UNIVERSITY OF ELDORET

SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
DEPARTMENT OF FOUNDATIONS OF EDUCATION

EDUF 411: COMPARATIVE EDUCATION AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES

COURSE OUTLINE

COURSE DESCRIPTION

The main purpose of Comparative Education as one of the areas in education is to expose
teacher trainees to the study of systems of education and issues/problems in education with a
view to broadening their perspective on educational problems and attempted solutions. This
is important as they engage as agents of reform for their peculiar education systems.

COURSE OBJECTIVES

This course is intended to facilitate a critical and analytical thinking on education reforms in
Kenya by scrutinising the education systems in the world. This broad aim will be achieved
through the following specific objectives:

1. Explain the rationale of Comparative Education in teacher education

2. To introduce the learners to the development of comparative education
3. To critically analyze the methodologies in the study of Comparative Education.
4. To compare and contrast different national systems of education to inform reforms in
education

SECTION I: INTRODUCTION TO COMPARATIVE EDUCATION.

● Definition, Scope, Aims, and Purpose of Comparative Education.

● Development of Comparative Education.

● Methodology in Comparative Education

 SECTION II: SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION IN THE WORLD

● Determinants of System of Education

● Systems of Education in Africa: East Africa, West Africa, South Africa and North

Africa

● Systems of Education in North America

● Systems of Education in Europe

● Systems of Education in Asia

SECTION III: CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN EDUCATION: A COMPARATIVE

PERSPECTIVE

● Education and Training of Teachers: a comparative perspective

● Gender and Education from a comparative perspective

● Higher Education in Africa: a Comparative perspective

● Dependency and Education from a comparative perspective

● Brain Drain/Gain from a comparative perspective

● Globalisation and higher education from a comparative perspective

● Information, Communications Technology (ICT) and Education from a

comparative perspective

SECTION IV: REFERENCES

1. Altbach, P.G. Kelly, G. (eds), 1986): New Approaches to Comparative Education.
London, Macmillan.
 2. Altbach, P.G. et.al. (eds), (1982): Comparative Education. New York
3.
4. Beredy, GZF (1964) Comparative Methods in Education. New York.
5. Chaube, S.O &Chaube, A (2003). Comparative Education, 2 nd Edition. Mumbai:
Villas Publishing House PVT Ltd. Comparative Education. Nairobi: Lectern.
6. Cohen, R.M. (ed), (1984): International Handbook of Education Systems Chichester.
John Wiley & Sons
7. David, P. & Michele, S. (2006). Comparative and International Education: An
Introduction to theory, method, and practice: Continuum International Publishing
Group. New York.
8. Eckstein, M & Noah, H (1960). Towards a Science of Comparative Education.
London: Macmillan.
9. Getao, F (1996). International Education Systems: A Textbook in Comparative
Education. Nairobi: Lectern
10. Hans & Nicholas (1958). Comparative Education. A Study of Educational Factors
and Traditions. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.
11. Hans, N. (2008) Prophets of Education Comparative Education New Delhi, Sarup &
sons.
12. Holmes, B (1995). Problems in Education: A Comparative Approach. London:
Unwin.
13. Mallinson , V. (1977).An Introduction to the Study of Comparative Education.
London: Heinemann.
14. Kubow, P & Fossum P. (2007). Comparative Education: Exploring Issues in
International Context, 2nd Edition.
15. Sifuna, Karugu, &Ayot (1988) Contemporary Issue in Education. Nairobi: Kenyatta
University.
16. Sifuna, D.N., Chege, F.N., and Oanda I.O. (eds), Themes in the Study of the
Foundations of Education. Nairobi, Jomo Kenyatta Foundations, 2006.
17. Publishing House PVT Ltd.

Suggested Teaching and Learning Methodology

● Lecture method
 ● Tutorials

● Group Discussions

● Group

● Online learning

Assessment and Evaluation

● CAT 1 - 15 %

● Term paper - 15 %

● Final Examination - 70 %

● Total - 100%

NB: The University of Eldoret grading system applies in this unit’

COMPARATIVE EDUCATION AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES

This course consists of fourteen (14) units which provide basic knowledge for the learners
about Comparative Education and international studies.

UNIT 1: The Meaning of Comparative Education

Objective
At the end of this unit, students should be able to provide an acceptable definition to
Comparative Education.
The Content
Naturally, human beings are in the habit of making comparison of the things that are around
them particularly when such things exist in different places. This may be done as a result of
man's desire to know the relationship existing between, or among the things being compared.
Man may also involve himself in this kind of a business when he wants to choose between
two things before him. The idea of comparison is not peculiar to the people in the business of
education alone. The children at home or anywhere do make comparison between their
parents because one of them may be more loving than the other. The school pupils also make
a comparison of their teachers particularly when the teachers are not with them. The parents
themselves can make a comparison of their children morally and academically.

