its orientation.
Argentina
Education in Argentina is a responsibility shared by the national government, the provinces and
federal district and private institutions, though the Ministry of Education has historically set basic
guidelines. The Philosophy of Education in Argentina is Closely associated with President
Domingo Sarmiento's assertion that the sovereign should be educated. Sovereign refers to the
people. Education has been extended nearly universally and its maintenance remains central to
political and cultural debate. Even though education at all levels, including universities, has
always been free, there are a significant number of private schools and universities.
History
The Education in Argentina known as the Latin American docta has had a convoluted history.
There was no effective education plan until President Domingo Sarmiento (1868–1874) placed
emphasis on bringing Argentina up-to-date with practices in developed countries. Sarmiento
encouraged the immigration and settling of European educators and built schools and public
38
libraries throughout the country, in a programme that doubled the enrollment of students during
his term.
The first national laws mandating universal, compulsory, free and secular Education i.e Law
1420 of Common Education were sanctioned in 1884 during the administration of President Julio
Roca. The non-religious character of this system, which forbade parochial schools from issuing
official degrees directly but only through a public university, harmed the relations between the
Argentine State and the Catholic Church, leading to resistance from the local clergy and a heated
conflict with the Holy See through the Papal Nuncio.
Following the University Reform of 1918, Argentine education, especially at university level,
became more independent of the government, as well as the influential Catholic Church. The
church began to re-emerge in country's secular education system during the administration Juan
Peron, when in 1947, catechism was reintroduced in public schools, and parochial institutions
began again receiving subsidies.
A sudden reversal in the policy in 1954 helped lead to Peron's violent overthrow, after which his
earlier, pro-clerical policies were reinstated by General Pedro Aramburu. Aramburu's Law 6403
of 1955, which advanced private education generally, and parochial, or more often, Catholic-run
schools (those staffed with lay teachers), in particular, helped lead to the establishment of the
Argentine Catholic University.
The program of deregulation and privatization pursued by President Carlos Menem in reaction to
the country's socio-economic crisis of 1989 led to the decentralization of the Argentine secondary
school system, whereby, from 1992 onward, the schools' administration and funding became a
provincial responsibility. The policy's weakness, however, lay in that federal revenue sharing did
not increase accordingly, particularly given the decision to shift two primary school years to the
secondary system
Real government spending on education increased steadily from the return of democratic rule in 1983
with the exception of the crises in 1989 and 2002 and, in 2007, totaled over US$14 billion.
39
Structure of Education in Argentina
The Argentinian education is structured in three levels namely:
1. Primary Education
3. Higher Education
Primary Education
This is open to ages between 6 and 14. Primary education covers grades 1–6. Because of the
system that was in place during 1995–2007, most schools that offered 7 years of primary school
prior to 1995 were forced to be converted and accept grades 8th and 9th, while others chose to
eliminate 7th grade altogether, forcing students to complete the 3rd cycle in another institution.
Secondary Education
Secondary education in Argentina comprises two levels:
Years 1-3: This is common to all schools and is known as Ciclo basico.
Years 4-6: Known as Ciclo orientado is only found in some provinces.
1. At both levels the is composed of:

2. Social Sciences
3. Natural Sciences
4. Arts
5. Sport
6. Design
An additional year is offered in certain Technical-Professional schools which grants a professional
title, also with orientations in Agriculture, Electricity, Mechanics, Construction, etc.
40
In many provinces the secondary Education system is still divided in three traditional large groups
namely:
1. Bachiller schools: These are very similar to grammar schools with a huge emphasis on humanistic
studies.
2. Comercial schools: Focusing on economic sciences and everything related to it.

3. Escuelas Tecnicas: With a focus on technical and scientific assignments.
Higher Education in Argentina
Argentine higher education system is based on the old and dogmatic Spanish Higher Education System, which
is basically a Continental Education System opposed to the Anglo-Saxon Model.
A historic event took place in the Reforma Universitaria de 1918 where a highly-popular series
of reforms that took place in the oldest university of the Country, the Universidad de Cordoba that
finally paved the way to the modernization of the Argentinian higher university systems as it is
known nowadays. Since its foundation, it was focused on the teaching of Professions offering
Professional degrees.
Higher Education in Argentina is offered at 3 levels:
1. Higher Education Institutes: 1-5 year degrees related to education or technical

professions like Teachers, Professorship and Technicians.
2. Universities: 4- 7 years of professional education taught at universities offering many

different degrees, such as Licentiate, Engineer's degree, Medic Title, Attorney Title,
Professorships, Translation degrees, etc.
3. Post-graduate degrees: This is a specialized and research-oriented education level. It is

roughly divided in a first sub-level where a Specialist degree can be obtained in a 12–18
months period or Master's degree, requiring 24–30 months and an original research work
and a higher sub-level where a Doctorate degree could be achieved.
41
Graduate School
The doctoral fields of study in Argentina are generally research-oriented doctoral studies, leading
mostly to the awarding of the degrees of Doctor of Philosophy, Doctor of Science, Doctor of
Medicine, and Doctor of Law, among others. Enrollment in doctorate programs in Argentina is
available to candidates having earned a Licentiate, Professorships Engineer's degree or Master's
degree in a related area of study.
Doctoral fields of study mostly pertain to one of five fields of knowledge:
1. Applied Sciences
2. Basic Sciences
3. Health Sciences
4. Human Sciences
Funding
One important aspect is that Public universities at Tertiary Education level and at University level
are tuition-free and open to anyone. Although it is not required to pay any kind of fee at
universities, hidden costs of education, like transportation and materials, are often neglected and a
lack of a well-developed and widespread scholarship system makes it hard for students from
lowincome families to enroll in public universities.
As of January 2015, the International Schools Consultancy (ISC) listed Argentina as having 160 international
schools. ISC defines an international school in the following terms:

42
Mexico
Introduction
The Mexican state has been directly involved in education since the nineteenth century,
promoting secular education. Control of education was a source of an ongoing conflict between
the Mexican state and the Roman Catholic Church, which since the colonial era had exclusive
charge of education. The mid-nineteenth-century Liberal Reform separated church and state,
which had a direct impact on education. President Benito Juarez sought the expansion of public
schools. During the long tenure of President Porfirio Diaz, the expansion of education became a
priority under a cabinet-level post held by Justo Sierra. Sierra also served President Francisco I.
Madero in the early years of the Mexican Revolution.
Structure of Education in Mexico
In Mexico, basic education is normally divided in three steps:
1. Primary school (primaria): comprising grades 1–6

2. Junior high school (secundaria): comprising grades 7–9
3. High school (preparatoria), comprising grades 10–12
Depending on definitions, primary education comprises primaria and secundaria, which are
compulsory by law, while secondary education only includes preparatoria, which has recently
been made compulsory.
43
Primary School
Covers grades 1–6, when the students are 6 to 12 years old. It starts the basic compulsory
education system. These are the first years of schooling. Depending on the school, bilingual
education may be offered from the beginning, where half the day instruction is in Spanish, and
the rest is in another language.
Junior High School
The terms Junior High School or Middle School usually correspond to secundaria, comprising
grades 7–9 when the student's age is 12 to 15 years old. It is part of the basic compulsory
education system, following primary school and coming before high school .
At this level, more specialized subjects may be taught such as Physics, Chemistry, and World
History. There is also the tecnica which provides vocational training, and the telesecundaria
which provides distance learning.
Despite the similarities of the words Secondary school and secundaria, in Mexico the former is
usually translated to preparatoria, while in other countries, such as Puerto Rico, or within the
Spanish-speaking populations of the United States, the term secundaria refers to university.
High School
The terms High School usually corresponds to preparatoria or bachillerato, and follow
secundaria comprising grades 10–12, when the student's age is 15 to 18 years old. Students may
choose between two main kinds of high school programs:
1. The SEP incorporated

2. University Incorporated
This depends on the state. Other minority of programs are available only for private schools, such
as the International Baccalaureate which carries a completely different system. Nevertheless, in
44
order to be taught, it must include a national subject at least. In addition, there are programs such
as tecnologia and comercio that prepare students for a particular vocational career.
Higher Education
There are both public and private institutions of higher education. Higher education usually follows the
US Education model with:
1. At least 4-year bachelor's degree undergraduate level (Licenciatura)

2. Two degrees at the postgraduate level
3. A 2-year Master's degree (Maestria)
4. A 3-year Doctoral degree (Doctorado), followed by the higher doctorate of Doctor of Sciences (Doctor
en Ciencias).
This structure of education very closely conforms to the Bologna Process started in Europe in
1999, allowing Mexican students to study abroad and pursue a master's degree after Licenciatura,
or a Doctoral degree after Maestría. Unlike other OECD countries, the majority of Mexico's
public universities do not accredit part-time enrollment programs.
As of January 2015, the International Schools Consultancy (ISC) listed Mexico as having 151 international
schools.

TOPIC 6: EDUCATION SYSTEMS IN ASIA: CHINA, JAPAN AND

INDIA
45
China
Introduction
China officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a sovereign state located in East Asia. It
is the world's most populous country, with a population of over 1.35 billion. The PRC is a
singleparty state governed by the Communist Party, with its seat of government in the capital city
of Beijing. It exercises jurisdiction over 22 provinces, five autonomous regions, four
directcontrolled municipalities i.e Beijing, Tianjin, Shanghai, and Chongqing, and two mostly
selfgoverning special administrative regions namely Hong Kong and Macau. The PRC also
claims Taiwan – which is controlled by the Republic of China (ROC), a separate political entity
as its 23rd province, a claim controversial due to the complex political status of Taiwan and the
unresolved Chinese Civil War.
Covering approximately 9.6 million square kilometres, China is the world's second-largest
country by land area. and the third or fourth-largest by total area, depending on the definition of
total area. China's landscape is vast and diverse, ranging from forest steppes and the Gobi and
Taklamakan deserts in the arid north to subtropical forests in the wetter south. The Himalaya,
Karakoram, Pamir and Tian Shan mountain ranges separate China from South and Central Asia.
The Yangtze and Yellow Rivers, the third- and sixth-longest in the world, run from the Tibetan
Plateau to the densely populated eastern seaboard. China's coastline along the Pacific Ocean is
14,500 kilometres (9,000 mi) long, and is bounded by the Bohai, Yellow, East and South China
Seas.
Education
Education in China is a state-run system of public Education run by the Ministry of Education.
All citizens must attend school for at least nine years. The government provides primary
education for six to nine years, starting at age six or seven, followed by six years of secondary
education for ages 12 to 18 Some provinces may have five years of primary school but four years
for middle school.
46
There are three years of middle school and three years of high school. The Ministry of Education
reported a 99 percent attendance rate for primary school and an 80 percent rate for both primary
and middle schools In 1985, the government abolished tax-funded higher education, requiring
university applicants to compete for scholarships based on academic ability.
In the early 1980s the government allowed the establishment of the first private school laura is
awesome increasing the number of undergraduates and people who hold doctoral degrees fivefold
from 1995 to 2005
Laws regulating the system of education include the Regulation on Academic Degrees, the Compulsory
Education Law, the Teachers Law, the Education Law, the Law on Vocational Education, and the Law on
Higher Education. Since the end of the Cultural Revolution (1966– 76), the education system in China has
been geared toward economic modernization.
Education system
Stages
To provide for its population, China has a vast and varied school system. There are:
1. Preschools
2. Kindergartens
3. Schools for the deaf and blind
4. Key schools
5. Vocational schools
6. Regular secondary schools
7. Secondary teachers' schools
8. Secondary technical schools
9. Secondary professional schools
There are also various institutions of higher learning consisting of:
47
1. Regular colleges and universities
2. Professional colleges
3. Short-term vocational universities
In terms of access to education, China's system represented a pyramid; because of the scarcity of
resources allotted to higher education, student numbers decreased sharply at the higher levels.
Although there were dramatic advances in primary education after 1949, achievements in
secondary and higher education were not as great.
Compulsory Education Law
The Law on Nine-Year Compulsory Education which took effect on July 1, 1986, established requirements
and deadlines for attaining universal education tailored to local conditions and guaranteed school-age children
the right to receive at least nine years of education (six-year primary education and three years secondary
education).
Levels of education in china
Basic Education
China's basic education involves pre-school, nine-year compulsory education from elementary to
junior high school, standard senior high school education, special education for disabled children,
and education for illiterate people.
Primary Education
Primary schools
The institution of primary education in a country as vast as China has been an impressive
accomplishment. In contrast to the 20 percent enrollment rate before 1949, in 1985 about 96
percent of primary school age children were enrolled in approximately 832,300 primary schools.
This enrollment figure compared favorably with the recorded figures of the late 1960s and early
1970s, when enrollment standards were more egalitarian.
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Preschool Education
Preschool education, which began at age three, was another target of education reform in 1985.
Preschool facilities were to be established in buildings made available by public enterprises,
production teams, municipal authorities, local groups, and families. The government announced
that it depended on individual organizations to sponsor their own preschool education and that
preschool education was to become a part of the welfare services of various government
organizations, institutes, and state- and collectively operated enterprises. Costs for preschool
education varied according to services rendered. Officials also called for more preschool teachers
with more appropriate training.
Special Education
The 1985 National Conference on Education also recognized the importance of special education,
in the form of programs for gifted children and for slow learners. Gifted children were allowed to
skip grades. Slow learners were encouraged to reach minimum standards, although those who did
not maintain the pace seldom reached the next stage. For the most part, children with severe
learning problems and those with handicaps and psychological needs were the responsibilities of
their families. Extra provisions were made for blind and severely hearing-impaired children,
although in 1984 special schools enrolled fewer than 2 percent of all eligible children in those
categories.
Secondary Education
Junior Secondary
Junior secondary education is more commonly known as (junior) middle school education, it consists the
last three years of nine years compulsory education.
Senior Secondary
Senior secondary education often refers to three years high school (or called senior middle
school) education, as from grade 10 to grade 12. Normally, students who have finished six years
49
of primary education will continue three more years of academic study in middle schools as
regulated by the Compulsory education law at the age of twelve. This, however, is not
compulsory for senior secondary education, where junior graduates may choose to continue a
three-year academic education in academic high schools, which will eventually lead to university,
or to switch to a vocational course in vocational high schools.
Vocational and Technical Schools
The Law on Vocational Education was issued in 1996. Vocational education embraces higher
vocational schools, secondary skill schools, vestibule schools, vocational high schools, job-
finding centers and other adult skill and social training institutes. To enable vocational education
to better accommodate the demands of economic re-structuring and urbanization, in recent years
the government has remodeled vocational education, oriented towards obtaining employment, and
focusing on two major vocational education projects to meet society's ever more acute demand
for high quality, skilled workers. These are cultivating skilled workers urgently needed in modern
manufacture and service industries; and training rural laborers moving to urban areas. To
accelerate vocational education in western areas, the Central Government has used government
bonds to build 186 vocational education centers in impoverished western area counties.
Both regular and vocational secondary schools sought to serve modernization needs. A number of
technical and skilled-worker training schools reopened after the Cultural Revolution, and an effort
was made to provide exposure to vocational subjects in general secondary schools (by offering
courses in industry, services, business, and agriculture). By 1985 there were almost 3 million
vocational and technical students.
Under the educational reform tenets, polytechnic colleges were to give priority to admitting
secondary vocational and technical school graduates and providing on-the-job training for
qualified workers.
Education reformers continued to press for the conversion of about 50 percent of upper secondary
education into vocational education, which traditionally had been weak in the rural areas. Regular
senior middle schools were to be converted into vocational middle schools, and vocational
training classes were to be established in some senior middle schools. Diversion of students from
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academic to technical education was intended to alleviate skill shortages and to reduce the
competition for university enrollment.
Although enrollment in technical schools of various kinds had not yet increased enough to
compensate for decreasing enrollments in regular senior middle schools, the proportion of
vocational and technical students to total senior-middle-school students increased from about 5
percent in 1978 to almost 36 percent in 1985, although development was uneven. Further, to
encourage greater numbers of junior-middle-school graduates to enter technical schools,
vocational and technical school graduates were given priority in job assignments, while other job
seekers had to take technical tests.
Higher Education
Higher education reflected the changes in political policies that have occurred in contemporary
China. Since 1949 emphasis has continually been placed on political re-education, and in periods
of political upheaval, such as the Great Leap Forward and the Cultural Revolution, ideology has
been stressed over professional or technical competence. During the early stages of the Cultural
Revolution, tens of thousands of college students joined Red Guard organizations, effectively
closing down the higher education system.
In general, when universities reopened in the early 1970s, enrollments were reduced from
preCultural Revolution levels, and admission was restricted to individuals who had been
recommended by their work unit possessed good political credentials, and had distinguished
themselves in manual labor.
In the absence of stringent and reasonably objective entrance examinations, political connections
became increasingly important in securing the recommendations and political dossiers necessary
to qualify for university admission. As a result, the decline in educational quality was profound.
Deng Xiaoping reportedly wrote Mao Zedong in 1975 that university graduates were "not even
capable of reading a book" in their own fields when they left the university. University faculty
and administrators, moreover, were demoralized by what they faced.
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By the end of 2004, China had 2,236 schools of Higher Learning, with over 20 million students;
the gross rate of enrollment in schools of higher learning reached 19 percent. Postgraduate
education is the fastest growing sector, with 24.1 percent more students recruited and 25.9 percent
more researchers than the year before. This enrollment growth indicates that China has entered
the stage of popular education. The UNESCO world higher education report of June 2003 pointed
out that the student population of China's schools of higher learning had doubled in a very short
period of time, and was the world's largest.
651,000 more than in 2003. Schools of higher learning and research institutes enrolled 326,000
postgraduate students, 57,000 more than the previous year. In 2010 China is expecting 6.3 million
students to graduate from College or University, with 63% likely to enter the work force.
The contribution to China's economic construction and social development made by research in
the higher education sector is becoming ever more evident. By strengthening cooperation among
their production, teaching and research, schools of higher learning are speeding up the process in
turning sci-tech research results into products, giving rise to many new and hi-tech enterprises
and important innovations. Forty-three national university sci-tech parks have been started or
approved, some of which have become important bases for commercializing research.
Teachers
In 1985, the government designated September 10 as Teachers' Day, the first festival day for any
profession and indicative of government efforts to raise the social status and living standards of
teachers.
The government has started the Nationwide Program of Network for Education of Teachers to
improve the quality of teaching. It aims to modernize teachers' education through educational
information, providing support and services for lifelong learning through the teachers' education
network, TV satellite network, and the Internet and to greatly improve the teaching quality of
elementary and high school faculty through large-scale, high-quality and high-efficiency training
and continuous education.
Among the most pressing problems facing education reformers was the scarcity of qualified teachers, which has
led to a serious stunting of educational development.
52
Because urban teachers continued to earn more than their rural counterparts and because
academic standards in the countryside had dropped, it remained difficult to recruit teachers for
rural areas. Teachers in rural areas also had production responsibilities for their plots of land,
which took time from their teaching. Rural primary teachers needed to supplement their pay by
farming because most were paid by the relatively poor local communities rather than by the state.
Adult and Online Education
The participation of big investors in online education has made it a new hotspot for investment in the
education industry. Students of remote and under-developed areas are the biggest beneficiaries of
online education, but online universities offer students who failed university entrance examinations
and working people the chance of lifelong education and learning.
The Ministry of Education has approved 68 ordinary schools of higher learning and the Central
Radio and TV University to pilot modern distance education. By the end of 2003, these schools
had established 2,027 off-campus learning centers around China, offering 140 majors in ten
disciplines, and had a total enrollment of 1.373 million.
Rural Education
The China Agricultural Broadcast and Television School has nearly 3,000 branch schools and a
teaching and administrative staff of 46,000. Using radio, television, satellite, network, audio and
video materials, it has trained over 100 million people in applicable agricultural technologies and
over 8 million persons for work in rural areas. After 20 years in development, it is the world's
largest distance learning organ for rural education.
Education for migrant children
Following the large-scale movement of Chinese rural population to the cities, the children of these
migrant workers either stay as left-behind children in the villages or they migrate with their
parents to the cities. Although regulations by the central government stipulate that all migrant
]
children have the right to attend a public school in the cities, the public schools nevertheless
53
effectively reject these children by setting high thresholds such as school fees and exams or by
requesting an urban registration .
Private Education
The government supports private educational organizations. The first Law on Promotion of Private
Education came into effect on September 1, 2003.
Development of private schools means an increase in overall education supply and a change in the
traditional pattern of public-only schools, so as to meet educational needs. At the end of 2004,
there were more than 70,000 private schools of all types and level, with a total enrollment of
14.16 million, including 1,279 private institutes of higher learning, with a total enrollment of 1.81
million.
Private schools have pioneered cooperation with foreign partners in the running of schools and
many foreign universities have entered China this way, which has both improved the quality of
China's education resources and opened new channels for students' further studies.
Japan
Introduction
Japan is an island nation in East Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies to the east of the Sea of
Japan, China, North Korea, South Korea and Russia, stretching from the Sea of Okhotsk in the
north to the East China Sea and Taiwan in the south. The characters that make up Japan's name
mean "sun-origin", which is why Japan is sometimes referred to as the "Land of the Rising Sun".
Japan is consists of 6,852 islands. The four largest islands are
1. Honshu
2. Hokkaido
3. Kyushu
4. Shikoku
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These together comprise about ninety-seven percent of Japan's land area. Japan has the world's
tenth-largest population, with over 126 million people. Honshū's Greater Tokyo Area, which
includes the de facto capital city of Tokyo and several surrounding prefectures, is the largest
metropolitan area in the world, with over 30 million residents.
A major economic power, Japan has the world's third-largest economy by nominal GDP and the
world's fourth-largest economy by purchasing power parity. It is also the world's fourth-largest
exporter and fourth-largest importer. Although Japan has officially renounced its right to declare
war, it maintains a modern military with the fifth largest military budget, used for self-defense
and peacekeeping roles. After Singapore, Japan has the lowest homicide rate including attempted
homicide in the world. According to Japan's health ministry, Japanese women have the second
highest life expectancy of any country in the world.
Education
At all levels of education, Japanese language is not only the official language but also
the medium of instruction. The modern education in Japan can be traced to 1872. Before
this time, Japanese education was concerned with religion as well as ethics (traditional
education).
Initially, the Japanese education followed the American education system. What can
be regarded as the primary objectives of Japanese education are:
1. The development of broad mindedness, a health body and creativity in

individuals.
2. The rearing of the spirit of freedom, self reliance and public

Awareness.
3. Educating the Japanese individual to live in the global human society.
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As a democratic state, educational opportunities are made available to all citizens of
Japan. However, the Japanese education system generally include:
1. The formal school system

2. The less formal school system
For the purpose of administration, schools at all levels are divided into:
1. State owned
2. Local Schools
3. Public Schools
4. Private Schools
There is no difference in all the categories of schools in Japan except

in the areas of administration and finance. The first nine years of
Japanese education is free and compulsory.
Levels and Categories of Education in Japan

Education in Japan falls under the following levels and categories:
1. The Pre-school Education
2. Elementary Education
4. Teacher Education
5. Adult Education
6. Special Education
7. Tertiary Education
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Pre-School Education in Japan (3-5 Years)
Elementary education in Japan normally takes place in the kindergarten schools. The
primary objective of pre-school education in Japan is to give all round development to
the Japanese children. The curriculum for this level of education include:
i) Health ii)
Social Studies iii)
Nature study iv)
Language
v) Music vi)
Art vii)
Arithmetic
viii) Writing
ix) Reading
x) Songs xi)
Tales
xii) Physical Education
Elementary Education (6 Years)

Elementary Education in Japan was organized on four years duration initially. In the
year 1886, this level of education was made free and compulsory. Also in 1908, the
compulsory elementary education was raised to six years from the original four years.
According to the 1972 Education Reform, education in Japan aims at

the following:
57
1. To help people to acquire the abilities for building a satisfactory and
spontaneous life.
2. To adapt to social reality and the creative solution of

difficulties.
From the above general aims, the following specific objectives are derived:
1. The development of basic abilities in the young people side by side with a set of specified
vocational skills,
2. The preparation of students to cope flexibly with rapid progress in science and
technology,
3. The preparation of the students for social life.