Comparison can take place wherever we have two or more things at the same time either for
the purpose of having a better understanding of the relationship existing between them or for
the purpose of having a better choice.

Like other concepts, comparative education is a concept that attracts varied interpretations or
definitions. In other words, there are as many definitions as there are many Educational
Comparativists.

Adeyinka (1994) gives the following definitions for the concept.

(a) A study of two or more education systems.

(b) A study of how the philosophy, objectives and aims, policy

and practice of education in other countries influence the general development, policy and
practice of education in a particular country.

(c) A study of how the development of education in the past, across the ages and continents,
has influenced the development of education in particular countries.

(d) A study of the school systems of two or more countries, and of the administrative
machineries set up to implement or to control the implementation of government policies at
various levels of education systems.

Comparative Education according to Good (1962) is a field of study dealing with the
comparison of current educational theory and practice in different countries for the purpose
of broadening and deepening understanding of educational problems beyond the boundaries
of one's own country.

From the above definitions, the study of Comparative education allows the person involved to
have a better understanding of the system of education outside his own country.
To Kandel (1957), Comparative Education is the comparison of various philosophies of
education based not only on theories but the actual practices which prevail From this above
definition, Kandel is of the opinion that comparative education goes beyond the comparison
of education philosophies but also includes the comparison of the real education practices.
Perhaps, from the definition, comparative Education can be regarded as being pragmatic.

In his own contribution to the concept of comparative Education, Mallinson (1975) defines
the subject as: a systematic examination of other cultures and other systems of education
deriving from those cultures in order to discover resemblances and differences, and why
variant solutions have been attempted (and with what result) to problems that are often
common to all. In his own remark on the concept of Comparative education,

Adejumobi (1994) defines the concept as a critical study of educational similarities and
differences prevailing with a particular society or culture or among various societies and
cultures. From the definition given by Adejumobi, it is obvious that the idea of comparing
educational systems is not peculiar to countries or societies alone but it can as well take place
within a country or society.

In the same vein, Osokoya (1992) observed that: Comparative Education could be the
comparison of educational theory and practice within a society, state, region and nations ...
that scholars could engage in the comparison of educational programmes, theories and
practices even within one society. Therefore, there could be a comparative study of
educational programmes within the local governments of a state, between states of a country
and between countries of a continent.

Alabietal (1998) sees comparative education as; a way of comparing and contrasting
different educational systems at national, infra-national as well as international levels.

The major implications of their definition is that comparison of educational philosophies,

systems and practices is not peculiar to two cultures or countries alone but it can also be
localized as it has been rightly pointed out by the other scholars in the field.

In his own reaction to the concept of Comparative education, Awolola (1986) defines the
subject as the study of aims and objectives of education, the curriculum methods of teaching,
teacher – student relationships, school calendar, mode of discipline, design of school
buildings, school administration among others which may be at the international or national
levels.
Conclusion

Various authors have defined it differently. No clearly accepted definition of Comparative

Education. However, many comparativists agree that that Comparative Education is
concerned with comparisons in education.

Comparative Education is an analytical survey of systems of education and problems with a

view of establishing similarities and differences. It makes comparisons across geo-political,
historical and cultural boundaries. The process of comparison involves analyzing forces,
which make for resemblances and differences between systems of education or problems of
education. In addition, we explore the reasons for different solutions attempted to problems in
education that seem common to all. Lastly, finding out why these systems are the way they
are.

Assignment

Define the term Comparative Education

UNIT 2: SCOPE OF COMPARATIVE EDUCATION

Introduction

Exposing students to the scope of comparative education will afford the students the
opportunity to have an idea of other disciplines from where comparative education draws
ideas or points.

Objectives

At the end of this unit, you should be able to do the following:

(a) Explain the scope of comparative education.

(b) Discuss the purpose of comparative education

(c) Explain the reasons for studying comparative education.

Content

The Scope of Comparative Education

The term "scope" according to Longman dictionary of contemporary English could mean:

(a) The area within the limit of a question, subject, action etc.

(b) Space or chance for actions or thought.

From the above, scope of comparative education means the area or areas covered by the
discipline. The scope of the subject also connotes the various subjects or disciplines from
where Comparative education draws its information directly or indirectly.