The Japanese elementary schools are designed for children aged 6- 12 years. About 97%
of the Japanese children attend public elementary schools while only about 3% go to
private elementary schools. The curriculum for this level of education include:
i) Japanese language
ii) social studies iii)
Arithmetic iv)
Science
v) Music vi) Art and

Craft vii) Home
Education viii) Physical
Education
58
ix) Moral Education (in public schools)
x) Religious Education (in Private Schools).
Secondary Education
This level of education is divided into two cycles, namely:
1. Lower or Junior Secondary
2. Upper Secondary School
Lower or Junior Secondary

This cycle of Secondary Education is free and compulsory like elementary education. It
lasts for 3 years and designed for children ages 12 to 15 years. About 97% of Japanese
secondary schools age attend public lower school while about 3% go to the private
Junior Secondary School.
The primary objective of this level of education is to give all round development to the
Japanese children and to give continuity to the
Japanese elementary education. The curriculum for this level of education
include:
i) Japanese Language
ii) Social Studies iii)
Mathematics iv)
General Science
v) Vocational and home Education

vi) Foreign Language
vii)Vocational Subjects
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viii)Agriculture
ix)Industry
x)Commerce and Fisheries
Upper Secondary Schools

Upper Secondary School as well as preschool education are not free and compulsory
for the Japanese children. The primary objective of this cycle of secondary education is
to give general and specialized education to the students. The students wishing to enter
an upper secondary school will have to write an entrance examination.
In addition to paying school fees, students also have to buy textbooks recommended by
the Ministry of Education. Basically, there are two types of upper secondary school in
Japan. They are:
i) 3 years full time upper secondary schools ii) 4 years

part-time and correspondence upper school.
This cycle of secondary education is terminal as its graduates can decide to work with it or seek an
admission with it into a tertiary institution. Upper secondary education curriculum include:
i) Japanese Language
ii) Social Studies iii)
Ethics iv) Civics
v) Political Science vi)

Economics
Vii) Mathematics
viii)Physical Education,
ix)Fine Arts x)Music xi)
Handicrafts xii)Geography
xiii)Home Education for girls
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Teacher Education in Japan
Teachers for kindergarten schools are always trained in the teacher training Institutions while the
secondary school teachers are also trained in the Universities. In the same vein, teachers for the
Japanese higher institutions are equally trained in the Universities. It should be noted that before a
person can be appointed to teach in any public tertiary institution, such a person is expected to
have a minimum of Masters degree in the area where he wants to teach.
Adult Education
Adult Education in Japan is regarded as social Education. This kind of education is always
organized by the Ministry of Education for the Japanese citizens who are not in the formal school.
Towards this education, the Ministry of Education always provides correspondence courses.
Such correspondence courses are in:
i) Vocational ii)
Technical iii)
Agricultural iv)
Fishery
v) Forestry
The ministry efforts are always complemented with radio and television programmes particularly in the
area of general education. Nongovernmental bodies also assist in Japanese adult education.
Special Education
Right from the year 1973, an official recognition was accorded the
education of special children in Japan. Like other levels of education, special
education has its own objectives. Its objectives include the following:
1. To identify and give appropriate educational programmes to the

affected children.
2. To establish national centres for research and training
61
3. For the integration, whenever possible of the handicapped with normal
children.
4. To render other possible assistance to the handicapped children.
Tertiary Education
In Japan, there are three categories of tertiary institution. They are:
1. The University
2. Junior College
3. College of technology
In the University, degrees are awarded and students spend between 4-6 years depending on their
course of study. At the Junior College, degrees are not awarded unlike in the Universities.
Colleges of technology are another form of tertiary institution in Japan. In this institution,
educational technology and engineering education are provided. This kind of education is
primarily designed for the graduates of junior or lower secondary education. It has duration of
five years.
Financing Education in Japan
All public schools in Japan are highly centralized. Generally, schools
are administered in the following order:
1. The Ministry of Education at the top

2. The Prefectural Education Boards
3. The Municipal Education Boards at the grassroots level or local level.
At the national level, the Ministry of Education, Science and Culture always assists in the
preparation of education budget, formulation of educational laws, and maintenance of
educational standard.
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The Ministry of Education, Science and Culture is also saddled with the responsibility of giving
an approval for the establishment of higher institutions and also to supervise various tertiary
institutions in the whole of Japan.
India
India officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country
by area, the second-most populous country with over 1.2 billion people, and the most populous
democracy in the world. Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the
southwest, and the Bay of Bengal on the south-east, it shares land borders with Pakistan to the
west; China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the north-east; and Burma and Bangladesh to the east. In the
Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives; in addition, India's Andaman
and Nicobar Islands share a maritime border with Thailand and Indonesia.
Home to the ancient Indus Valley Civilization and a region of historic trade routes and vast
empires, the Four world religions Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism originated here,
whereas Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Islam arrived in the 1st millennium BC and also helped
shape the region's diverse culture.
Education
Education in India is provided by the public sector as well as the private sector, with control and
funding coming from three levels: central, state, and local. Takshashila was the earliest recorded
center of higher learning in India from at least 5th century BCE and it is debatable whether it
could be regarded a university or not. The Nalanda University was the oldest university-system of
education in the world in the modern sense of university. Western education became ingrained
into Indian society with the establishment of the British Raj.
Education in India falls under the control of both the Union Government and the State
Governments, with some responsibilities lying with the Union and the states having autonomy for
others. The various articles of the Indian Constitution provides Education as a fundamental right.
Most universities in India are controlled by the Union or the State Government.
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India has made progress in terms of increasing the Primary Education attendance rate and
expanding literacy to approximately three quarters of the population. India's improved education
system is often cited as one of the main contributors to the Economic rise of India. Much of the
progress, especially in higher education and scientific research, has been credited to various
public institutions.
Levels
India's Education system is divided into different levels such as:
1. Pre-primary level
2. Primary level
3. Elementary education
4. Secondary education
5. Undergraduate level
6. Postgraduate level
The National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) is the apex body for curriculum
related matters for school education in India The NCERT provides support and technical assistance to a
number of schools in India and oversees many aspects of enforcement of education policies.
In India, the various curriculum bodies governing school education system are:
1. The state government boards, in which the majority of Indian children are enrolled.
2. The Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE). CBSE conducts two examinations, namely, the
All India Secondary School Examination, AISSE (Class/Grade 10) and the All India Senior School
Certificate Examination, AISSCE (Class/Grade 12).
3. The Council for the Indian School Certificate Examinations (CISCE). CISCE conducts three
examinations, namely, the Indian Certificate of Secondary Education (ICSE - Class/ Grade 10); The
Indian School Certificate (ISC - Class/ Grade 12) and the Certificate in Vocational Education (CVE -
Class/Grade 12).
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4. The National Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS) conducts two examinations, namely, Secondary
Examination and Senior Secondary Examination (All India) and also some courses in Vocational
Education.
5. International Schools Affiliated to the International Baccalaureate Programme and/or the Cambridge
International Examinations.
6. Islamic Madrasah schools, whose boards are controlled by local state governments, or autonomous,
or affiliated with Darul Uloom Deoband.
7. Autonomous schools like Woodstock School, The Sri Aurobindo International Centre of Education
Puducherry, Auroville, Patha Bhavan and Ananda Marga Gurukula.
In addition, NUEPA (National University of Educational Planning and Administration) and

NCTE (National Council for Teacher Education) are responsible for the management of the
Education system and teacher accreditation.[10]
Primary Education system in India
The Indian government lays emphasis on Primary Education up to the age of Fourteen years,
referred to as Elementary Education in India. The Indian government has also banned child labour
in order to ensure that the children do not enter unsafe working conditions. However, both free
Education and the ban on child labour are difficult to enforce due to economic disparity and social conditions.
80% of all recognized schools at the elementary stage are government run or supported, making it the largest
provider of education in the country.
However, due to a shortage of resources and lack of political will, this system suffers from
massive gaps including high pupil to teacher ratios, shortage of infrastructure and poor levels of
teacher training.
Private Education
There are privately owned and managed schools, many of whom have the appellation Public
attached to them, e.g. the Delhi Public Schools, National Public Schools or Frank Anthony Public
Schools. Most middle-class families send their children to such schools, which might be in their
65
own city or distant boarding school such as Rajkumar College, Rajkot, the oldest public school in
India. The medium of education is English, but Hindi and/or the state's official language is also
taught as a compulsory subject. Preschool Education is mostly limited to organized neighborhood
nursery schools with some organized chains.
Homeschooling
Homeschooling is legal in India, though it is the less explored option. The Indian Government's
stance on the issue is that parents are free to teach their children at home, if they wish to and have
the means.
Secondary Education
A significant feature of India's secondary school system is the emphasis on inclusion of the
disadvantaged sections of the society. Professionals from established institutes are often called to
support in vocational training. Another feature of India's secondary school system is its emphasis
on profession based vocational training to help students attain skills for finding a vocation of
his/her choosing.
Higher Education
After passing the Higher Secondary Examination (the grade 12 examination), students may enroll
in general degree programmes such as bachelor's degree in arts, commerce or science, or
professional degree programmes such as engineering, law or medicine. India's higher education
system is the third largest in the world, after China and the United States. The main governing
body at the tertiary level is the University Grants Commission (India), which enforces its
standards, advises the government, and helps coordinate between the centre and the state.
Accreditation for higher learning is overseen by 12 autonomous institutions established by the
University Grants Commission.
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As of 2009, India has 20 central universities, 215 state universities, 100 deemed universities, 5
institutions established and functioning under the State Act, and 33 institutes which are of
national importance. Other institutions include 16,000 colleges, including 1,800 exclusive
women's colleges, functioning under these universities and institutions. The emphasis in the
tertiary level of education lies on science and technology. Indian educational institutions by 2004
consisted of a large number of technology institutes. Distance learning is also a feature of the
Indian higher education system.
Technical Education
The number of graduates coming out of technical colleges increased to over 700,000 in 2011 from
550,000 in FY 2010. However, according to one study, 75% of technical graduates and more
than 85% of general graduates are unemployable by India's most demanding and high-growth
global industries, including information technology. Nevertheless, that still means that India
offers the largest pool of technically skilled graduates in the world.
Open and Distance Learning
At school level, National Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS) provides opportunities for continuing
education to those who missed completing school education.
TOPIC 7: EDUCATION SYSTEMS IN AFRICA : THE ANGLOPHONE,

FRANCOPHONE AND LUSOPHONE COUNTRIES
Education systems in Anglophone Countries
Kenya
Kenya , officially the Republic of Kenya, is a sovereign state in East Africa. The capital and
largest city is Nairobi. Kenya lies on the equator with the Indian Ocean to the south-east,
Tanzania to the south, Uganda to the west, South Sudan to the north-west, Ethiopia to the north
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and Somalia to the north-east. Kenya covers 581,309 km2 and has a population of about 40
million .The country is named after Mount Kenya, the second highest mountain in Africa.
Education
Historical records reveal that Kenyans had access to education as far back as 1728 with a Swahili
manuscript Utendi wa Tambuka (Book of Heraclius) attesting to the fact. The CMS missionaries
interacted with locals in the coastal town of Mombasa and set up one of the earliest mission
schools in the country at Rabai in 1846.
The Curriculum
The national philosophy and goals of education in Kenya stem from the Kenyan constitution and
other government legal instruments that provide for access to education as a human right. The
Constitution of Kenya and the Session paper on African Socialism and its Application to
Planning in Kenya (1965), outlaws discrimination on the basis of gender and emphasizes social
justice and equal opportunities with regard to Education. The Children’s Act (2001) stipulates
every child’s entitlement to education, thus ensuring full inclusion of girls in basic education.
Kenya is also a signatory to international protocols relating to education and rights of women and
girls, including the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948), Convention on the
Elimination of all Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) (1979), and the Convention on the
Rights of the Child (CRC) (1989), among others.
The long-term objective of the government is to provide every citizen with basic quality
education and training. Through Education the Government aims at developing quality human
resource which is central to the attainment of national goals for industrial development. It also
aims at realizing universal access to basic education and training to ensure equitable access to
education and training for all children, including disadvantaged and vulnerable groups and to
provide education necessary for the development and protection of democratic institutions and
human rights.
These endeavours are aimed at the attainment of the national goals of education in Kenya which include:
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1. National unity: Education in Kenya must foster nationalism, patriotism and promote national
unity.
2. National development: Education should promote the social, economic, technological and
industrial needs of national development.
3. Individual development and self-fulfillment: Education should provide opportunities for

the fullest development of individual talents and personality.
4. Social equality: It should promote social equality and foster a sense of social responsibility.
It should give the children varied and challenging opportunities for collective activities and
corporate social service.
5. Respect and development of cultural heritage: Education should respect, foster and
develop Kenya’s rich and varied cultures and instill in the youth a sense of respect for
unfamiliar cultures.
6. International consciousness: Education should foster positive attitudes to other countries

and to the international community
7. Promote sound moral and religious values to enhance acquisition of sound moral values
and help children to grow up into self-disciplined, self-reliant and integrated citizens
8. Promote positive attitudes towards good health and environmental protection.
In 1985 President Daniel Arap Moi, introduced the 8–4–4 system of Education, which adopted 8 years
of primary education, 4 years of secondary education and 4 years of university education.
With the introduction of the 8–4–4 system CPE became KCPE (Kenya Certificate of Primary Education)
while KCE became the Kenya Certificate of Secondary Education (KCSE).
Since 1985, public education in Kenya has been based on an 8–4–4 system, with eight years of
primary education followed by four years of secondary school and four years of college or
university.
British Curriculum
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Some private schools, however, offer a system of education similar to the British system of
education with ordinary level exams, O-levels taken at the end of 4 years of secondary school and
advanced levels A-levels taken after two years of high school. This system is the best for the
progress of children's brains and is also effective in the colleges and universities.
Levels of Education in Kenya
Primary Education
Primary education in Kenya begins at the age of 6 or 7 after completion of a year of kindergarten
commonly known as Nursery School or pre-unit. The first class or year of primary school is
known as Standard 1, the final year as Standard 8 and primary school children are known as
pupils. The school year at both primary and secondary levels, begins in January and ends in
November.
Students get 3 school vacations in April, August and December. At the end of the school year
students advance to the next grade. Students who completely fail their end of year exams usually
repeat the class the following year instead of advancing to a higher grade. Most primary schools
are day schools with pupils living at home. Fewer schools at primary level are boarding schools
compared to secondary schools. All public primary school pupils sit for the Kenya Certificate of
Primary Education examination at the end of the school year in Standard eight.
Secondary Education
Under the current system, students attend secondary school for four years before sitting for the school
leaving exam at the end of the fourth year. The first class or year of secondary school is known as form
1 and the final year is form 4. At the end of the fourth year, from October to November students sit for
the Kenya Certificate of Secondary Education examination. In 2008, the government introduced plans to
offer free Secondary education to all Kenyans following the Edah Gachukia Task Force on Affordable
Secondary Education in Kenya.
University Education
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By beginning of 2012 there were 40 universities in Kenya, 17 of which were public and 23 private.
The University of Nairobi is the oldest university in Kenya.
The Competency Based Curriculum in Kenya (CBC)
Of late Kenya introduced an Education Curriculum popularly known as the CBC. CBC stands for
Competency Based Curriculum. This is the new education system in Kenya that is currently set to
replace the 8-4-4 education system.
The system was introduced in 2017. The CBC was researched and developed by KICD (Kenya
Institute of Curriculum Development). This new curriculum is here to stay as it had been
gradually introduced and is steadily replacing 8-4-4 education cycle. At this point in time, 8 (of
the 8-4-4 cycle) consisting of 8 years of primary education is being dismantled into a 6 year term.
As such all and one need to get acquainted with this new system.
The Competency Based Curriculum (CBC) consist of 2-6-3-3-3 education cycle. Every learner shall
transition through a minimum of 17 levels, every level as period of 1 year. The KICD has grouped
them into 4 general categories:
1. Early Year Education (Pre-Primary & Lower Primary)

2. Middle School (Upper Primary & Lower Secondary)
3. Senior School (Upper Secondary)
4. Tertiary Education (TVET or University)
What used to be called Subjects are now known as Learning Areas. Topics are known as Strands
and Sub-topics called Sub-Strands.
Early Year Education (EYE)

This level bestows mastery of basic skills upon the learners. This group consist of 2 subcategories:
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1. Pre-Primary
2. Lower Primary
To find out more about the Learning Areas(Subjects) of this group, check out Pre-Primary Learning
Areas.
Pre-Primary
This first entry takes a period of 2 years, a learner enters the education system at the minimum age
4 of years old. The first class is PP1 short for Pre-Primary 1 followed by PP2 (PrePrimary 2).
This is what used to be referred to as Nursery. Prior to this entry level, the Day-Car also exists. It
takes 1 year but is not a requirement.
Lower Primary
After Pre-Primary, the learner enters the Grade level. This consistof:
1. Grade 1
2. Grade 2
3. Grade 3
In order to proceed to Middle School, the Kenya National Examination Council (KNEC) will have
learners sit an exam or rather assessment, this together with a combination of class-based
assessment shall determine if a learner is fit to proceed to the next level.
Middle School
A learner at this level is said to be in Middle School, this consist of:
1. Upper Primary
2. Lower Secondary
Upper Primary
Consist of 3 levels namely:
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1. Grade 4
2. Grade 5
3. Grade 6
At the end of Grade 6, KNEC will have them sit for an assessment, to determine the readiness for the
Lower Secondary Level.
Lower Secondary
When learners has 3 levels, consisting of:
1. Grade 7
2. Grade 8
3. Grade 9
At the end of Grade 9, KNEC will have them sit for an assessment, to determine the readiness for the
Senior School.
Senior School
At this stage, learners now start to specialize based on their career choices. Time taken here, will enable
them to see where they fit in their career.
Careers are generally categorized into:

1. Arts & Sports Sciences
2. Social Sciences
3. STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics) Subjects
Based on the category the learner has decided, the learner will transition in
1. Grade 10
2. Grade 11
3. Grade 12
After this, the learner based on their career choices will either attend a Technical and Vocational Educational
and Training (TVET) or University or can engage in entrepreneurial business.
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If they choose tertiary education and training, they will undergo a minimum of 3 years. Some careers
of courses require longer time frames
Uganda
Introduction
The system of Education in Uganda is structured as:
1. 7 years of Primary Education

2. 6 years of Secondary Education (divided into 4 years of lower secondary and 2 years of
upper secondary school)
3. 3 to 5 years of Post-secondary Education
Education in Uganda is administered in English. All through out the levels in the education
structure, modules are taught and assessed in English. The government of Uganda recognizes
education as a basic human right and continues to strive to provide free primary education to all
children in the country. However, issues with funding, teacher training, rural populations, and
inadequate facilities continue to hinder the progress of educational development in Uganda.Girls
in Uganda are disproportionately discriminated against in terms of education; they face harsher
barriers when trying to gain an education and it has left the female population disenfranchised,
despite government efforts to close the gap.
Primary Education
The present system of education, known as Universal Primary Education (UPE), has existed since
1997, and its introduction was the result of democratization and open elections, as there was great
popular support for free education. Despite its promising boosts in enrolment, issues with funding
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and organization have continued to plague the UPE. In 1999 there were six million pupils
receiving primary education, compared to only two million in 1986. Numbers received a boost in
1997 when free primary education was made available to four children per family.
Secondary Education
There is a significant disparity between enrolment rates in primary and secondary schools in
Uganda. Census data from 2004 indicates that for every ten students enrolled in primary schools,
only one is enrolled at a secondary institution. The Human Rights Measurement Initiative gives
Uganda a score of 36%. The structure of Uganda's secondary education system follows the
education system of its former colonial masters, Britain. It is divided into the Ordinary level and
Advanced level.
Lower secondary consists of 4 years of schooling at the end of which students undertake
Ordinarylevel exams (O-level) in at least 8 subjects with a maximum of 10 subjects. Upper
secondary consists of 2 years of schooling at the end of which students sit Advanced-level exams
(A-level) in at least 3 subjects.
The curriculum for lower secondary is currently being reviewed by the National Curriculum Development
Centre, and a new curriculum is expected to be rolled out in 2014 or 2015.
Three-year technical schools provide an alternative to lower secondary school. Alternatives for
graduates from lower secondary school include: 2-3 year Technical institutes; 2 year Primary
Teacher Colleges (PTC).
Post-Secondary Education
Although 60,000 to 70,000 students in Uganda leave secondary school each year qualified to go
on to higher education, only some 35 percent of them (25,000) are able to find places at the
limited number of institutions. The majority of students go to universities, both public and
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private. Makerere University in Kampala has about half of the total student population in
Uganda's universities. The remainder are distributed among the more than 30 private universities
and a smaller number of non-university institutions.
Vocational and Technical Education
Vocational and Technical Education is a necessary aspect of the education system in Uganda. The
UN has led efforts to support this form of education through the UNESCO subdivision
International Centre for Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET). According to
a UN report, "Uganda’s TVET mission is defined as being to ensure that individuals and
enterprises acquire the skills they need to raise productivity and income." These TVET programs
range in both complexity and scope. Some provide for craftsmen or technician level training that
replaces standard modes of secondary education, while some TVET programs provide graduate
engineering level education to students seeking education at the tertiary or post secondary level.
Tanzania
Introduction
Education in Tanzania is provided by both the public and private sectors, starting with pre-
primary education, followed by primary, secondary ordinary, secondary advanced, and ideally,
university level education. Free and accessible education is a human right in Tanzania. The
Tanzanian government began to emphasize the importance of education shortly after its
independence in 1961.
Curriculum is standardized by level, and it is the basis for the national examinations.
Achievement levels are important, yet there are various causes of children not receiving the
education that they need, including the need to help families with work, poor accessibility, and a
variety of learning disabilities. While there is a lack of resources for special needs education,
Tanzania has committed to inclusive education and attention on disadvantaged learners, as
pointed out in the 2006 Education Sector Review. The government's National Strategy for
Growth and Reduction of Poverty in 2005 heavily emphasized on education and literacy
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In 2016, the government introduced a fee free education policy for primary and secondary government
schools.
Levels of Education in Tanzania
Pre-primary Education
In the Convention on the Rights of the Child, which Tanzania ratified in 1991, there are two
arguments that emphasize the importance of Early Childhood Education. It argues that it should
be a basic right for all young children and that it yields high economic returns for a nation's
development. Tanzania was one of the first African countries to ratify this policy as well as a
number of others such as the African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child. While they
are progressive and see pre-primary education as a basic right, it is not mandatory and is up to
parents whether or not their child attends before the age of five. There is low public awareness
about the importance of early education, especially in rural communities. It is accessible to about
40% of pre-primary aged children, and the government is not currently making strides to increase
this. About 8.6% of teachers in pre-primary education are professionally qualified, and nutrition,
physical health, and mental health, are not priorities of the system. The curriculum focuses on
teachers delivering curriculum in numeracy and literacy, with little room for feedback, questions,
or more 'creative learning' such as storytelling, art, or peer interaction.
Primary Education
Enrollment and teaching statistics
The Arusha Declaration in 1967 provided for Tanzania to adopt a community-based learning education
system, where each area, regardless of its wealth or urban or rural character, assesses its own needs and
makes appropriate policies to meet them. Primary education is compulsory and free, except for school
supplies. and taught in Kiswahili if through the public system. As mentioned, private primary education is
English medium and much more expensive.
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About 8,247,000 children in Tanzania are enrolled in primary educationEducation In Tanzaniia,
which is about 80 percent of total pupils in the nation On average, 86.5 percent of Tanzania's
primary school aged children are enrolled, which is a decrease from 97 percent in 2007. As
enrollment increased with accessibility, educational quality decreased.The number of classrooms
were too low, especially in rural areas, often causing 100-200 students to be in one classroom,
and at ten government schools, there was only one teacher to teach them.
Standard primary curriculum
The Tanzania Institute of Education is the main body responsible for developing the curriculum.
It prepares programs, syllabi, and pedagogical materials such as handbooks and laboratory
manuals. It also specifies standards for educational materials, trains teachers in curriculum
innovations, monitors curriculum implementation in schools, and evaluates and approves
manuscripts intended for school use.
The curriculum is composed of twelve subjects: Kiswahili, Mathematics, Science, Geography,