A critical look at the various definitions of the discipline no doubt reveals that Comparative
Education is an interdisciplinary subject since

it relies on other subjects to be able to accomplish its objectives. As an interdisciplinary

subject, its scope covers the historical development of education right from the Roman as
well as the Greek civilization. It also includes the historical development of non-formal
education in any country of study. The discipline has its scope extended to the purpose or

purposes of education systems of the countries being studied, an investigation into the
similarities as well as differences existing in the educational practices of the countries under
investigation. However, subjects from where Comparative Education draws its contents
include the following:

(a) History of Education

(b) Philosophy of Education

(c) Sociology of Education

(d) Anthropology

(e) Economics

(f) Geography

(g) Psychology

(h) Statistics
(i) Literature

(j) Political geography

(k) Political science and

(l) The International relations.

The above explanation clearly shows that the subject is not independent of other subjects; it is
a discipline that relates to other subjects for the accomplishment of its aims and objectives. It
may be reasonably concluded that the interdisciplinary nature of the subject has contributed
to the wideness of the discipline.

Conclusion

Comparative Education maybe viewed from various perspectives. There are mainly five
perspectives:

a) The Subject Matter

This covers the essential components in systems of education like the aims, curriculum
content, administration, financing and the structure, the education and training of teachers.

b) The Geographical Unit

This includes intra-national, international, regional, continental and global studies and
analysis

c) The Thematic Scope

This focuses on themes, topical issues or problems. The interest is to compare them within
one or more geographical units e.g. gender issues in education, and education in urban areas.

d) Ideological Scope

This focuses on comparison of educational systems based on differences in their political,

social and economic ideologies.

e) The historical scope

This deals with the study of events within systems of education from a chronological or
historical perspective.
Assignment

Explain the scope of Comparative Education.

The Purpose of Comparative Education

Comparative education like other disciplines being offered in the education institutions is not
a purposeless subject. In other words, the subject has some goals which it aims at achieving.
While giving the purpose of comparative education, Hans (1992) concludes that: The
analytical study of these factors from historical perspective and the comparison of attempted
solution of resultant problems are the main purpose of comparative education. It can be
concluded from the above that comparative education tries to compare educational problems
as well as the solutions applied to such problems with a view to helping one's educational
practices.

The purpose of Comparative Education was given by Mallinson (1975) when he noted that:
To become familiar with what is being done in some countries ... and why it is done, is a
necessary part of the training of all students of educational issues of the day. Only in that way
will they be properly fitted to study and understand their own systems and plan intelligently
for the future which given the basic cultural changes that have taken place with such
astonishing throughout the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, is going to be one where we
are thrown into ever closer contact with other peoples and other cultures.

From the above, it is evident that the study of Comparative Education assists the learners to
understand their educational systems better. In his own contribution to the purpose of
comparative education,

Marc - Antoine Jullien de Paris (1817) cited in Hans (1992) notes that: The purpose of
Comparative Education is to perfect national systems with modifications and changes which
the circumstances and local conditions would demand. Like other Education Comparativsts,
the purpose given above is a pointer to the fact that the study of Comparative education
assists in the flexibility of educational systems of one's country.

In the same vein, Kandel cited by Hans (1992) was of the opinion that the primary purpose of
comparative education is to discover not only the differences existing in the Education
systems of two countries but also the factors that bring about such differences in the
educational system.

Also, to Hans (1992) the purpose of Comparative Education is to discover the underlying
principles which govern the development of all national education systems.

Other reasons for Studying Comparative Education include:

(a) To assist in the understanding of one's educational institutions as well as educational

practices.

(b) To assist in the understanding of the factors that are responsible for various educational
changes.

(c) To educate the students and teachers on the procedure through which educational changes
occur.

(d) To contribute not only to the educational development of the society but also to the
general development of the society.

(e) To serve as an academic discipline.

(f) To assist in solving one's educational problems

(g) To open one's eyes to the educational philosophies, theories and practices of other
countries.

(h) To assist both the students and teachers of discipline in gathering reliable information
concerning educational system.

(i) To assist in the Promotion of international relationship.

(j) To contribute to the formulation of a country's educational systems.

Conclusion

Comparative education is an interdisciplinary course as it borrows ideas from other subjects.

Assignment
Mention five reasons for studying comparative education.

UNIT 3: Historical Development of Comparative Education

Introduction

The historical development of comparative education can be divided into four stages. They
are: The phase of Travelers Tales, selective education borrowing, concern for cultural context
the phase of social science perspective.

Objective

At the end of this unit, you should be able to explain the historical development of
comparative education.