Civics, History, English language, vocational subjects, French, Religion, Information and
Communication Technology, and school sports. Cultural activities include poetry, drama, music,
art, and sports. The focus of the curriculum is the development of the following competencies
among learners: critical and creative thinking, communication, numeracy, technology literacy,
personal and social life skills, and independent learning. Agriculture has also been added to the
curriculum, especially in rural areas, which is helpful in getting into the job market after
schooling. Kiswahili only became the official language of primary education in 1968 after
Tanzania's independence, and this led to much linguistic discontinuity between primary and
secondary education. Unless children are enrolled in private primary education which is taught in
English, language comes as a barrier to pursuing higher education.
National examinations and achievement rates
Until 1973, a student was required to pass the National Standard 4 Exams to continue to Standard
5. The exams are still given even though passing is no longer required. The pass rate was 70.6
percent in 2001, 88.7 percent in 2003, and 78.5 percent in 2007.
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Under current law, a student must pass the Primary School Leaving Examination at the end of
Standard 7 to receive a primary school certificate and be eligible to attend public secondary
school. In 2009, 49.4 percent of the 999,070 students who sat for these exams received passing
marks. The pass rate had declined from over 70 percent in 2006. The Dar es Salaam Region had
the highest pass rate (69.8 percent) while the Shinyanga Region had the lowest (31.9 percent).
There was a significant disparity in the national pass rate for males (55.6 percent) versus females
(43.2 percent). This disparity existed to some degree in every region except the Kilimanjaro
Region. Of those who passed the exam in 2009, 90.4 percent were selected to join public
secondary schools for the year 2010. There was not enough room in those schools to
accommodate everyone who passed.
Secondary Education
Levels
Secondary education has two levels. Ordinary Level (O' Level) is Form 1 through Form 4. After
Form 4, a certificate is issued to all passing the Certificate of Secondary Education Examination
(Tanzania) . Selected students may progress to Advanced Level (A' Level) education - Forms 5
and 6 - or study for an ordinary diploma in a technical college. Not all schools offer A' Level
classes. All students at this level are boarding students. Because of the potential problems
associated with boarding both male and female students, A' Level schools restrict enrollment to
one sex.
Special needs Education
While about 7.9% of Tanzania's population lives with disability, less than 1% of children enrolled
in pre-primary, primary, or secondary education have a disability. [20] Similarly to many other
SubSaharan African countries, Tanzania has no system set in place to assess children for physical
or mental impairments before they enroll in the education system, and there is a huge gap in
knowledge about how to improve access to education for disabled students when many of their
disabilities are not known or tested.
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South Africa
Introduction
South Africa, officially the Republic of South Africa, is a country located at the southern tip of
Africa. It has 2,798 kilometres of coastline that stretches along the South Atlantic and Indian
Oceans. To the north lie the neighbouring countries of Namibia, Botswana and Zimbabwe; to the
east are Mozambique and Swaziland; while within it lies Lesotho, an enclave surrounded by
South African territory. South Africa is the 25th-largest country in the world by land area, and
with close to 53 million people, is the world's 24th-most populous nation.
South Africa is a multiethnic society encompassing a wide variety of cultures, languages, and
religions. This is reflected by the fact that 11 official languages are recognized in the constitution,
among the highest number of any country in the world. Two of these languages are of European
origin: English and Afrikaans, the latter originating from Dutch and serving as the main language
of most white and coloured South Africans. Though English is commonly used in public and
commercial life, it is only the fifth most-spoken home language.
About 80% of the South African population is of black African ancestry, divided among a variety
of ethnic groups speaking different Bantu languages, nine of which have official status. South
Africa also hosts the African continent's largest communities of European, Asian, and multiracial
ancestry. All ethnic and linguistic groups have political representation in the country's
constitutional democracy, which comprises a parliamentary republic and nine provinces. Since
the end of apartheid, South Africa's unique multicultural character has been emphasised as a
major element of its national identity, as expounded upon by the Rainbow Nation moniker and
concept.
South Africa is ranked as an upper-middle income economy by the World Bank, and is
considered to be a newly industrialized country. It has the largest economy in Africa, and the
28th-largest in the world. In terms of purchasing power parity, South Africa has the fifth-highest
per capita income in Africa. However, there remains widespread poverty and inequality, with
about a quarter of the population unemployed and living on less than US$1.25 a day.
Nevertheless, South Africa has been identified as a middle power in international affairs, and
maintains significant regional influence.
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Education
Education in South Africa is governed by two national departments, namely
1. The department of Basic Education (DBE), which is responsible for primary and secondary
schools, and
2. The department of Higher Education and Training (DHET), which is responsible for tertiary
education and vocational training.
Prior to 2009, these two departments were represented in a single Department of Education. The
DBE department deals with public schools, private schools (also referred to by the department as
independent schools), early childhood development (ECD) centres, and special needs schools.
The public schools and private schools are collectively known as ordinary schools, and comprise
roughly 97% of schools in South Africa.
The DHET department deals with further education and training (FET) colleges, adult basic education and
training (ABET) centres, and higher education (HE) institutions.
The nine provinces in South Africa also have their own education departments that are responsible
for implementing the policies of the national department, as well as dealing with local issues.
Structure of Education
Basic Education System (primary and secondary schools)
The department of Basic Education (DBE) officially groups grades into two bands called ;
1. General Education and Training (GED), which includes grade 0 plus grades 1 to 9
2. Further Education and Training (FET), which includes grades 10-12 as well as non-higher
education vocational training facilities.
The GED band is subdivided further into phases called ;
1. The Foundation Phase (grade 0 plus grade 1 to 3),
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2. The Intermediate Phase (grades 4 to 6),
3. The Senior Phase (grades 7 to 9).
The administrative structure of most ordinary schools in South Africa do not reflect the division
of bands and phases, however. For historical reasons, most schools are either primary schools or
secondary schools, also known as high schools .
Optional grades
Some home schools and private schools offer the option to complete an additional year after grade
12, sometimes known as grade 13 or post-matric The South African governmental school system
does not have a grade 13, but it forms part of non-South African curriculums that are sometimes
followed by private schools in South Africa.
Private schools
Private schools, also known as independent schools, are schools that are not owned by the state.
They are usually owned and operated by a trust, church or community, or by a for-profit
company. Not all private schools in South Africa charge high school fees. Certain private schools
also receive a grant from the state, depending on the community served and fees charged.
Higher Education and Training System
South Africa has a vibrant higher sector, with more than a million students enrolled in the
country’s universities, colleges and universities of technology. All the universities are
autonomous, reporting to their own councils rather than government.
Education in Francophone Countries
Cameroon
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Cameroon is a Central African nation on the Gulf of Guinea. Bantu speakers were among the first
groups to settle Cameroon, followed by the Muslim Fulani until German domination in 1884.
After World War I, the French took over 80% of the area, and the British 20%. After World War
II, selfgovernment was granted, and in 1972, a unitary republic was formed out of East and West
Cameroon. Until 1976 there were two separate education systems, French and English, which did
not merge seamlessly. French is now considered the primary language of instruction. Local
languages are generally not taught as there are too many, and choosing between them would raise
further issues.
Christian mission schools have played a significant role in educating children whose parents can
afford them. But most cannot. Primary schooling has been free since 2000, but these are very
basic, overcrowded, and parents must pay for all sundries.
Structure of the educational system
The educational system in Cameroon is divided into:
1. Primary-six years, compulsory

2. Secondary: five years
3. High school: two years
4. Tertiary (University).
The academic year runs from September to June, at which time, end-of-year-examinations are
always written. The General Certificate of Education (GCE), both Ordinary and Advanced levels,
are the two most qualifying exams in the Anglophone part of Cameroon. There are two separate
secondary schooling systems, depending on whether the French or British colonial models apply.
Primary and Secondary Education
Education is compulsory through the age of 12 years. Primary school education has been free
since 2000. However, families must pay for uniforms and book fees. Tuition and fees at the
secondary school level remain unaffordable for many families.
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Fewer girls enroll in primary school in Cameroon than boys. In 2001, the UN Committee on the
Rights of the Child identified a number of problems with the education system in Cameroon,
namely:
1. Rural, urban and regional disparities in school attendance

2. Limited access to formal and vocational education for children with disabilities
3. Children falling behind in their primary education
4. A high dropout rate
5. Lack of primary school teachers
6. Violence and sexual abuse against children in schools.
7. Early marriage unplanned pregnancy
8. Domestic chores
9. Socio-cultural biases
Two separate systems of education were used in Cameroon after independence:
1. East Cameroon's system was based on the French model

2. West Cameroon's on the British model.
The two systems were merged by 1976. Christian mission schools have been an important part of
the education system. The country has institutions for teacher training and technical education. At
the top of the education structure is the University of Yaoundé. There is, however, a growing
trend for the wealthiest and best-educated students to leave the country to study and live abroad,
creating a brain drain.
Higher Education
Although Cameroon boasts a sprawling cache of junior academic institutions of excellence, higher
institutions are rather insufficient. There are eight state-run universities in Cameroon
Compared with neighbouring countries, Cameroon generally enjoys stable academic calendars. In
all, Cameroon's higher education has been a success since independence, with thousands of its
graduates mostly consumed by the national public service. Since the 1990s, with economic crises,
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a new trend has been for hundreds of university graduates leaving the country for greener pastures
in Western countries.
An emerging number of private higher technical institutions of learning like the American
Institute of Cameroon AIC, Nacho University, Maaron Business School, Fonab Polytechnic, and
many others are beginning to reshape the predominantly general style of education that for over
three decades has been the turf of most Anglophone students in Cameroon.
Education of students with special needs
In 2010, the UN Committee on the Rights of the Child stated that "is deeply concerned at the
persistence of de facto discrimination among children in the enjoyment of their rights. It is
especially concerned that girls, indigenous children, children with disabilities, refugee children,
children from poor rural areas, and children in street situations suffer particular disadvantages
with regard to education, access to health and social services
Madagascar
Background
Education in Madagascar has a long and distinguished history. Formal schooling began with
medieval Arab seafarers, who established a handful of Islamic primary schools known as kuttabs
and developed a transcription of the Malagasy language using Arabic script, known as sorabe.
These schools were short-lived, and formal education was only to return under the 19th-century
Kingdom of Madagascar when the support of successive kings and queens produced the most
developed public school system in precolonial Sub-Saharan Africa.
However, formal schools were largely limited to the central highlands around the capital of
Antananarivo and were frequented by children of the noble class andriana. Among other
segments of the island's population, traditional education predominated through the early 20th
century. This informal transmission of communal knowledge, skills and norms was oriented
toward preparing children to take their place in a social hierarchy dominated by community elders
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and particularly the ancestors (razana), who were believed to oversee and influence events on
earth.
Since coming under French colonial authority in 1896, the education system in Madagascar has
steadily expanded into more remote and rural communities while coming under increased control
of the state. National education objectives have reflected changing government priorities over
time.
History of Education in Madagascar
The history of Education in Madagascar is divided into three historical periods:
1. Before 1820
2. 1820–1896
3. 1896–1960
Education before 1820
Traditionally, education in Madagascar was an informal affair consisting of the transmission of

the social norms, practices and knowledge developed and handed down within the community
over generations. The hierarchical structure of most traditional Malagasy communities placed
elders, parents and other persons of esteem over younger or less distinguished members of the
group, and over whom the ancestors (razana) exercised the greatest authority of all.
In the context of such a stratified society, traditional education underscored the importance of maintaining
one's proper place, trained people in the proper observance of ritual and innumerable fady (taboos) and,
above all, taught respect for ancestors (Chapin, M. H. 1994).Children learnt to respect elders and and to
conform to their opinions, speak the appropriate words, follow the rules of traditional wisdom and fear the
castigation they can expect in response to their antisocial actions.
Formal schooling in Madagascar was introduced by Arab seafarers around this time whose
influence on coastal communities extends at least as far back as the 11th century. These travelers
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attempted to propagate Islam by establishing a limited number of Quranic schools called kuttab
that taught literacy and basic numeracy and transcribed the Malagasy language using the Arabic
alphabet in a script termed sorabe. These schools did not persist, and sorabe literacy passed into
the realm of arcane knowledge reserved for astrologers, kings and other privileged elites.
Education between 1820-1896
The first formal European-style school was established in 1818 on the east coast of Madagascar at
Toamasina by members of the London Missionary Society (LMS). King Radama I (1810–1828),
the first sovereign to bring about half the island of Madagascar under his rule, was interested in
strengthening ties with European powers; to this end, he invited LMS missionaries to open a
school in his capital at Antananarivo within the Rova palace compound to instruct the royal
family in literacy, numeracy and basic education. This first school, known as the Palace School,
was established by LMS missionary David Jones on December 8, 1820, within the Besakana, a
building of great historic and cultural significance. Within months, due to the rapid increase in the
number interested in studying there, classes were transferred to a larger, purpose-built structure
on the Rova grounds. By 1822, LMS missionaries had successfully transcribed the Merina dialect
of the Malagasy language using the Latin alphabet. This dialect, spoken in the central highlands
around Antananarivo, was declared the official version of the Malagasy language that year — a
status that the highlands dialect has retained ever since. The Bible, which was incrementally
translated into this dialect and printed on a press (a process completed in 1835), was the first book
printed in the Malagasy language and became the standard text used to teach literacy, thereby
spreading the tenets of Christianity in Imerina.
Convinced that Western schooling was vital to developing Madagascar's political and economic strength,
in 1825 Radama declared primary schooling to be compulsory for the andriana (nobles) throughout
Imerina. Schools were constructed in larger towns throughout the central highlands and staffed with
teachers from the LMS and other missionary organizations. By the end of Radama's reign in 1829, 38
schools were providing basic e teaching dual messages of loyalty and obedience to Radama's rule and the
fundamentals of Christian theology. These schools also provided Radama with a ready pool of educated
conscripts for his military activities; consequently, some andriana families sent slave children to spare
their own offspring from the perils o An additional 600 students received vocational training under
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Scottish missionary James Cameron. However, Radama's successor and widow, Queen Ranavalona I
(1828–1861), grew increasingly wary of foreign influence on the island over the course of her 33-year
reign. She forbade the education of slaves in 1834. The following year, all of Radama's schools were
ordered closed and their missionary teachers were expelled from the country.[5]
Prime Minister Rainilaiarivony (1864–1895), who married Queens Rasoherina (1863–1868),

Ranavalona II (1868–1883) and Ranavalona III (1883–1897) in succession, reopened and
dramatically expanded the system of schools beginning in 1864. The policy of mandatory
schooling among the andriana was reinstated in 1872; by 1881, schooling was declared
compulsory for all Malagasy children regardless of ethnicity or class. Two years later, 1,155
mission schools were providing basic education to 133,695 students, establishing the Malagasy.
Education between 1896-1960
During the colonial period, the French established a system of public schools that was divided
into two parts: elite schools, modeled after those of France and reserved for the children of French
citizens (a status few Malagasy enjoyed); and indigenous schools for the Malagasy, which offered
practical and vocational education but were not designed to train students for positions of
leadership or responsibility. Within the first seven years of the colonial period 650 indigenous
schools had been established, half of which were dispersed over coastal areas where the schools
of the Kingdom of Madagascar had not reached. This initiative expanded the number of students
in Madagascar by 50,000, who studied a curriculum focused primarily on French language
acquisition and basic knowledge in such areas as hygiene and arithmetic. The long-established
mission schools continued to represent a viable education alternative until 1906, when French
laws placed stringent restrictions on their operation, forcing thousands of students out of mission
schools without adequate capacity to accommodate them within the public system
Middle-grade Malagasy civil servants and functionaries were trained at the écoles régionales
(regional schools), the most important of which was the École le Myre de Villers in
Antananarivo. Reforms of the public school system designed to give the Malagasy more
education opportunities were initiated after World War II. At independence in 1960, the country
had a system of education almost identical to that of France.
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The structure of Current Education System in Madagascar
Preschool
The Preschool Education in Madagascar is a one year cycle and concerns children of the age group 4-
5 years, with a vocation of awakening and openness to social and educational activities.
Preschool education prepares the child for primary education.
Primary school
It is a place where the Malagasy children are educated from 6 to 11 years old. It is mixed and free
for public schools and comprises 5 PCI and PCII levels: Preparatory Course I and II; AC:
Average Course; MC I and MC II: Middle Course I and II, and is sanctioned by obtaining the
Certificat d’Etudes Primaires et Elementaires or CEPE for the transition to secondary.
Middle School
The college is the secondary level establishment where Malagasy students strengthen the
acquisition of fundamental knowledge. They attend four years of schooling called: la sixieme, la
cinquieme, la quatrieme et la troisieme.
All students who have obtained the Certificat d’Etudes Primaires et Elementaires (CEPE) and
who have passed the entrance examination to the sixth grade are entitled to enroll in secondary
schools.
High School
The High school is a public secondary school. It welcomes students from seconde, premiere and terminale
(3 years of study) and prepares for the baccalaureate.
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Admission to high school is accessible by selection, entrance examination in seconde, candidates
holding a Brevet d’Etude du Premier Cycle de l’Enseignement Secondaire (BEPC). The number
of admissions will depend on the reception capacity of each High School.
High Education
Madagascar's higher education sector includes a number of colleges and universities. The
universities and colleges in Madagascar provide higher education to the interested students of the
island. The universities and colleges in Madagascar hold an important place in the educational
system of Madagascar.
Education in Lusophone Countries
Mozambique
Introduction
Mozambique, officially the Republic of Mozambique is a country in Southeast Africa bordered by

the Indian Ocean to the east, Tanzania to the north, Malawi and Zambia to the northwest,
Zimbabwe to the west and Swaziland and South Africa to the southwest. The capital and largest
city is Maputo (previously called Lourenço Marques before independence).
Between the 1st and 5th centuries AD, Bantu-speaking peoples migrated from farther north and
west. Swahili, and later also Arab, commercial ports existed along the coasts until the arrival of
Europeans. The area was explored by Vasco da Gama in 1498 and colonized by Portugal from
1505. After over four centuries of Portuguese rule, Mozambique gained independence in 1975,
becoming the People's Republic of Mozambique shortly thereafter. After only two years of
independence, the country descended into an intense and protracted civil war lasting from 1977 to
1992. In 1994, Mozambique held its first multiparty elections and has remained a relatively stable
presidential republic since.
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Education
Prior and during the colonial period, Native African Education in Portuguese East Africa was
essentially informal, with initiation rites within tribes the only formal element. [1] Formal
education was however provided by Koranic schools in Muslim towns, primarily in the north.
These schools focused on knowledge of the Koran and Koranic Arabic. In areas of Portuguese
control or influence, schooling was also undeveloped. From the seventeenth century, Portuguese
and a small number of Africans received a basic level of education (and inculcation in Portuguese
cultural and religious values) at mission schools in Portuguese towns, but many of the children of
Portuguese or African princes were instead sent to Goa or Portugal for their education. The small
number of educated Africans meant a lack of literate workers, the shortfall being made up in part
by Indians. A growth in the educational activities of missionaries from other countries prompted
the introduction of various controls in 1907: education could henceforth be conducted only in
Portuguese or the native languages, while schools and textbooks were subject to government
approval.
Primary and Secondary Education
Education is compulsory and free through the age of 12 years, but matriculation fees are charged
and are a burden for many families. Families below the poverty line can obtain a certificate
waiving the fee. Enforcement of compulsory education laws is inconsistent, because of the lack of
resources and the scarcity of schools in the upper grades.
In 2002, the gross primary enrollment rate was 103 percent, and the net primary enrollment rate
was 55 percent. Gross and net enrolment ratios are based on the number of students formally
registered in primary school and therefore do not necessarily reflect actual school attendance. In
1996, 51.7 percent of children ages 7 to 14 years were attending school. As of 2001, 49 percent of
children who started primary school were likely to reach grade 5. At the end of 2003 an estimated
370,000 children in Mozambique were AIDS orphans. It is estimated that HIV/AIDS could lead
to a decline in teacher numbers by 2010.
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In 2007, one million children still did not go to school, most of them from poor rural families,
and almost half of all teachers in Mozambique were still unqualified. Girls’ enrolment increased
from 3 million in 2002 to 4.1 million in 2006 while the completion rate increased from 31,000 to
90,000, which testified a very poor completion rate.
Higher Education
Higher education (HE) has never reached more than a tiny fraction of Mozambicans. In 1996, the
country had only 40 HE students per 100,000, compared to 638 in Zimbabwe and 5,339 in the
United States. ] The first institution was founded in 1962 and was upgraded to university status
(University of Lourenço Marquez) in 1968. It was overwhelmingly white, with only 40 African
students at the time of independence in 1975 Independence initially produced a huge exodus of
staff and students, student numbers at the university falling from 2433 in 1975 to 750 at the
renamed Eduardo Mondlane University (UEM) in 1978. At that time there were only ten
Mozambican teachers, with staff from the Communist bloc filling many of the vacancies; the
university at this time has been described as, “truly a Tower of Babel”. The percentage of foreign
teachers at the institution has steadily declined since then, to 33% in 1991, and then 14% in 2001
During the 1980s, many Mozambican students attended higher education instead in Eastern
Europe and the Soviet Union.
To increase the number of qualified teachers in the country, a Faculty of Education at the
university was established in 1980, but this was superseded by the foundation of the country's
second HE institution, the Higher Pedagogical Institute (ISP), in 1985. A third, the Higher
Institute for International Relations (ISRI), was founded to train diplomats in 1986.
Partly due to the establishment of the private universities, student numbers rose from below 4000
in 1990 to almost 12,000 in 1999
Non-Governmental Institutions
The advent of the non-governmental universities has prompted some controversy. They have been
criticized for their motivations (financial and religious, rather than purely educational), and for
luring teachers away from the state sector. Many teachers work part-time at the private
institutions in addition to their government jobs, so it has been argued that the private universities
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do at least increase the amount of education which they are providing. As noted above, the new
universities have also helped to increase the number of places available and the geographical
range of provision.
Angola
Angola, officially the Republic of Angola is a country in Southern Africa bordered by Namibia
on the south, the Democratic Republic of the Congo on the north, and Zambia on the east; its west
coast is on the Atlantic Ocean and Luanda is its capital city. The exclave province of Cabinda has
borders with the Republic of the Congo and the Democratic Republic of the Congo.
The Portuguese were present in some mostly coastal points of the territory of what is now
Angola, from the 16th to the 19th century, interacting in diverse ways with the peoples who lived
there. In the 19th century, they slowly and hesitantly began to establish themselves in the interior.
Angola as a Portuguese colony encompassing the present territory was not established before the
end of the 19th century, and "effective occupation", as required by the Berlin Conference (1884)
was achieved only by the 1920s after the Mbunda resistance and abduction of their King, Mwene
Mbandu I Lyondthzi Kapova.
Independence was achieved in 1975, after a protracted liberation war. After independence,
Angola was the scene of an intense civil war from 1975 to 2002. Despite the civil war, areas such
as Baixa de Cassanje continue a lineage of kings which have included the former King
Kambamba Kulaxingo and current King Dianhenga Aspirante Mjinji Kulaxingo. The country has
vast mineral and petroleum reserves, and its economy has on average grown at a double-digit
pace since the 1990s, especially since the end of the civil war. In spite of this, standards of living
remain low for the majority of the population, and life expectancy and infant mortality rates in
Angola are among the worst in the world. Angola is considered to be economically disparate,
with the majority of the nation's wealth concentrated in a disproportionately small sector of the
population.
Angola is a member state of the African Union, the Community of Portuguese Language Countries, the Latin
Union and the Southern African Development Community.
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Education
Education in Angola has four years of compulsory, free primary education which begins at age
seven, and secondary education which begins at age eleven, lasting eight years. Basic adult
literacy continues to be extremely low, but there are conflicting figures from government and
other sources. It is difficult to assess not only literacy but also other educational needs. Statistics
available in 2001 from UNICEF estimated adult literacy to be 56 percent for males and 29
percent for women. On the other hand, the university system has been developing considerably
over the last decade.
African access to educational opportunities was highly limited for most of the colonial period,
many rural Angolan populations of the vast countryside retained their native culture and language
and were not even able to speak or understand Portuguese In mainland Portugal, the homeland of
the colonial authorities who ruled Angola from the 16th century until 1975, by the end of the 19th
century the illiteracy rates were at over 80 percent and higher education was reserved for a small
percentage of the population as well. 68.1 percent of mainland Portugal's population was still
classified as illiterate by the 1930 census. Mainland Portugal's literacy rate by the 1940s and early
1950s was low for North American and Western European standards at the time. Only in the
mid1960s did the country make public education available for all children between the ages of six
and twelve, and the overseas territories profited from this new educational developments and
change in policy at Lisbon.
In Angola, until the 1950s, facilities run by the government were few for such a large territory
and restricted to the urban areas. Responsibility for educating Africans rested with Roman
Catholic and Protestant missions. As a consequence, each of the missions established its own
school system, however, the children were educated in Portuguese language and culture. This
centuries long missionary educational endeavor in Portuguese Angola was subject to Portuguese
coordination with respect to several pedagogical and organizational matters. Education beyond
the primary level was available to very few black Africans before 1960, and the proportion of the
age group that went on to secondary school in the early 1970s was still quite low compared to the
white Angolans (as well as comparing urban versus rural Angolans of all ethnicities).
Nevertheless, primary school attendance was growing substantially. In general, the quality of
teaching at the primary level was reasonable, despite the fact that sometimes instruction was
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carried on largely by Africans with very few qualifications. Most secondary school teachers were
Portuguese. In 1962, the first university established in Angola was founded by the Portuguese
authorities and was initially called 'Estudos Gerais Universitários de Angola. This first Angolan
university awarded a wide range of degrees from engineering to medicine. In 1968, it was
renamed Universidade de Luanda University of Luanda
Primary Education
After the end of the Angolan Civil War in 2002, and with the oil price increases in the late 2000s,
the Angolan Government was able to collect huge financial resources from taxes on oil and
diamond extraction profits. This increase of the governmental budget plus the end of the armed
conflict allowed a new opportunity to expand and improve Angola's educational system.
Angola's Education Ministry requested the implementation of the Cuban system beginning in
March 2009 in the provinces of Luanda, Benguela, Huambo and Bié, to be afterwards extended
Higher Education
Immediately after independence, the colonial Universidade de Luanda was renamed Universidade
de Angola, and in 1979 Universidade Agostinho Neto (UAN).
In 1998 the Catholic Church founded, also in Luanda, the Universidade Católica de Angola
(UCAN). Over the years, the UAN came to consist of about 40 faculties dispersed over most of
the territory. In the wake of political liberalization, private universities began to spring up in the
2000s.
TOPIC 7: EDUCATION SYSTEMS IN ETHIOPIA AND SOMALIA
Ethiopia
Education in Ethiopia was dominated by the Ethiopian Orthodox Church for many centuries until
secular education was adopted in the early 1900s. Prior to 1974, Ethiopia had an estimated
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illiteracy rate well above 90% and compared poorly with the rest of Africa in the provision of
schools and universities. After the Ethiopian Revolution, emphasis was placed on increasing
literacy in rural areas. Practical subjects were stressed, as was the teaching of socialism. By 2015,
the literacy rate had increased to 49.1%, still poor compared to most of the rest of Africa.
Education eras in Ethiopia
Education in Ethiopia evolved within three periods namely:
1. Pre-1900
2. 1900-1999
3. 2000-present
Pre-1900
Although the existence of inscriptions prove that literacy preceded the adoption of Christianity as
the recognized religion in Ethiopia, by the time of the earliest surviving records formal education
was controlled by the church. Educational opportunities were seen as the preserve of Ethiopia's
ruling Amhara class, but even for Amhara for only a few. Samuel Gobat (1799-1879) estimated
that, where Amharic is spoken, about one-fifth of the male population can read a little, and in
Tigre about one twelfth."
According to Richard Pankhurst (1927-2017) the traditional education provided by the church
began with the learning of the alphabet, or more properly, syllabary, made up of 26 base
characters, each with seven forms, indicating the various vowels. The student's second stage
comprised the memorization of the first chapter of the first Epistle General of St. John in Geez.
The study of writing would probably also begin at this time, and particularly in more modern
times some arithmetic might be added.
In the third stage the Acts of the Apostles were studied, while certain prayers were also learnt,
and writing and arithmetic continued. The children, who also studied signing would now be able
to serve as choristers. The fourth stage began with the study of the Psalms of David and was
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considered an important landmark in a child's education, being celebrated by the parents by a
feast in which the teacher, father confessor, relatives and neighbours were invited. A boy who had
reached this stage would moreover usually be able to write, and might act as a letter writer. ...
Other work in this stage included the study of Praises to God, and the Virgin Mary, the Song of Solomon
and the Songs of the Prophets. Many people have learned the song of Solomon
The higher education the Ethiopian Church provided involved Church music (divided into digua,
zemare and mawaset, and qidasse), poetry, mathematics, history, philosophy and manuscript
writing. Another field of study was aquaquam or the religious dance performed as part of church
services.
1900-1999
Until the early 1900s, formal education was confined to a system of religious instruction
organized and presented under the aegis of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church. Church schools
prepared individuals for the clergy and for other religious duties and positions. In the process,
these schools also provided religious education to the children of the nobility and to the sons of
limited numbers of tenant farmers and servants associated with elite families. Such schools
mainly served the Amhara and Tigray inhabitants of the Ethiopian highlands. Misguided policies
caused very few children to receive an education. As a result, Ethiopia did not meet the
Educational standards of other African countries in the early1990.
Toward the end of the nineteenth century, Menelik II had also permitted the establishment of
European missionary schools. At the same time, Islamic schools provided some education for a
small part of the Muslim population. At the beginning of the twentieth century, the education
system's failure to meet the needs of people involved in statecraft, diplomacy, commerce, and
industry led to the introduction of government-sponsored secular education. The first public
school to provide a western-style education was the Ecole Imperiale Menelik II, which was
opened in October 1908 under the guidance of Hanna Salib and a number of Copt teachers. By
1924, Pankhurst notes that "no fewer than 3,000 students 955had passed through the school", and
states that in 1935 the school had 150 pupils. That same year, Emperor Menelik II established a
primary school in Harar.
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In 1925 the government adopted a plan to expand secular education, but ten years later there were
only 8,000 students enrolled in twenty public schools. A few students also studied abroad on
government scholarships; Pankhurst provides minimum numbers for several countries: at least 20
studied in Lebanon, 19 in Egypt, 12 in Sudan, 63 in France, 25 in England, 8 in the United States,
10 in Switzerland, 10 in Italy, and smaller numbers in Germany, Belgium and Spain.
After their conquest of Ethiopia, the Italians acted quickly to reorganize the educational system in
Ethiopia. An ordinance issued 24 July 1936 reiterated the principle that the newly conquered
country, as in the older colonies, would have two different types of educational institutions,
namely "Italian-type schools" and schools for "colonial subjects." The existing Tafari Makonnen
School was converted into two "Italian type" schools, the Liceo-Ginnasio Vittorio Emanuele III
and the Istituto Tecnico Benito Mussolini, both reserved for European children, while the prewar
Empress Menen School for girls was converted into the Regina Elena military hospital.
Many other existing schools were converted to Italian-only schools, while new schools created for
the native population, in the words of P Although the Italian government boasted in 1939 that
there were thirteen primary schools in the province of Shewa staffed by over sixty teachers and
having an enrollment of 1481, actual attendance fluctuated greatly, as the official statement
admitted that many students were said to be absent from class in order to follow Italian lorries, or
to spend their time idly in their tukuls.
Following the Italian defeat, the country started to build up the sector, but the system faced
shortages of teachers, textbooks, and facilities. The government recruited foreign teachers for
primary and secondary schools to offset the teacher shortage. By 1952 a total of 60,000 students
were enrolled in 400 primary schools, eleven secondary schools, and three institutions offering
college-level courses. In the 1960s, 310 mission and privately operated schools with an
enrollment of 52,000 supplemented the country's public school system. While reforms have been
made in the aims of education, the actual structure of the Ethiopian school system has remained
unchanged from that established in the 1950s.
There were two institutions of higher education: Haile Selassie I University in Addis Ababa,
formed by imperial charter in 1961, and the private University of Asmara, founded by a Roman
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Catholic religious order based in Italy. The government expanded the public school system and in
1971 there were 1,300 primary and secondary schools and 13,000 teachers. But the system
suffered from a shortage of qualified personnel, a lack of funds, and overcrowded facilities. Often
financed with foreign aid, school construction usually proceeded faster than the training and
certification of teachers. In addition, most schools were in the major towns. Crowded and
understaffed, those schools in small towns and rural areas provided a poor education. The
inadequacies of public education before the mid-1970s resulted partly from the school financing
system. To finance primary education, the government levied a special tax on agricultural land.
Local boards of education supervised the disbursement of tax receipts. The system's inequities
fostered the expansion of primary education in wealthier regions rather than in poorer ones.
Moreover, urban inhabitants, who did not have to pay the tax but who were predominantly
represented in the schools, sent their children at the expense of the taxpaying rural landowners
and poor peasants. The government attempted to rectify this imbalance in 1970 by imposing an
education tax on urban landowners and a 2 percent tax on the personal income of urban residents.
But the Ministry of Finance treated the funds collected as part of the general revenue and never
spent the money for its intended purpose.
Current System
The Ministry of Education (MoE) provides some indication of achievements in the five years
from 2008/9 to 2012/13 although statistics do depend upon the accuracy of data collected.
Primary school enrollment has increased substantially but only about half of those enrolled
manage to complete both cycles. There are a large number of over-age children enrolling for
grade 1 although this has been declining. This is shown by the difference between gross intake
rate (GIR) and net intake rate (NIR). GIR is the percentage of children enrolled for grade 1,
regardless of age, out of the population of the appropriate age of 7 years.
Curriculum
The first cycle of primary education concentrates on functional literacy while the second cycle is
preparation for secondary education. In principle, the curriculum aims to link theory with practice
in real life and to use a problem-solving approach. Primary education subjects includes:
Languages (mother tongue, Amharic),
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1. English
2. Mathematics
3. Environmental science
4. Natural science (Physics, Chemistry and Biology in grades 7 and 8)
5. Social science (grades 5 to 8)
6. Aesthetic education.
Secondary school (grades 9 to 10) continues subjects taken in primary school:
1. English and a national language