The Content

Historical Background

In the beginning, Comparative Education was not really Comparative but descriptive as the
people were mostly concerned with the description of educational systems of each country
without necessarily comparing one educational systems with another. However, the 19th
Century witnessed an increased interest in the study of Comparative Education as education
started to be studied in a Comparative form.

As a matter of fact, what can be regarded as serious studies in the field of Comparative
Education could be traced to the early 19th century after the Napoleonic wars. Since there
was no war among the Europeans, there was peace among them and they needed something
that could enhance their interaction with one another. Therefore, a consideration was given to
the study of comparative education as a strong channel through which the youths of various
European countries could be more unified. To this end, John Griscom travelled to Europe and
on his return, he published his findings on educational institutions in the countries visited
such as Great Britain, France, Switzerland, Italy as well as Holland between 1818 and 1819.

In the same vein, Victor Cousin, a representative of the French Minister of education visited
Prussia in 1931 and also on return home, published his findings on the Prussian educational
institutions and practices, His findings were later translated to English and enhanced the
educational development in France, England as well as in America. Another pioneer in the
field of Comparative Education was Horace Mann of America who after a six-month visit to
Europe also published his findings in 1843 on educational institutions and practices in
England, Scotland, Ireland, France, Germany as well as Holland. His report was purely on the
comparison of the school organization and methods of instruction. Matthew Arnold of
England visited both France and Germany in 1859 and 1865. On his return home, he made
some remarks particularly on the educational institutions and practices in both France and
Germany. Like others, he advised that some useful aspects of the educational system of
France and Germany should be integrated into the systems of education in England.

What can be viewed as second generation in the study of Comparative Education could be
traced to Sir Michael Sadler who in one of his publications: how far can we learn anything of
practical value from the study of Foreign Systems of Education which was published in 1900,
went further than other pioneers before him who were more utilitarian and straight forward in
the description of the foreign educational systems studied by them.

While contributing to the development of Comparative Education study, Kandel cited by

Hans (1958) observed that: The chief value of a Comparative approach to educational
problems lies in an analysis of the causes which have produced them, in a comparison of the
differences between the various systems and the reasons underlying them and finally, in a
study of the solutions attempted. In other words, the comparative approach demands first and
appreciation of the intangible, impalpable spiritual and cultural forces which underlie an
educational system, the factors and forces outside the school matter even more than what
goes inside it. In the same vein, Friedrich Schneider, a German speaking and Director of the
Institute of Comparative Education, Salzburg started the editing of the international Review
of Education in four languages in 1930.

In his 1947 publication, he gave the following as the factors that can influence the
educational theory and practice of any country:

(a) National character

(b) Geographical space

(c) Culture

(d) Sciences
(e) Philosophy

(f) Economic life and politics

(g) Religion

(h) History

(i) Foreign influences and

(j) The development of pedagogies

Like others, he applied historical approach to the problems of education of all the countries
visited by him. In his own contribution to the development of Comparative

Education, Sergius Hessen, a Russian Philosopher looked at Comparative Education from a

Philosophical Education point of view. In his book published in 1928, he selected four
problems as an educational policy focus.

The problems are

(a) compulsory education

(b) The school and the State

(c) The school and the church and

(d) The school and economic life.

Hessen was perhaps the first education philosopher to apply philosophical approach.

Also, the Comparative Education Society, introduced by Brickman, came into being at a
conference in New York in 1956. This society assists in the publication of journal called "The
Comparative Education Review". In addition, it holds national as well as regional
conferences and seminars.

In 1961, a similar society was established in Europe after launching the new society in
London. The membership of the Society was extended to the experts in the field of
Comparative or International Education in the tertiary Institutions or the International
organizations. Like others, it holds its conferences every two years and publishes the
proceedings of its conferences. Meanwhile, similar societies have been established in Canada,
Korea as well as Japan. Perhaps World-Wide today, the discipline is one of the subjects being
offered in all the Universities and Colleges of Education. The Society for Comparative
Education was founded in Nigeria in 1983 while the World congress on the discipline came
into being in the year 1982 for Cooperation among the people involved in the study of the
subject as well as the general development of Comparative Education.

Factors responsible for increased interest in the study of Comparative education.

Osokoya, P G (1992) gives the following as the other factors responsible for increased
interest in the study of Comparative Education.

(a) The emergency of newly independent states and developing countries who wanted a good
educational system as soon as possible. For instance, the newly introduced educational
system in Nigeria 6-3-3-4 which was borrowed from America took the Nigerian delegation to
schools and companies manufacturing the educational equipment in Sweden.

(b) The greater frequency of travel to attend conferences, seminars as well as workshops
abroad.

(c) The improvement in the modern means of transport as well as communication.

(d) The awareness of scientific and technological achievements in the advanced countries
such as Russia and Sputnik.

(e) The socio-economic and political problems facing other countries.

The present day Comparative education distinct from philosophy, sociology, history and
economic of education has come up in the 20th Century. Various scholars have used different
stages in classifying the development of this discipline.

Phases in development of Comparative Education

1. The phase of Travelers Tales

2. The phase of selective education borrowing

3. The phase of concern for cultural context

4. The phase of social science perspective

It is important to note that the phases used here to signify changes in the historical
development of the discipline are retrospective and imposed one. They should not be seen as
precise or sudden turning points. The changes were gradual. In reality there are no such
distinct phases. This is because towards the end of each phase, for example, the next phase
has already evident in the work of prospective observer. At the same time, entry into a new
phase does not mean a complete break with the earlier one.

The phase of travelers’ tale (from antiquity to 1817)

This covers the period time from antiquity to around 1817 AD when Antoinne Jullien De
Paris published his famous work ‘plan and preliminary views for work in Comparative
Education’. Before this time writings on foreign education systems were mere descriptions of
accounts of foreign education systems by individuals who had opportunities for foreign
travels. Visitations to other countries whether for purpose of commerce, conversations,
curiosity or conflict go back to ancient history of mankind. From one point of view everyone
who had interest in the upbringing of children or in education tended to enquire into what
went on in those communities they visited. The writings by the early writers on comparative
education drew examples from the societies other than their own. The motives for accounts of
travelers’ tales were partly curiosity and the need for comparison. As they were visiting the
new lands they wrote about the education systems of the countries they visited.

Characteristics

The stories at this time were not scientific accounts and thus had many shortcomings. Among
them were that they were mostly descriptive. They were giving descriptive account of their
journeys and experiences in foreign lands. They gave descriptive accounts of features in
foreign systems of education as they saw them. They were influenced by writer biases and
prejudice. In addition, they were not systematic. Their attention to education was fragmented
and generally unsystematic. Most of them had gone to foreign lands for purpose other than
education. In this regard, their statements included obvious exaggerations, understatements
and at time deliberate falsehood in order to entertain. However, although they were
stimulating they were superficial and piecemeal. Cultural prejudices were prevalent. The
observer was gauging the other group as inferior to them. This went hand in hand with
racism. Lastly, most of this information had little comparative value since it was influenced
by the curiosity of the author.

Relevance to the present day theory of education

Features of travelers’ tales still remain with us in the work of journalism and education trips.
Indeed their reports are informal getting to know the experience of other societies. They form
the first step to understanding education in other countries. Stories given on return from visits
to other countries add flavor to our teaching in schools. Eye witness accounts are still deemed
as valuable in research work. Reading of novels and stories about other countries are all-
commendable in our present day educational practices.

Phase of selective education borrowing (Pioneers)

The aftermath of French Revolution, industrial revolution, agrarian revolution and the
process of colonization characterized the 19th century Europe. Most education reformers of
the time were disturbed by the social and the political conditions of the revolution and
reactions of the early 19th Century Europe. In education, they saw the means of moral
improvement and social amelioration. Reformers were concerned that the ability of individual
school systems to improve themselves seemed limited even where there was a good
intentions. What was needed was some way of sharing the best ideas and practices available
in many countries. This presented a significant change of approach suggesting a more
systematic and comprehensive collection of data and selective borrowing in education.

This period was geared towards the development of methodology or systematic rules to be
followed in studying of comparative education. It was a drive to learn lessons from foreign
education systems for the purpose of borrowing ideas. This period is considered as the
starting point of comparative education, which is associated with Marie Antoinne julllien De
Paris work Plan and Preliminary Views for Work of Comparative Education. He seems to
have foresight and concern for systematic approach to comparative examination of
educational institutions and practices. Selective education borrowing was motivated by the
desire to develop a methodology or system of rules to be followed in studying foreign
systems of education. There was a drive to learn lessons from foreign systems for purpose of
borrowing ideas. Consequently, the 19th Century period saw journeys to foreign countries by
travelers with specialized interest in educational matters. There were serious attempts at
observation and study of other systems of education. The travelers no longer traveled for
general curiosity and enlightment. They wanted to discover what was going on in education
in other countries in order to borrow aspects for improvement of their own systems of
education.

Apart from the increase in the incidence of trips to other countries in search of improvement
for home systems of education, the 19th century was noteworthy for the establishment of
national agencies for the collection and dissemination of information about systems of
education. For example, the United States of America (1867) the Mussee Pedagogigue in
Paris (1879) and the Office of Special Inquiries and report in London (1895). There were
various contributors who are accredited to this phase. They involved Marc Antoinne Jullien
De Paris, Victor Cousin, Horace Mann, Henry Bernard, Mathew Arnold, K.D Ushinsky and
Peter the Great.

Relevance of the Selective borrowing phase to the present day education theory and practice

Despite the mentioned shortcomings this phase is relevant to present day theory and practice
of education. First, they were mainly descriptive and utilitarian in purpose. Descriptive
studies are features that are still relevant in education today. We also endeavor to make
education more utilitarian. Second we still have visits to other countries or institutions, for the
purpose of observing what may be of value to be brought back and used at home. Lastly,
there is the importance of learning from experience of others in order to improve institutions
in our own systems of education.

The phase of concern for cultural context: from 1900 to the end of second world war-
1945

The publication in 1990 of short essays by Michael Saddler (1861-1943) ushered in new
phase of comparative studies in education. Although intimidations of this approach may be
discerned in the work of some earlier writer notably Matthew Arnold in England, Wilhelm
Dilthey in Germany, William T. Harris in USA from this point on, new prospects for
comparative education were revealed that were more comprehensive more analytical and that
had greater explanatory potential.

The approach was more comprehensive because specific educational systems were regarded
as the contemporary outcomes of an identifiable set of historical and social forces and factors.
The schools of a particular country, it was argued, could be studied only as integral part of
the society in which they had developed. Parts of the school system could not be wretched
out of their educational contexts, nor could entire school system be examined in isolation
from their total cultural environment. The first works done within this phase characteristically
gave as much attention to historical and political developments outside the school as to the
narration of events within the school system itself. Later this heavy historical emphasis was
gradually replaced by the growing data drawn from economics and sociology.

Many writers in comparative education had been content to offer descriptive materials on
foreign education school system implying that such facts in themselves had something
valuable to say. The rapidly growing social science and new works in historical methods
tended to deny the facts outside a context of explanation could convey such. This critique was
reflected increasingly in the 20th century work in comparative education, which now began
to emphasize dynamic analysis and explanations instead of static institutional descriptions.
The concept of causation that began to grow and eventually to dominate the field was
combined with optimism about the predictive value of causal analysis.

By the close of the 19th Century most Governments were encouraging and even sponsoring
studies of foreign systems of education. Those involved in the studies became more
concerned with problems of comparison. It was not enough to accumulate masses of
information about educational practices in other countries or simply to borrow practices
indiscriminately. Question of interpreting observed practices in context and of judging or
predicting whether a particular arrangement of practice could be transplanted successfully in
the home environment had be faced.

This phase was motivated by the need to move from the encyclopedic, descriptive and
sometimes uncritical approach of the earlier phases to be more analytical approach. The trend
towards analytical studies of the interrelationship between education and society became
more generally recognized. There grew a concern to understand factors which helped to
shape systems of education. The problem for comparativists was no longer one of selective
borrowing, but of predicting the likely success of educational transplant through knowledge
of cultural context in both the donor and recipient countries.

Contribution by institution of learning

In 1930s and 1940s courses in comparative education became part of teacher training
programmes in many colleges and universities of the world. Where they become established
they tended to use books written by Kandel and Hans. The endevour of these individuals led
to founding of national and international agencies, like the international Bureau of education
in Geneva in 1925. Among the main functions of these agencies was to study educational
problems of international nature and to disseminate educational data worldwide. This phase is
relevant to the modern day theory and practice in education has helped in understanding of
the forces and factors that shape the systems of education worldwide.

The main motivations of the phase include:

Studying of educational problems of international nature

Promotion of humanitarian and international sentiments.

Contribution to the solutions of the world’s gravest social and political problems especially
those arising from nationalism and using education for social advancement.

Outpouring of educational data by identifying worldwide movement in education such as

basic education and lifelong education. This was accompanied by exchange of scholars and
students as a way of helping developing countries to improve their education system.
Moreover promotion of understanding and elimination of racial, ethnic, and gender biasness
from books also motivated this stage.

Social Science Perspective:

Since the end of world war II in 1945, interest and activity in comparative education have
developed dramatically and especially in two main respects:

a) The work of new influential national and international agencies involved in

educational inquiry, planning and programme implementation. In the associations there are
those comparativists who see the field’s most productive future in terms of more active
involvement in international projects of an inquiring of potentially reformative kind.

b) Increased activity in the study and teaching of comparative education as a

discipline in colleges, universities and comparative education centres for research. This also
points to further shift in emphasis on social science.

Motivation and characteristics

Since the end of War II in 1945, there has been less concern for analysis of antecedent and
more for analysis of contemporary relationships. The mode for analysis have been less
historical and more quantitative and empirical drawing on the techniques and conceptual
frameworks of sociology, economics and political science in particular. It has become
important to collect facts, organize the data and give the interpretation of the collected facts.
The comparativists have to change the collected facts into systems, and must offer
explanation and theories regarding the collected data. Consequently, the comparativists have
been pre-occupied with debate in an effort

to identify the best method of conducting comparative education studies sos as to yield the
most valid data, information and advice. Some of the individuals who have contributed to the
development of comparative education during this phase include: Vernon Mallinson, Joseph
A. Lauweys, George ZF Bereday, Brian Holmes and Edmund King.

Institutions of learning, various agencies and comparative education societies have

contributed to the development of this phase. After World War II, university centres
developed comparative education studies. Today they have developed comparative education
as a discipline in various ncountries of the world in Africa, Asia, Europe, Latin America, and
North America. The scope of work in comparative education has broadened through the
development of international, regional and national agencies. For example, the International
bureau of Education, UNESCO, UNICEF, and many others. Their functions include:
collecting, analyzing, and disseminating educational documentation and information. They
are involved in undertaking surveys and projects studies in the field of comparative
education.

Individuals interested in the field of comparative education have formed a number of

societies to promote comparative studies in education. Their aims are: to initiate and co-
ordinate research, and to cooperate with other persons and organization in international and
comparative studies. In 1958, comparative education society was established in New York.
British and German sections of the society were also established. Similar comparative
education societies have been organized in Canada, Korea, Japan, and in Africa. Most of
these societies are affiliated to the World Council of Comparative Education Societies.

Conclusion

The treatment of the historical development of comparative education will enhance the
students' understanding of the discipline.

Assignment
Highlight the three major phases involved in the development of comparative education.

Discuss only one of the three phases.

UNIT 4

Research Methods/Approaches in Comparative Education

Objective

At the end of this unit, you should be able to mention and discuss some of the approaches to
the study of comparative education.

Content

Research Methods/Approaches in Comparative Education

Comparative research is the act of comparing/juxtaposing two or more things with a view of
establishing similarities and differences. There is no single methodology for comparative
research. It usually depends on the aspect being studied and the purpose of the comparison.
Comparative research concerns itself with middle-range theories and methods that do not
purport to generalize on social systems but a subset of it.

Several approaches have been proposed to the study of comparative education. They include:

• The Historical Approach

This approach was developed by Kandel and Butler and focused on the causes educational
theory and practice. It argued that past experiences could be used to formulate hypotheses for
the present as this exposed achievements and mistakes of the past that could be used for
present day planning. Every society or system was seen as a product of history which needed
to be understood, especially how each society developed its education. This method was
popularized by Isaac Kandel and Michael Sadler with the argument that educational policies
and practices had a cause and effect. Each national system of education was to be studied
separately in a historical context with an analysis of factors responsible for similarities and
differences.

• The Descriptive/Statistical Method

Pioneers of comparative education such as Marc Antoinne Jullien and Mathew Arnold
extensively used this method. It emphasizes the collection, interpretation, verification and
comparison of data in education using statistical/ analytical charts to facilitate borrowing of
useful lessons from foreign countries.

They believed that only scientific methods could be comparable. This method is still being
used but faces a limitation on the unreliability and imprecision of statistical data.

• The Philosophical Approach

This is very closely related to the national character approach as was proposed by Hall and
John Dewey for the American education system. Philosophy helps us understand the world
and how we can improve it.

This approach helps influence the theory and practice of education. It sees society as living in
a process of transmission just like a biological body. It sees life as a self-reviewing process.
This approach enables us to arrive at the best educational practices for each society i.e what
knowledge is of more worth. Comparative educationists philosophically interpret certain
characteristics of the society and then develop the right education system.

• Methodological Approach

It originates from the works of John Stuart Mills who offered a system of research strategies
for making experimental generalizations through agreement. The basic argument is that if
two or more instances of an issue being studied has only one of several causal circumstances
then the circumstance in which all the instances agree is the causal phenomenon. An
education system could then be compared to a constant e.g. government strategy. The
analysis and comparison of differences is essential.

• Triangulation

Triangulation implies the application of a variety of methodologies. This is to ensure that all
dimensions of the phenomena is taken care of. Contemporary leading scholars in
Comparative Education such as Philip Altbach recommend this method.

This was mainly based on their argument that there may be no single methodology that would
provide explanation to all comparative education phenomena.
The methodological debate in Comparative Education continues and has not been completely
settled

Revision Question

Discuss the various methods or approaches utilized in the study of Comparative education,
showing their significance to education practice and theory.

FACTORS THAT DETERMINE NATIONAL SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION

Objective
At the end of this unit, you should be able to identify and discuss the factors that determine
the education system of any country.

Content

Behind every system of education there are factors that help to determine and shape the
education system.

The national character of a given system of education is never determined by one factor but
by a combination of several factors. These factors determine the similarities and differences
in systems of education.

1. Economic Factors

The growth and development of systems of education coincides with the economic growth.
The economic factors determine the content and methods of an education system,

Formal education is only possible where the production exceeds consumption. In the
economic perspective, it refers to the amount of money or revenue spent on education. For
developed countries like Britain, France, U.S.A and Germany there are grants allocated for
their systems of education. They have enough funds to support programs in their systems of
education

For the 3rd world countries like Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania they lack adequate funds, this
impacts negatively to the quality of education. There are inadequate library recourses,
classrooms, laboratories, teachers, teaching materials, lack of basic school materials,
inadequate infrastructure, overcrowded classrooms etc. See the challenges Kenya is facing in
its process of implementing CBC

2. The Social Cultural Factors:

Education is usually seen as a social factor in the sense that any system of education must
reflect the norms and ethos of the people it should serve. Education therefore ensures cultural
preservation, continuity and renewal. There can be no society of humans, however, primitive,
that does not have a culture. Each society when closely analyzed, reveals how cultures
influence education or vice versa. The traditions and aspirations of a people of a particular
cultural are reflected in its system of education.

3. The Climatic and Geographical Factors:

Geographical factors or the environment plays a significant role in influencing education.

Environmental factors influence the curriculum and educational practices of societies
concerned. For most developing countries, geography has always had disasters such as wars,
earthquakes, floods, famine etc impact differently on education depending on their
magnitudes. When such disasters occur, education largely comes to a stop. Several years of
war has hampered education in several African countries such as Angola, Somalia, Sierra
Leone, Liberia and Sudan. There have also been instances where other emergency situations
such as earthquakes and droughts have hindered education. These call for disaster
preparedness by countries so as to avoid the full consequences of disasters. Extreme climatic
conditions in Europe influence systems of education.

4. Language of instruction

Language is a major question in education. Language may not be everything in education, but
education is nothing without a language. After independence most developing countries
adopted the languages of their colonial masters for usage in the school system. In Africa for
example, English, French and Portuguese are the most widely used languages of instruction.
Research has shown that one of the biggest challenges facing African education is the
language question. From a tender age, children are denied the opportunity to learn in their
local languages at the expense of the foreign languages. In the first place, they spend a lot of
time learning the new language and it is also difficult for them to understand or form new
concepts in these new languages. In addition, language and culture are inseparable and this
trend only denies the child his or her culture and identity. However, due to the complexities
of the language situations in most developing countries, new language policies now propose a
mix of both local and a foreign language at the initial levels of schooling. It has been
ascertained that many students fail to succeed in education due to the complexities arising
from the foreign languages. The issue of language of instruction has been debated and still
attract lots of discourse.

5. Political Factors/Role of government

Governments play an important role in education. They are the main agencies in governance,
funding, policy making and implementation of most aspects of education. Countries
experiencing political instability or the complete absence of the government undergo several
challenges in their education system. Where governments exist, they at times interfere with
the education sector and impede the growth and freedom required for constructive education
to take place. Governments should play more regulatory work than control of the systems of
education. They should also not politicize their involvement in education. Such instances
have always led to deterioration of education. Ideologies of governments e.g. communism,
capitalism also influence the education sector.

6. The Historical Factors:

Different countries of the world have varied histories which have helped in shaping their
systems of education. Countries with similar culture, same politics and similar climatic
conditions will have similar education systems e,g. Anglophone or Francophone, East
African countries because of having been under the Brirtish colonization have similar
educational systems.

7. Religious factors

Religion has been a significant factor in education especially in developing countries. The
onset of formal education in most developing countries was largely through religious outfits
such as the Christian missionaries and Islamic groups. Religion affects education in the sense
that some religious doctrines are against some proclamations or undertakings in education.
They thus inhibit the free inquiry of knowledge. Others have supported education in different
ways.

Assignment
Discuss factors that can determine the education system of any nation.