2. Mathematics
3. Natural Sciences (Physics, Chemistry and Biology) 4. Social sciences (Civic education, Geography and
History)
5. Physical education.
The secondary school second cycle (grades 11 and 12) continues the Natural Science and Social
science streams. Common subjects in the two streams are English, Mathematics, Civic education,
Information technology, a national language and Physical education.
The students in the social science stream take Economics, General Business education, History
and Geography while those in natural science take Physics, Chemistry, Biology and Technical
drawing in addition to the common subjects.
Universities used to have a freshman year to prepare students for a degree but now schools are
expected to prepare students. This has had a knock-on effect of moving the freshman programs
down to grades 11 and 12 and programs for grades 11 to 12 down to grades 9 and 10. The grade 9
to 10 curriculum is now equivalent to grades 11 and 12 in many other countries and it covers
more subjects than most other countries require for university.
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Somalia
The Ministry of Education is officially responsible for education in Somalia, with about 15% of
the nation's budget allocated to scholastic instruction. The breakaway republic of Somaliland
maintain its own advanced Ministry of Education.
The school system in the colonial era before WW2 was limited mainly to primary schools but in
the capital Mogadishu of Italian Somalia there was an important high school. In this Lyceum was
created in the early 1950s the "National Institute of Legal, Economic and Social Studies, as a
postsecondary school in Italian language for pre-university studies in order to access the Italian
universities.
The Somali National University was the first high level education institution in the territory of
Somalia. It was established in 1954 as L'Universita' Nazionale Somala during the Trust Territory
of Somaliland. In 1969, the institution obtained official university status in newly independent
Somalia.[5] The main university grounds were situated about six kilometers from the city center of
Mogadishu. Here, during the institution's first thirty years, the main campus was known as
Jaamacada Gaheyr (Gaheyr University).
Following the outbreak of the Somali Civil War in 1991, the task of running schools in Somalia
was initially taken up by community education committees established in 94% of the local
schools. Numerous problems had arisen with regard to access to education in rural areas and
along gender lines, quality of educational provisions, responsiveness of school curricula,
educational standards and controls, management and planning capacity, and financing.
Educational Structure
The educational system of Puntland comprises of:
1. Two years of Early Childhood Development (ECD)

2. Eight years of primary education (four years of lower primary and four years of upper primary) Four
years of secondary education.
3. University education comprises an average of four years. Thus, it is a 2-4-4-4 system.
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Puntland's Ministry of Education also recognizes non-formal and technical and vocational education as
integral parts of the region's educational system.
Early Childhood Development (ECD)
Early Childhood Development (ECD), as with primary education and non-formal education
programs, falls within the category of basic education and entails the essential skills of literacy
and numeracy upon which further learning is built. Qur'anic education also forms a component of
ECD. ECD is offered to children in the 0-5 age bracket, with the focus on stimulating and
developing the cognitive, affective and psycho-motor skills of the toddler and his/her holistic
development. It also prepares children for school and facilitates the transition from home to
primary school
Primary Education
The Hammar Jab Jab School in Mogadishu Primary education features nine compulsory subjects:
Arabic, Islamic studies, Somali, mathematics (including business education), science (health,
environmental education, and agriculture), social studies (including history, geography and
civics), English, physical education and arts and crafts. Lower and upper primary students are
taught for 36 and 42 lesson periods, each lasting 35 and 40 minutes, respectively, per week. The
language of instruction is Somali in subjects other than Arabic and Islam; English is taught as a
subject from Grades 2 to 8.
Secondary Education
Secondary school Education is offered for four years to pupils between the ages of 15–18, and
leads to a Puntland Secondary School Certificate Examination (PSCE). Ten subjects are taught in
secondary schools, namely: mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology, Somali, Arabic, Islamic
studies, English, physical education, geography and history. All subjects, with the exception of
physical education, are compulsory. English is the language of instruction in secondary schools,
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except in the Somali, Arabic, and Islamic courses. Each school week is composed of 40 periods
of 45 minutes each.
Tertiary Education
Tertiary education in Somalia refers to education offered on completion of secondary education.

Teacher education, for convenience, is grouped under this category. Tertiary education in the
context of Puntland thus includes university education, instruction offered through diploma–level
institutions such as community and teacher colleges. The Puntland region currently counts five
major universities: Puntland State University in Garowe, Puntland State University in Galkayo,
Bosaso College in Bosaso, Mogadishu University Puntland Branch in Bosaso, and East Africa
University in Bosaso, Galkayo and Garowe.
In the northwestern Somaliland region, tertiary academic instruction is provided by the University
of Hargeisa, Admas University College, International Horn University and Somaliland University
of Technology in Hargeisa, and Burao University in Burao.
In the Sanaag region, Maakhir University in Badhan offers undergraduate courses. Nugaal
University in Las Anod also provides tertiary instruction to residents of Sool. In the Awdal
province, Amoud University in Borama serves the local community. The East Africa
UniversityBuuhoodle has been in operation since 2012 and gives undergraduate degree of four
major faculties.
Universities offering higher education in southern Somalia include Indian Ocean University,
Mogadishu University, Benadir University, Plasma University, the Somalia National University, SIMAD
University, the University of Southern Somalia, Kismayo University, the University of Somalia and the
University of Gedo. The Gedo region is also home to Bardera Polytechnic, the region's first polytechnic
school.
Technical/Vocational Education and Training (TVET)
Technical/Vocational education and training (TVET) is offered at both the post-primary and
postsecondary levels. The objectives of technical/vocational instruction and training at both the
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postprimary and post-secondary levels are to provide training opportunities for school drop outs
to enable them to be productive citizens and self-supporting, to provide technical/vocational
education and training that is relevant to the industrial, commercial and economic needs of
Puntland, and to reduce disparities through increased training opportunities for the handicapped
and learners from disadvantaged communities, as well as women.
Non-formal Education (NFE)
The last tier of academic instruction offered in Somalia is non-formal education (NFE), which
refers to a broad set of learning opportunities that are offered to out-of-school children, youth and
adults. These include vocational skills training, adult literacy, community health education, and
agricultural extension activities.
Religious Education
Qur'anic schools also known as duqsi remain the basic system of traditional religious instruction
in Somalia. They provide Islamic education for children, thereby filling a clear religious and
social role in the country. Known as the most stable local, non-formal system of education
providing basic religious and moral instruction, their strength rests on community support and
their use of locally made and widely available teaching materials. The Qur'anic system, which
teaches the greatest number of students relative to other educational sub-sectors, is often the only
system accessible to Somalis in nomadic as compared to urban areas. A study from 1993 found,
among other things, that about 40% of pupils in Qur'anic schools were girls. To address
shortcomings in religious instruction, the Somali government on its own part also subsequently
established the Ministry of Endowment and Islamic Affairs, under which Qur'anic education is
now regulated.
TOPIC 8: GLOBAL ISSUES IN EDUCATION
Global trends in Education
Universal Primary Education
104
The second goal in the United Nations Millennium Development Goal is to achieve Universal
Primary Education, more specifically, to ensure that by 2015, children everywhere, boys and
girls alike will be able to complete a full course of primary schooling. Currently, there are more
than 75 million children around the world of primary school age who are not in school.
The majority of these children are in regions of sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia and within
these countries, girls are at the greatest disadvantage in receiving access to education at the
primary school age. Since the Millennium Development Goals were launched, many developing
countries, such as China, Chile, Cuba, Singapore and Sri Lanka, have successfully completed a
campaign towards universal primary education .Despite the free primary education policy in
Kenya the country is yet to achieve Universal Primary Education.
Structural Adjustment Programmes (SAPs)
Structural adjustment programmes (SAPS) are the policies implemented by the International
Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank (the Bretton Woods Institutions) in developing
countries. These policy changes are conditions for receiving new loans from the IMF or World
Bank or for obtaining lower interest rates on existing loans.
Conditions are implemented to ensure that the money lent will be spent in accordance with the
overall goals of the loan. Structural Adjustment Programs (SAPs) are created with the goal of
reducing the borrowing country's fiscal imbalances. The bank from which a borrowing country
receives its loan depends upon the type of necessity. SAPs are supposed to allow the economies
of the developing countries to become more market oriented. This then forces them to concentrate
more on trade and production so it can boost their economy.
Through conditions, SAPs generally implement free market programs and policy. These programs
include internal changes (notably privatization and deregulation) as well as external ones,
especially the reduction of trade barriers. Countries that fail to enact these programs may be
subject to severe fiscal discipline. Critics argue that the financial threats to poor countries amount
to blackmail, and that poor nations have no choice but to comply.
Democratization and Education
105
This presupposes democracy in education or Democratic Education. It is an educational ideal in
which democracy is both a goal and a method of instruction. It brings democratic values to
education and can include self-determination within a community of equals, as well as such
values as justice, respect and trust.
Issues in the African Context: Brain drain, Economic hardships and

Conflicting Interest
Brain drain
Brain drain is the large-scale emigration of a large group of individuals with technical skills or
knowledge. The reasons usually include two aspects which respectively come from countries and
individuals.
In terms of countries, the reasons may be social environment e.g
1. Lack of opportunities
2. Political instability or oppression
3. Economic depression
4. Living conditions
In terms of individual reasons, these are:
1. Family influence (overseas relatives)

2. Personal preference: preference for exploring, ambition for an improved career
Brain drain is usually regarded as an economic cost, since emigrants usually take with them the
fraction of value of their training sponsored by the government or other organizations. It is a
parallel of capital flight, which refers to the same movement of financial capital. Brain drain is
often associated with de-skilling of emigrants in their country of destination, while their country
of emigration experiences the draining of skilled individuals.
Economic Hardships
106
Economic hardships presupposes poverty. Poverty is the state of one who lacks a certain amount
of material possessions or money. Absolute poverty or destitution refers to the deprivation of
basic human needs, which commonly includes food, water, sanitation, clothing, shelter, health
care and education. Relative poverty is defined contextually as economic inequality in the
location or society in which people live. This a common phenomenon in Africa and has affected
education in one way or another
Conflicting interests
A conflict of interest occurs when an individual or organization is involved in multiple interests,

one of which could possibly corrupt the motivation for an act in another. The presence of a
conflict of interest is independent from the execution of impropriety.
Therefore, a conflict of interest can be discovered and voluntarily defused before any corruption
occurs. A widely used definition is: "A conflict of interest is a set of circumstances that creates a
risk that professional judgement or actions regarding a primary interest will be unduly influenced
by a secondary interest.
Local Context Issues: Exam cheating, Medium of Instruction, Cost-sharing and

Education and unemployment
Exam Cheating
Cheating refers to an immoral way of achieving a goal, such as cheating on an exam. It is generally
used for the breaking of rules to gain unfair advantage in a competitive situation. Cheating is the
getting of reward for ability by dishonest means. Some of the reasons advanced for exam cheating
include.
1. Poor preparedness
2. Cut throat competition for scarce jobs
3. Competition for good name
4. Poor admission grades grades
5. Pressure from parents, sponsors and guardians
107
Medium of instruction
A medium of instruction instruction is a language used in teaching. It may or may not be the
official language of the country or territory. Where the first language of students is different from
the official language, it may be used as the medium of instruction for part or all of schooling.
Bilingual or multilingual education may involve the use of more than one language of instruction.
UNESCO considers that providing education in a child's mother tongue is indeed a critical issue.
Media of instruction in different countries and regions
Africa
1. In Tanzania, Swahili is used in primary schools and adult education, whereas English is used in
secondary schools and universities.
2. In Zimbabwe, use of English, Shona and Ndebele is established in education until the fourth
grade; from the fourth grade, English is the medium of instruction
3. In Kenya Swahili and mother tongue is used in primary schools and adult education, whereas
English is used in secondary schools and universities.
The Americas
Brazil
Every public school uses Brazilian Portuguese as the medium of instruction, but no law prohibits the
use of other languages in private schools. Many schools use other European languages (mainly
because of the country's European heritage) such as English, German, Italian or French. Public
schools also have mandatory English and Spanish, but only once or twice a week.
Canada
In Canada, almost all public schools use either English or French as the medium of instruction;
French is standard in the province of Quebec and, along with English, in New Brunswick. The
official language not used as the primary medium of instruction is taught as a mandatory subject
108
in primary school, and becomes optional for most secondary school students. Many public and
private school systems in English jurisdictions also offer French immersion. In the far north,
some aboriginal languages, such as Inuit and Innu, are also used in local school systems. Heritage
languages (immigrant or diaspora languages) are as also common across Canada in public and
private school.
United States
American English is used, but in some schools, Spanish, French (in Louisiana,) Hawaiian (in Hawaii) and
local Native American/ American Indian languages are used as well.
Asia
1. In Azerbaijan, Azeri is the main language of instruction. Instruction in Russian and to a

lesser extent in English at both secondary and post-secondary level is also offered in some
educational institutions. Georgian is the language of instruction in secondary schools in
the Georgian-populated northern regions. Education was conducted in Armenian in some
secondary schools until the Nagorno-Karabakh War.
2. In Bangladesh, Bengali and English are used as mediums of instruction.

3. In the People's Republic of China (PRC), Mandarin is used as the medium of instruction
in schools. In elementary and secondary schools for ethnic minorities, the minority
languages - such as Mongolian, Tibetan and Korean are also used
4. In Georgia, most schools conduct education in Georgian. The number of Azerbaijani

schools is being reduced.
5. In Hong Kong, either Cantonese or English is the medium in most schools at the primary
and secondary level. English is used almost exclusively at the tertiary level. EMI is used
as an abbreviation for English as a Medium of Instruction.
6. In India, media of instruction switch among English, Hindi, and the respective states’
official languages. Private schools usually prefer English, while public
(primary/secondary education) schools tend to go with one of the last two.
Europe
109
1. In Belarus, Russian is the main language of instruction. While Belarusian language
schools comprise 53%, they are located mostly in rural areas and the share of students
who receive instruction in Belarusian is as low as 18%
2. In Belgium, Dutch and French (and German in some parts of Eastern Belgium) are
used.3.In Croatia, besides Croatian-language education, Education of the representatives
of national minorities is carried out in 24 elementary schools, where the program is
conducted in the language and writing of a relevant national minority, while 61
elementary schools have classes with such program
3. In Estonia, as of 2011, there were 463 Estonian-medium schools, 62 Russian-medium

schools and 36 mixed medium schools. 25% of vocational education is in Russian while
the remainder Estonian. In higher education 90.2% is in Estonian, 7.8% in Russian and
1.85% in English.
4. In Finland, Finnish is the language used in most schools, but Swedish, which is also an
official national language, is used in a number of schools along the coast and Abo
Akademi. The right to education in Swedish is based in the constitution. There are also a
few schools where education is given to some extent in Sami in the north.
5. In France, legislation restricts languages other than French in state schools. Other
languages of France are the medium of instruction in non-state schools such as Diwan
Breton language-medium schools and the Calendretas in the south that use Occitan.
(c) Cost sharing
In Education cost sharing occurs when students pay for a portion of education costs not covered by
the government Cost sharing in university education was introduced in Kenya in 1991.
110
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Adesina M. O.(1985). Foundation Studies in Education. Ibadan. University Press.
2. Adeyinka, A.A (1994). Popular Topics for Nigerian Tertiary Education Students. Ilorin. Success
Education Services
3. Akinpelu, J.A .(1984). An Introduction to Philosophy of Education. London. Macmillan Publishers

Ltd.
4. Alabi, I.O. et al (1998).Comparative Education: A Handbook for Teachers. Oyo. Odumat Press and
Publishers.
111
5. Awolola, A. (1986). Readings in Comparative Education. Ibadan. Stevelola Educational
Publishers.
6. Azikiwe, U (1990). Factors influencing systems of education. In M.A Mkpa (Ed). Foundations of
education. Onitsha: Africana-Fep Publishers Ltd.
7. Bereday, G.F (1964). Comparative methods in education. London. Holt Rinehart and Winston, Inc.
8. Kande L. (1957). Studies in Comparative Education. London. Harrop
9. Lawal B.O. (2004). Comparative Education Osogbo. Swift Publishers
10. Mallinson V. (1975). An Introduction to the Study of Comparative Education. London, Heinemann
Publishers.
11. Nyerere, J. 1982 cited in Fafunwa and Asika (1982). Education in Africa; A Comparative Survey.
London. George Allen and Unwin.
12. Osokoya, I.O. (1992): Comparative Education. Ibadan, University of Ibadan.
112

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LECTURE NOTES

COURSE TITLE: COMPARATIVE EDUCATION

TOPIC 2: METHODOLOGY AND HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF

2.1 Methodology and approaches in Comparative Education

TOPIC 3: EDUCATION SYSTEMS IN EUROPE: BRITAIN AND FRANCE

TOPIC 4: EDUCATION IN THE U.S.A

TOPIC 5: EDUCATION IN SOUTHERN AMERICA

TOPIC 6: EDUCATION SYSTEMS IN ASIA: CHINA, JAPAN AND INDIA

TOPIC 7: EDUCATION SYSTEMS IN AFRICA: THE ANGLOPHONE,

7.1 Education systems in Anglophone Countries

7.3 Education in Lusophone Countries

TOPIC 8: EDUCATION SYSTEMS IN ETHIOPIA AND SOMALIA

TOPIC 9: GLOBAL ISSUES IN EDUCATION

The following are other attempts made to define Comparative Education:

2. F.N. Getao (1996) defined Comparative Education as a discipline, the study of

3. Epstein (1995) defines Comparative Education as an interdisciplinary field of study that

a) A study of two or more Education systems.

Objectives of Comparative Education

1) To describe educational systems, processes, or outcomes.

Scope of Comparative Education

2) Geographical units of study: These comprises intra-national, international, regional,

3) Ideological scope: This compares countries' educational systems based on different

Importance of Studying Comparative Education

2. Search for Understanding

4. Judging and Appreciating the Local Systems

TOPIC 2: METHODOLOGY AND HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF

1. The de Paris Approach

3. The Historical Approach

4. The Descriptive/ Statistical Method

Comparative Education is not a recent phenomenon but is as old as Education itself. It is

1. Marc- Antoinne Jullien de Paris

Marc- Antoinne Jullien de Paris

Stages and periods in the development of Comparative Education

TOPIC 3: EDUCATION IN EUROPE: BRITAIN, FRANCE AND RUSSIA

Stages of Education in Britain

In each Constituent country, there are five stages of Education namely:

The reforms included the following:

2. National curriculum assessments were introduced.

Levels of Education in France

1. Primary Education (enseignement primaire)

French secondary education is divided into two schools:

The completion of secondary studies leads to the baccalaureat.

1. Licence and Licence Professionnelle (Bachelor)

Education Administration in France

Pre-school Education and Primary Education

Vocational training option

Education for the disabled

Tertiary (University level) Education

TOPIC 4: EDUCATION IN THE U.S.A

The Primary Education

1. Turning out well-adjusted citizens.

The Primary school subjects include:

Secondary Schools in America

The aims and objectives of American Secondary Education include:

Teacher Education in the United States of America

The aims and objectives of American Teacher Education include:

2. Preparing teachers who will later assist in the training of

The subjects being offered in these training institutions include: