Course Name Comparative Education

Course Code EDUC 2202

Level of Course Year 2, Semester 2
Credit Units 3

Brief Course Description

This course unit has been designed and prepared for Bachelor of education students, educators,
teachers and policy makers. It covers range of themes which introduce the learners to the scope
of comparative Education and problems in education. It looks at comparative study of intrinsic
and extrinsic issues in education systems within a given country, community, society and cross
boarder systems of education. This enables learners to draw valid comparisons with their own
system of education. The learners are able to interpret education systems and play an active role
in planning and reforming the education systems of their respective countries. The students are
also reminded that comparative education deals with contemporary issues and as such he| she
should consult current text books ,journals ,conference research papers , online encyclopedia and
any other authentic academic papers.

Learning Objectives/Outcomes
Through comparative education, we study foreign systems, thus we get to know why they
have such education an education system with the hope of learning something of value to
us as a whole.
To enable students undertake practical planning, organizing and reforming of their school
systems.
It equips learners with the skills of understanding how education systems function.
To expose the learners to key international issues in education so he| she may be
broadminded and function in a more realistic manner.

Detailed Course Content

General Introduction to Comparative Education
What comparative education provides
Components of comparative education

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Key issues in Comparative education
Definition of Comparative education
Aims of Comparative education or the Justification for studying comparative education
Approaches to the Study of Comparative Education
Descriptive, Historical, Cross-cultural studies, Case-study, Sociological, Problem,
Quantitative approaches.
Development and use of relevant theories
Structural Functionalism
Cultural capital
Modernization theory
Economic theory
Dependency theory
Legitimacy theory
Factors which Influence Education Systems
Nicholas Hans’s position
Analysis of Natural, Religious and Ideological factors
Uganda’s Education System
Goals of education system
Responsibility of M.O.E.S and other education sectors
Factors which influence and affect education system of Uganda
Persistent issues in the education system of Uganda (intrinsic and extrinsic)
Drop out and repetition in schools
Teacher’s Education in Uganda
Teacher education and training
Primary Teachers colleges
National Teachers colleges
Uganda Polytechnic Kyambogo (UPK)
Institute of Teacher Education (ITEK)
Universities
Non Government Organizations (NGOS)
What are the problems related to teacher education in Uganda.

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 Uganda’s Primary Education Reform Program
Background to Uganda’s Primary education Reforms programmers’
Identification of the primary Education reform programs
Government policy on the reform
Strategies for implementation of the reform
Teachers Development and Management Systems (TDMS)
Background to the Problems of Education in East Africa
Overview of the problems of education in E. Africa
Colonial Education in E. Africa
Problems of education in E. Africa Case studies ( Kenya and Tanzania)
Research on other African countries like (Egypt, Ghana, Nigeria and S. Africa)
Current Trends in International Education
International content of the curriculum
International movement of scholars and students concerned with training and research.
Arrangements where countries participate in technical assistance and educational
programmes.
The Educational System in United States of America
Background, aims and objectives of education in USA
Administration and management of education in USA
The role of federal Government in education.
Structure of education, higher education, financing and examinations.
Teacher Education.
Evaluation, assessment and progression.
Education System of England and Scandinavian Countries

Mode of Delivery
Lectures, tutorials, group presentations, reading, follow up library and internet research tasks.
Mode of Assessment
The course is assessed by assignments, tests and final examinations as directed by the lecturer.
The distribution of the marks is as follows: Assignments 50% and examinations 50% adding up
to 100%.

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Study Materials
Power, C. (2000). Learning to live Together. Education International journal.
Odaet. C.F and Bbuye. R.J (1997) Comparative Education MUK
UNESCO (2000) World Education Report. Paris
Ssekamwa, J. C. (2001): History and Development of Education in Uganda. Kampala: Fountain
Publishers.
Online Academic papers and journals from recognized academic websites.

WHAT IS COMPARATIVE EDUCATION

Welcome to the study of Comparative education.
 The study of comparative education focuses on learning how schools in other countries
are organized and administered and how teachers in other countries teach.
 Because governments develop schools they believe best meet the needs of their nations,
school systems differ from country to country.
 Comparative education helps us look at the global society and identify its contribution to
America.
Different scholars have advanced a number of definitions about the subject of comparative
education as follows;
Comparative education is a fully established academic field of study that examines education in
one country (or group of countries) by using data and insights drawn from the practices and
situation in another country, or countries. Programs and courses in comparative education are
offered in many universities throughout the world, and relevant studies are regularly published in
scholarly journals such as Comparative Education, International Review of Education,
Mediterranean Journal of Educational Studies, International Education Journal, International
Journal of Educational Development, Comparative Education Review, and Current Issues in
Comparative Education. The field of comparative education is supported by many projects
associated with UNESCO and the national education ministries of various nations.

Comparative education is a discipline in the social sciences which entails or involves the
scrutiny or study and evaluation of different educational systems such as those in various
countries.

Comparative education is a discipline in the social sciences that involves the analysis and
comparison of educational systems such as those in different countries. People in this field
are interested in developing meaningful terminology and standards for education worldwide,
improving educational systems and creating a framework for assessing the success of
education programs and initiatives. Usually, graduate degrees are required to work in this

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field, although some people can find employment in this field after earning four-year
degrees.

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6
PURPOSE OF STUDYING COMPARATIVE EDUCATION

Comparative education has four purposes: first, it should describe educational systems,
processes, or outcomes. Next, it needs to assist in the development of educational institutions and
practices. Comparative education should highlight the relationships between education and
society. Finally, it needs to establish generalized statements about education that are valid in
more than one country.¹

Comparative education is not just comparing educational institutions from different countries; it
is also the comparison of schools in a single country over time. Critics of comparative education
often refer to it as policy borrowing.¹

As an example of how comparative education works, take the United States as an example. In the
United States, there is no centralized system for secondary school diplomas; instead, each state
sets their own regulations for secondary schools. Comparative education would look at countries
like Japan and France to determine the advantages and disadvantages of a centralized
certification system.

ADVANTAGES OF STUDYING COMPARATIVE EDUCATION

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1) Helps in setting higher targets to be achieved by educational institutions or systems
2)Helps countries to achieve international standards in education, for example, introduction of
computer education was meant to compete developed countries.
4)Helps foster international pace and corporation among the nations of the world
5)It provides ideas for reform in an educational system.
6)It helps us to understand the similarities and differences between other educational systems
and ours.

OR

Briefly describe 7 importance of studying comparative education to teacher.

• Comparative education as a discipline enables graduates to get employment

• It enables us to understand the reasons for similarities and differences for various educational
system in the world
• It enables teacher trainee to understand the reason for success and failures of various education
system.
• The knowledge of comparative education helps the teacher in policy formulation, analysis and
implementation.
• The knowledge of comparative education enables educationalist understand what is successful
in the field of education policies from one country and use them in their own country.
• The knowledge helps the teacher trainee to develop special research skills.
• The knowledge of comparative education would help teacher trainee to get reason whether a
project in the area of education in a given country would succeed or fail.

Approaches to the Study of Comparative Education.

Awolola (1986) identified eight approaches to the study of Comparative Education. They are:
(a) Problem Approach or Thematic approach
(b) Case study approach
(c) Area study approach
(d) Historical approach
(e) Descriptive approach
(f) Philosophical approach
(g) International approach and
(h) Gastronomic approach

Thematic or Problem Approach

Here, the investigator will first of all identify a particular educational problem in his own
country.

Then, he will begin to look for another country that has the same problem.

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The researcher will also study the education problem of another country in relation to their
culture.

The researcher will not only study the education problem of another country but he will also
examine the solutions applied to such problem by the affected country.

From this, he will think of how he will be able to solve their own educational problem as well.

It should be noted that Culture, economic, Socio Political factors vary from one country to
another as a result of which educational problems and solutions may not necessarily be the same.

Case Study Approach

In this approach, an education Comparativist from Pakistan can go to England to study the
primary education Level of the country.

His report (is believed) will be very comprehensive for his readers to understand.

If it is possible for the researcher, he can take all the educational systems of the country and
compare such educational system with his own educational system.

The problem with this approach is that as a human being, the investigator may not be totally
objective in his report.

Area Study Approach

The word area here could refer to a village, a town or country depending on the educational
comparativist who wants to carry out the study.

Under this approach, the educational comparativist will engage himself in the educational
practices of only one country, if it is a country that he has chosen.

The investigator is going to involve himself in several activities as a result of which he is going
to arrive at a body of generalizations on the educational system he is studying.

The study under this approach is always based on geographical, linguistic or racial boundaries.
However, Bereday (1958) is of the opinion that "one of the oldest and clearest ways of
introducing the subject (Comparative Education) is to study one geographical area at a time" He
therefore identified the following stages in the area study approach:

(a)Descriptive Stage

At this stage, an Educational Comparativist can make a description of his own educational
system as well as practices. The researcher has to start by reading extensively. He will start by
reviewing the available literature on the educational system of the country being studied.
Toenable the investigator have on the spot assessment, he can personally visit the country whose
educational system is studying.

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(b) Interpretation or Elucidation Stage
At this stage of the study, the investigator will now collate and analyze the data gathered from
various sources to enable him do justice to the educational system of the area being studied.

(c) Juxta position Stage

At this stage of the study, the investigator will put side by side the result obtained from the
interpretation stage with the educational system of his own country.

(d) Comparative Stage

At this stage of the investigation, the researcher will objectively compare and contrast the
educational practices of the country being studied with that of his own. It is at this stage of the
study that whatever hypotheses that might have been formulated by the researcher that will be
rejected or accepted.

HISTORICAL APPROACH
Under this approach, an investigator will only take a village, town or country for the examination
of its educational historical development right from the first day when education was introduced
into the place and the time of study. This approach will enable the researcher to identify the
factors that
 
2 Course: Comparative Education Instructor: Mr. Tariq Saleem Ghayyur www.uos.edu.tc
are responsible for the current educational system of the country being studied. However, the
problem with this approach is that greater emphasis is always placed on the past.

Descriptive Approach
Here, the investigator will have to describe everything he finds on ground. Such things to be
described could include: Number of schools, student enrolment, number of teachers, number of
the school buildings including classrooms as well as the number of subjects being offered.
However, the approach is not very popular among the modern educational Comparativists.

International Approach
This is an approach whereby all the variations existing from one area to another within the same
country are taken into consideration while comparing the system of education of a foreign
country with one's educational system.

Gastronomic Approach
This is a method whereby both the diet as well as the eating habit of the people in a particular
country are related to the practices of their education, the approach is not very popular among the
modern educational comparativists.

THE FIELD STUDY APPROACH

This approach is not new in the area of the subject. On this approach, Brickman (1966) cited by
Alabi and Oyelade (1998) observed that: Visitation of foreign countries whether for the purpose
of commerce, conversation curiosity or conflict, goes back to ancient history, travelers in all

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historical periods must have brought back facts and impression concerning the cultures of the
other countries they had visited, included in their reports must have been comments relating to
the young and their upbringing. They may also have made some remarks regarding the
similarities and differences in the ways of educating children. Some, indeed, may have arrived at
conclusions involving the expression of value judgments. In using this approach for studying
comparative education Halls (1965) cited by Alabi and Oyelade(1998) identifies three stages in
the field study of approach. They are:

1. Preparatory stage,

2. Investigatory and analytical stage as well as,

3. Evaluatory and Comparative stage.

PREPARATORY STAGE
This is the stage in which the investigator will have to prepare himself very well before traveling
to his country of interest. He has to be familiar with the country he wants to visit by reading very
extensively about the country.
Investigatory and Analytical Stage
At this stage, the researcher will have to formulate some hypotheses on the educational practices
of the country he wants to study. The formulation of these hypotheses will give him a focus on
what to look for.

EVALUATORY COMPARATIVE STAGE

At this stage, the investigator after coming back from his travel to the foreign country, will now
examine the practices of education of the country he has visited in relation to the educational
practices of his own country with a view to establishing the similarities as well as the differences
existing in the educational practices of the two countries it is also at this stage that the
hypotheses earlier on formulated will either be rejected or accepted. The field study approach
unlike area study approach, concerns itself with the study of the educational systems of many
countries at the sometime. It also involves visiting the foreign countries of interest to enable the
investigator make an objective comparison between the foreign educational practices and that of
his country.

THE SCIENTIFIC APPROACH

This is an approach in which the study of comparative education is carried out empirically by
formulating hypotheses, defining the important concepts, setting out the variables as well as the
conditions for establishing the validity of the hypotheses formulated. Since in any scientific
research,
 
3 Course: Comparative Education Instructor: Mr. Tariq Saleem Ghayyur www.uos.edu.tc
data collection its interpretation with the help of statistics of analysis are very important,. These
must not also be lacking in the study of Comparative Education to enhance the quality and
credibility of whatever may be the result of the investigation.

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The Integrated Approach
This is an approach in which other disciplines such as history, philosophy, geography;
economics, anthropology and statistics are integrated in to the study of Comparative Education
because of their usefulness. As it has already been stated, it is not possible for Comparative
Education as a discipline to stand on its own as it has to draw from other subjects which include
the disciplines mentioned above.

THE PHILOSOPHICAL APPROACH

A Russian Philosopher by name Serguis Hessen was the first man to apply philosophical
approach to the study of Comparative Education when he published his book in 1928 which he
tittled "KritischeVergleichung des Schulwesens der Anderen Kuturstaaten". In the book, he
chose four main philosophical problems. The problems chosen by him are:
(a) Compulsory education
(b) The School and the State
(c) The school and the Church and
(d) The School and Economic life.
He analyzed the underlying principles and later followed it by giving a critical account of
modern legislation in many countries.

Kosemani (1995) believes that philosophical approach is a step forward to solve the problems in
the national character approach. According to him, there are two major problems involved in the
application of philosophical approach to the study of comparative education. The problems are:

(a) Difference in emphasis as a result of which it may be difficult to use the same
criterion (national ideology) for the comparison.
(b) There are many countries without clear cut national ideologies.
(c) From the above, it could be deduced that with philosophical approach, hypotheses
could be formulated, be tested and could also be empirically or (by trial and error)
validated for better explanation of educational practices of various countries.

THE COMPARATIVE APPROACH

In this approach, the reader must not be made to do the comparison of various educational
practices by himself, rather, the comparison and conclusion have to be done by the investigator
himself. Data on the educational practices to be compared must have been gathered and
reviewed. In addition, hypotheses should have also been formulated to assist in the gathering of
data. Then, the educational practices of the country under study will be put side by side with the
educational practices of another country slated for comparison. The next stage after Juxtaposition
is the comparison of the educational practices of the countries that have been put side by side. It
is at stage of comparison that the hypotheses that had been formulated earlier on will be rejected
or accepted.

QUALITATIVE APPROACHES
Qualitative research analyzes data from direct fieldwork observations, in‐depth, open‐ended interviews,
and written documents. Qualitative researchers engage in naturalistic inquiry, studying real‐world

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settings inductively to generate rich narrative descriptions and construct case studies. Inductive analysis
across cases yields patterns and themes, the fruit of qualitative research.

Structural Functionalism is a sociological theory that attempts to explain why society functions
the way it does by focusing on the relationships between the various social institutions that make
up society (e.g., government, law, education, religion, etc)

Sociological Theory/Structural Functionalism - Wikibooks, open books ...

https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Sociological_Theory/Structural_Functionalism

FOUNDER;
Herbert Spencer (1820–1903) was a British philosopher famous for applying the theory of
natural selection to society. He was in many ways the first true sociological functionalist.

Structural functionalism, or simply functionalism, is "a framework for building theory that
sees society as a complex system whose parts work together to promote solidarity and stability".
[1]
This approach looks at society through a macro-level orientation, which is a broad focus on the
social structures that shape society as a whole,[1] and believes that society has evolved like
organisms.[2] This approach looks at both social structure and social functions. Functionalism
addresses society as a whole in terms of the function of its constituent elements; namely norms,
customs, traditions, and institutions.

A common analogy, popularized by Herbert Spencer, presents these parts of society as "organs"
that work toward the proper functioning of the "body" as a whole.[3] In the most basic terms, it
simply emphasizes "the effort to impute, as rigorously as possible, to each feature, custom, or
practice, its effect on the functioning of a supposedly stable, cohesive system". For Talcott
Parsons, "structural-functionalism" came to describe a particular stage in the methodological
development of social science, rather than a specific school of thought.[4][5]

Comparative and international education is an increasingly important area of study. ...

Important theories and research exploring how globalization has influenced educational practice
are critically examined, providing you with an understanding of relevant social, economic,
historical and cultural factors.

AIMS AND MEANING OF STUDYING COMPARATIVE EDUCATION

Antoine Jullien started the study of comparative education. But now the scope of comparative
education has been further enlarged.

Within comparative education, we now make an analysis or investigation of educational systems

of various countries in order to understand their educational problems with a view to find out
solutions of one’s own educational problems.

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In this attempt, we also try to understand the philosophical or logical background of the country
concerned, as the same influences the educational system. There are certain foundations of
education which are universal. When we talk of the philosophical background, it implies that we
have to make a study of the same impartially or neutrally.

We have already noted that political, cultural, social, religious and economic conditions
influence the educational system of a country. Therefore, the purpose of the study of comparative
education is also to study the conditions and factors that influence education in a land for then
alone we may succeed in finding out solutions of educational problems.

The purpose of the study of comparative education is also to study those differences that make
the education of a country different from that of another. In studying these differences, we also
study the causative factors of the same.

The purpose is to study those general principles on which development of education in any
country is based. Thus comparative education highlights the universality of general principles in
the existing differences. Needless to say that comparative education aims at strengthening
international unity by drawing our attention to the universal general principles.

The purpose of comparative education is also to understand why the educational systems of some
countries are progressive or doing well and of others, backward. The administrative system of
the land influences the state of the educational system. For example, the administrative
machineries of Switzerland, Canada, U.S.A. and Japan are combined with local autonomy and
decentralized control. Consequently, in the educational systems of these countries, we find a
reflection of their political philosophy or way of thinking.

Thus political philosophy and the administrative systems of various countries determine the
administration and control of education. The purpose of comparative education is also to study
these elements in their proper perspectives or outlook.

We have to keep in mind that besides an analytical or systematic approach, synthesis is also
emphasized in the study of comparative education. In this synthesis an attempt is made to
understand how a social structure and political philosophy have influenced education.

Thus, in comparative education we try to include the study of all these factors. Herein we study
the impact of both formal and informal education. Consequently, we have included sociological
basis of education as well; i.e., we study the place of social process, social control, social
organization and social change in the development of education of a country. Evidently, the
scope or opportunity of comparative education has become very comprehensive now.

Five (5) Important Methods Used For Studying Comparative Education

Article shared by
In the various methods of the study of comparative education the following are noteworthy
Quantitative, Descriptive, Sociological, Historical, Analytical and Synthetic.

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1. The Quantitative or Statistical Method (deals with figures):

In the study of comparative education we analyze the similarities and factors inherent or essential
in the education systems of various countries. Hence, it is necessary to use the statistical method
for finding out the progress or decline of education in a country.

In this method various types of educational data are collected about a country. For example, the
data about the number of students at a certain stage of education, expenditure on them, the
percentages of passes and failures at various stages of education, expenses on teachers’ salaries,
school buildings and other items are collected, and the same are compared with the identical data
of another country. Thus, the progress or decline of education in any country is statistically
analyzed.

The greatest difficulty of the statistical method is to procure or obtain reliable or dependable data
or numbers or figures or facts. Generally, if due care is not taken in the collection of data,
consequently, many of them are false. Another difficulty in this connection is that the various
educational terms used in different countries do not connote or bring or mean the same sense.
Therefore, their statistical analysis is falsified.

Moreover, through the statistical method we cannot understand the educational characteristics
that are the result of social, cultural, economic, political and religious situations of a country.
Evidently the use of the statistical method is very limited.

2. The Descriptive or Qualitative (In words) Method:

This method was used in the nineteenth century because the main purpose of comparative
education by then was to incorporate or include or the good points of another country. For this
reason, a detailed description of educational affairs of another country was necessary.

So many educationists presented detailed descriptive accounts of educational systems of other

lands. John Griscom of U.S.A. is worthy of mention in this connection. In 1918-19 he visited
Great Britain, France, Holland, Switzerland and Italy and wrote a book entitled “A Year in
Europe” describing their educational systems.

An attempt was made in U.S.A to incorporate or include or join some of the special
characteristics of the educational systems as described. In 1831, Victor Cousin of France
published a report on the educational system of France. Some of the educational characteristics
of Prussia as described in this report were imitated in Great Britain and France. Victor Cousin
did not make a comparative study of educational systems of other lands in his Report.

Therefore, only those persons who had a good knowledge of educational systems of other
countries can make good and accurate comparisons. Thus, in the nineteenth century, only those
people were able to understand comparative education that had a good knowledge of educational
system of their own country.

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Matthew Arnold of Great Britain and Horace Man of U.S.A did some work in the area of
descriptive method. Mathew Arnold studied the educational systems of France and Germany and
published a report about France in 1859 and about Germany in 1865.

Mathew Arnold in his description drew our attention also to those factors which distinguish the
educational system of one land from that of another. Sir Michael Sadler and Paul Monroe
followed Arnold’s method. Thus, the study of comparative education became better organized.

Horace Man visited Germany, Ireland, Great Britain, France and Holland and in 1843 published
a Report on the educational systems of these countries. Horace Man in this Report pointed out
the special characteristics of the educational systems he had studied and also mentioned the
specific element that should be imitated by others.

Thus in his descriptive method Horace Man paid attention to the evaluation of the characteristics
and their utilities. As a result, the later educationists also paid attention to the evaluation and
utilities or values of characteristics of educational systems of other countries.

Henry Bernard, between 1856 and 1881, published thirty-one volumes of “The American Journal
of Education”. In these volumes he described the educational systems of the various states of
U.S.A. and of many foreign countries. And so, he placed before us standard data. In this process
he also interpreted the historical background of each educational system he described.

In his study of comparative education, Michael Sadler emphasized the point that we should study
all those national factors that influence the educational system of a land and are responsible for
its development and decline. He considered the study of comparative education as useful for
one’s national system of education.

The above account indicates that the descriptive method of comparative education was advocated
by those educationists who wanted to promote and popularize the study of comparative
education.

3. The Sociological Method:

In the sociological method the educational problems are studied in a social context. This is done
with the belief that the educational system of a country is conditioned by its social, cultural,
economic, political and religious situations.

Hence the educational problems of a country have their origin in some social problems and they
do not exist by themselves as there is a close relationship between education and society.

The sociological method of the study of comparative education does not emphasize only the past
causative factors, but also those social and cultural aspects which may be responsible for the
problem.

It may be mentioned that the educational system of a country becomes useless when it does not
run parallel to the social situation of the country and the aspirations of the people.

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The education in India as obtained during the British rule may be cited as a case in point,
because the same did not satisfy the social needs in the country or the aspirations of the people.

Hence the establishment of Kashi Vidyapith (Varanasi), Jamia Milia, Delhi and Visva-Bharti,
Bolpur (West Bengal), in the country.

The sociological method suffers from the limitation that it ignores the contributions of
individuals towards the growth of education. We know that in each country there are some
individuals who have contributed immensely towards the growth of education in their countries.

4. The Historical Method:

In the historical method we study the modern educational problems. This method reveals the
basis on which the modern educational system is based. Needless to say that this knowledge may
help us in eliminating undesirable elements in the system and further strengthening the desirable
ones.

It will be wrong to think that we employ the historical method only to know the past in order that
we may understand the present better. In fact, our purpose is also to improve the future by
hinting at those factors which may be more useful.

In the historical method we try to understand all those geographical, social, racial, political,
religious and linguistic factors which influence the educational system of a country. Nicholas
Hans, Schneider and Kandel have emphasized this method.

But one of the great limitations of the historical method is that the data on which we base our
study may not be reliable because in the collection of the same, due care is not observed.
Therefore, conclusions derived cannot be very useful.

We have to keep in mind that the historical materials about educational systems of various
countries are generally not very reliable. This limits the utility of the historical data. Hence more
research is needed for making them reliable.

Another difficulty with the historical method is that historians generally are not impartial or
neutral in their accounts. They want to conceal undesirable elements about the history of their
own country and look on facts relating to other countries with prejudice bias or partiality.

Thus, the truth is not known. Consequently, by the historical method we cannot reach the right
conclusions. The third difficulty of the historical method is that the past is unduly emphasized.
Consequently, the study of comparative education becomes unbalanced

5. The Analytical (Critical or investigative) Method:

In the previous pages we have remarked several times that the educational system of a country
has a close relationship with its social, political and economical conditions. It is because of this

17
relationship that a comparative study has become necessary. In any comparative study we have
to use analysis or examination or exploration or investigation.

Because through analysis we can separate the various elements and understand the importance of
each independently. Analytical method can be useful only when the social and educational
organizations are compared. For this comparison the following four factors are necessary—

1. To Collect Educational Data:

To collect all the educational information through descriptive and statistical methods is
necessary for analytical purpose.

2. Interpretation of Social, Political, Economic and Historical Data:

This is necessary in order to understand similarities and differences found in the educational
systems of various countries.

3. Determination of Standard for Comparison:

After finding out the similarities and differences of the various educational systems, we have to
compare the same according to certain standards. It is the business of the analytical method to
formulate these standards. Political philosophy, aims of education and the method of control of
education may be cited as some standards for comparison.

In the context of these standards, we shall understand the similarities and differences of
educational systems of various countries. For example, we can say that since there is a difference
between the political philosophies of India and China, therefore, we find differences in their
educational systems.

4. Interpretation and Conclusion:

On the basis of the above three aspects we interpret the collected data and reach certain
conclusions on the basis of comparison.

Limitations of the Analytical Method:

The above account indicates the utility of the analytical method but this method suffers from the
difficulty that in the process of analysis no adequate attention is paid to the totality of the
educational systems.

The analytical method is prone to close our eyes to this inherent or essential similarity.
Therefore, in the study of comparative education the necessity of synthetically method has been
conceived. We shall study this method below.

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The Methods of Synthesis:

We have already noted that in the study of comparative education, international point of view is
now considered important. The method of synthesis or blending emphasizes this point of view.
In this method the problems of education are studied on an international plane or level. Edmund
King in his book “World Perspective in Education” has advocated this method.

When we study the problems of education of various countries, we find some universal truths in
their inherent or integral differences, because there is much similarity in the needs and
aspirations of the people of the world.

The United Nations Organization has contributed much towards the consciousness of this
similarity. The method of synthesis or blending is still in its infancy and needs further
development.

Thus, in his descriptive method Horace Man paid attention to the evaluation of the characteristics
and their utilities. As a result, the later educationists also paid attention to the evaluation and
utilities of characteristics of educational systems of other countries.

Henry Bernard, between 1856 and 1881, published thirty-one volumes of “The American Journal
of Education”. In these volumes he described the educational systems of the various states of
U.S.A. and of many foreign countries. And so, he placed before us standard data. In this process
he also interpreted the historical background of each educational system he described.

In his study of comparative education, Michael Sadler emphasized the point that we should study
all those national factors that influence the educational system of a land and are responsible for
its development and decline. He considered the study of comparative education as useful for
one’s national system of education.

The above account indicates that the descriptive method of comparative education was advocated
by those educationists who wanted to promote and popularize the study of comparative
education.

Factors Responsible For the Growth of Comparative Education

1. The Geographical Factor:

The geographical position has its inevitable or unavoidable impact on the culture, civilization
and education of a nation. The various countries of the world have different geographical
positions. Therefore, their modes of living, civilization, culture, social institutions and
educational systems are also different. Land locked countries like Uganda and countries with
access to the oceans like Kenya and Tanzania have got different levels of economic
developments hence their educational systems may be better.

19
The climate of a cold country is different from that of a tropical one. Therefore, ways of living
and social organization of the two types of countries are not the same. Serial systems influence
the educational organization.

An agricultural country like Denmark emphasizes agricultural education in its educational

system, and an industrial country like Japan, China, USA, Germany, UK pays special attention to
technological and-industrial subjects in the organization of its curriculum.

In cold countries there is a long winter vacation or rest or trip and in hot countries a long summer
vacation. Evidently, the educational structure of a country is conditioned by its geographical
situation or state or condition.

2. Economic Factor:

The educational system of a country is closely related with its economic or monetary or financial
condition. The aims and curriculum of education are framed according to the economic condition
of the land. The belief about the economic system as adhered to by a country is inculcated or
taught or trained in the citizens. For example, under the socialistic economic system like in
Tanzania, the State is the owner of all property. Therefore, at the very primary stage of education
children are given the impression that all property belongs to the State and each individual has to
protect it. In the democracies like U.S.A. and India the situation is quite different. In these two
countries the individual ownership of property is recognized and the children are made to learn
that.

Therefore, in the development of their educational systems full attention is paid to the lights of
the individual. That is why in these countries “Public Schools” for the children of a few rich and
higher-class citizens are allowed to exist. Evidently, the economic factor is a very effective
element and in the study of comparative education it occupies a special place.

3. The Racial Factor:

In each country a number of races exist or multi-racial. These races have got high influence in its
educational system. The race which considers itself superior i.e. the Baganda in the case of
Uganda tries to rule over other races. If it succeeds in this attempt, then it tries to strengthen its
control on them by developing a particular educational system. For example, the French and the
British people established their colonies in Africa. Because they were ‘white’, these people
thought that they were superior to the natives of Africa. So, they developed a special kind of
educational system to strengthen their control over the black natives. Thus, in South Africa, the
racial factor has been an effective element in the educational system of that country. Similarly,
during the British rule in India, the English people introduced a type of educational system in
order to produce a special type of workers to manage their administrative machinery. They did
this to strengthen their imperialistic control over the country.

Accordingly, English was made the medium of instruction and a particular type of curriculum
was introduced. Their actions were prompted by the feeling that their culture and civilization was
superior to those of the Indian people.

20
4. The Linguistic Factor:

The individual has to learn the language of the group in which he is born. The culture and
civilization of a country is expressed through its language although there are other features as
well which unmistakably point to its culture and civilization.

However, the importance of the language cannot be denied. In the educational system of a
country its language occupies a special place. We know that if the mother tongue is the medium
of instruction, the people are generally of strong national character and if the medium of
instruction is a foreign language, the national character becomes weak e.g. Chinese and Germans
have remained committed to their local language and have gone far in terms of industrial and
technological advancement.

It is true that there are many other factors that are responsible for molding the national character,
but the medium of instruction has its own special importance in the educational system. Those
educational problems of a country which are related with its cultural elements can be understood
on the basis of linguistic factors stated above.

Now we shall understand some other factors that may be grouped under the spiritual category.
These are philosophical, moral and religious factors.

5. The Philosophical Factor:

Philosophy refers to a school of thought or doctrine or it is a set of beliefs.

The education system of a country is influenced by the philosophy or way thinking or way of life
or beliefs of the land. Philosophy influences life, therefore, its influence on education is quite
natural. For example, in ancient Greece, Socrates, Plato and Aristotle based the educational
system of the country on a particular philosophy of life and entrusted the administration of the
country to philosophers. In China today, the educational system is based on communist or
collectivist or communal philosophy.

In ancient India the Gurukul system of education was based on Vedic philosophy of life. The
educational system in the Buddhist period as obtained in Vihars and monasteries based on
Buddhist philosophy.

The Dayanand Anglo Vedic Colleges of modem India are based on the philosophy of life
propounded by Swami Dayanand Saraswati. Similarly, there are some institutions based on Sri
Aurobindo’s philosophy.

In modern India, some people are advocating for a special system of education based on the
Sarovodaya philosophy of Gandhiji and Vinoba Bhave. Thus, the philosophical factor is a very
important factor in the study of comparative education.

6. The Moral Factor:

21
Moral refers to ethical or honest way of life and of doing things.

Some countries emphasize moral principles and religions. In a democratic country moral
behavior of each citizen is specially emphasized, because moral behavior is the soul of
democracy.

Thus, in countries with a democratic setup, development of moral behavior is specially

emphasized as an aim of education as in Japan, Switzerland, Great Britain, India and U.S.A.
Thus the moral factor is a very important element in the study of comparative education.

7. The Religious Factor:

Religious refers to being spiritual, or holy or sacred.

Religion occupies a very important place in an individual’s 1 life. History is testimony of the fact
that thousands of persons have sacrificed their lives for the sake of religion. The history of
Europe is full of such examples. In a religious country, the public is generally conservative or old
fashioned or traditional and resents or dislikes any change in its old traditions.

Therefore, in the organization of an educational system we have to be careful about the religious
sentiments or feelings or opinions of the people. In an industrialized country, due to scientific
developments, old traditions usually begin to break-down and the society is re-constructed
according to the needs of the time. Education has to play a special role in this reconstruction or
rebuilding or modernization.

But opposite to this, in an agricultural country, the public is conservative and views any change
with suspicion and it wants to preserve its religious traditions intact or undamaged. Accordingly
the educational system has to be organized. Therefore the religious sentiments of the people have
to be honored and respected in any educational system.

Therefore, the religious factor cannot be ignored in the study of comparative education. Indeed, a
comparative discussion of how different religious loyalties have given birth to various
educational systems in different countries of the world will be very interesting.

Now we shall understand some of such factors which may be regarded as results of scientific
developments in the world. These factors are those of socialism, humanism, nationalism and
democracy. The influence of these factors on education came to surface from the beginning of
the modern age.

8. The Factors of Socialism:

Socialism refers to a political system of communal ownership: a political theory or system in

which the means of production and distribution are controlled by the people and operated
according to equity and fairness rather than market principles.

22
A movement based on socialism: a political movement based on principles of socialism,
typically advocating an end to private property and to the exploitation of workers.
Why it is good to end private ownership of property;
 Brings unity among members.
 Equal distribution of resources.
 No corruption.
 Encourages better use of resources by saving it for the future.
 Uniform development.
 Bridges the gap between the rich and the poor.
Why it is bad;
 It will encourage laziness among the people.
 Reluctance in other regions.
 Unequal distribution of resources.
 No competition for effective and quality work.
 Encourages discrimination among members.

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The impact of socialism may be sensed in the various aspects of our life today. Plato’s ideas had
the seeds of socialism. He advocated the state control of rearing and bringing up the children.
Accordingly, he stood for complete state control over the development of education of children.
This is true in developed countries like USA, Canada, UK, etc.

This ideology influenced education in Greece for some time in due course. Sir Thomas More of
England in his book “Utopia” advocated socialistic principles in accordance with Plato’s ideas.
He held that the state must arrange for public education in order that the citizens may fulfill his
duties to the state.

Rousseau, too, had advocated a socialistic pattern of society. He stood for Universal Education
under the control of the State. Condorcet may also be mentioned in this connection.

Condorcet stood for Equal Opportunity of education for all citizens. Rousseau and Condorcet
were supported by such writers as Saint Simon (1760-1825), Robert Owen (1771-1858), Charles
Fouries (1772-1837), Etienne Cabet (1778-1856) and Louis Blanc (1811-1882).

Modem socialism has its origin in Marxism. Marx (1818- 83) made Hegel’s materialism as the
base of his philosophy. Marx contended that the economic condition of a country is at the base of
its social, political and spiritual process. According to socialism, the purpose of education is to
develop the means of production for the welfare of the State.

We find an example of this type of socialism in China and North Korea. Religion has no place in
this type of education. Thus, the factor of socialism has an important place in the development of
education— therefore the importance of this factor in the study of comparative education cannot
be overlooked.

23
9. The Factor of Humanism:

Humanism refers to the doctrine that peoples duty is to promote human welfare
(Humanitarianism)
It can also be defined as the doctrine emphasizing a person’s capacity for self-realization
through reason; rejects religion and the supernatural (secular natural)
This is a belief in human-based morality: a system of thought that is based on the values,
characteristics, and behavior that are believed to be best in human beings, rather than on any
supernatural authority Or this is a concern for people: a concern with the needs, well-being,
and interests of the people.

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Towards the close of the middle ages humanistic ideas were spread in Europe with the view to
make man free of blind superstitions and to base his life on scientific behaviors or tradition. This
spirit ultimately or eventually wanted to give full scope for the development of an individual.
Humanism keeps human welfare as its prime aim. Man is considered to be the measure of
everything.

This idea in Europe took root from the beginning of the Renaissance. It penetrated the human
mind so deeply that it ultimately resulted in the separation of the Church and State.

During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries some humanists advocated the introduction of
some such ideas in education that the impact of humanism on the educational systems of their
lands can be very well understood. John Amos Comenius in his emphasis on sense-training
expressed only the influence of humanism. Comenius was a Czech pedagogy and theologian.

The effect of humanism on education was seen in France during the seventeenth century when
education was separated from the Church and the State was made responsible for education of its
citizens.

New methods of teaching were devised or invented or formulated in Germany because of the
influence of humanism. England felt its impact in the form of changes in the curriculum. In
various countries such subjects as geography, mathematics and science began to be taught in
such a way as to make them useful in practical affairs of life.

Now attention began to be paid to the co-relationship between philosophy and science. In
U.S.A., Thomas Jefferson an American lawyer and Thomas Panie an English born American
who was a political activist supported the introduction of humanistic elements in the educational
system.

During the third decade of the present century, John Dewey of U.S.A a philosopher and a
pragmatist supported the incorporation of humanistic elements in education. In the present age,
the impact of humanism may be clearly sensed in education.

24
Today we consider only that curriculum and method of teaching must be good which should
promote the growth of the individual. Thus we find that the humanistic factor influences
education and we cannot ignore it in the study of comparative education.

10. The Factor of Nationalism:

Nationalism refers to the desire for political independence: the desire to achieve political
independence, especially by a country under foreign control or by a people with a separate
identity and culture but no state of their own.

It can also mean patriotism: proud loyalty and devotion to a nation.

Microsoft® Encarta® 2009. © 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

For strengthening the sense of unity, the spirit of nationalism or chauvinism or jingoism is
created in a country. This is evident in India particularly after 1947. Here there are various castes
or classes, religions and languages. Regionalism erodes the very foundation of our national life.

In spite of these differences, our attention is drawn to the social, cultural and political unity
inherent in our country in order to strengthen the national spirit. Accordingly, in our aims
regarding education and the curriculum, special attention is given to the development of this
sense of unity in the children.

However, we have to note that the spirit of nationalism in a country may be helpful only when
the international outlook is not forgotten, because then, one may become blind to the
inadequacies of one’s own country. This tendency can ultimately make the nation weak. The
examples of Hitler of Germany and Tokyo of Japan are eloquent testimonies to this. Evidently,
the factor of nationalism influences the system of education and its study is important in
comparative education.

11. The Democratic Factor:

By Democratic we refer to the equal participation by all: characterized by free and equal
participation in government or in the decision-making processes of an organization or group.

Microsoft® Encarta® 2009. © 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

In democracy we find two forms, in one form political equality is emphasized and in another
social unity. Within the first form come, U.S.A, Great Britain, France, India, Japan, etc. and in
the second form we have China and North Korea. Because of its particular kind of democratic
ideologies, each country has nurtured or developed a special type of education.

The differences found in their educational patterns are because of their different democratic
faiths which are quite evident in their different aims, organizations and contents of education. In
the study of comparative education, we have to note these differences in order to understand the
underlying elements correctly.

25
The Importance of economic security in the development of national system of education in
a country.

The economic security (adequate stable finance or proper control of finance) of the country
becomes a determining factor of the type of education that it can afford to have. If the economic
condition is poor, education becomes backward in many aspects.

The history of any undeveloped country testifies this. In economically strong countries the
educational aims and the curriculum are given a special direction for making the country
prosperous. For example, in U.S.A. and Japan education is so patterned to make the individual
strong and capable enough to stand on his own feet after having received education. You will
not be a job seeker but rather a job creator (Applying the knowledge into actual life situation to
solve problems in the society.) The phones we are proud of carrying all the time are just designs
and handcraft of young scientists who developed or designed them.

In India it is quite the opposite. Here college or university graduates do not know where to go after
completing their education. So they continue to stay on in the university as long as they can and thus try
to postpone or delay for a few years the problem of their un-employment.

This situation has resulted in over-crowding in the colleges and universities and a fall in the
educational standards. Such educational system is worse than worthless because instead of
solving the un-employment problems, it tends to increase it.

In the development of educational system, we have to keep in view the economic needs of the
country, because through education, we have to prepare for various fields. It is true that for
economic prosperity, other factors are also necessary, but the importance of education in this
context cannot be minimized.

The Growth of the Capacities of Citizens and National Development: The system of education
should be in such a way to provide opportunities for the maximum development of each citizen.
It is by developing individuals that the overall growth of the nation can be guaranteed. This does
not imply loss of freedom of the individual. In fact, we only want that the wealth of the nation
should not be concentrated in the hands of a few capitalists. This is possible only by ensuring the
right growth of the capacities of all citizens.

No Class-Distinction: No class-distinction in the planning of education should be permitted,

because this results in neglect of the education of other more capable citizens. This will result in
social disparities, inequalities and hence weaken the nation.

Proper National Character Necessary: In the absence of proper national character, the
necessary leadership and cooperation of the people will be lacking. Because of this shortcoming
the national system of education will not realize its objectives.

26
With good leadership and people’s cooperation, much can be achieved, even when the adequate
economic resources are wanting. Evidently, there is a close relationship between economic
security and national system of education.

Consciousness of national unity related with national system of education

Only that system of education can be called national which strengthens a feeling of national
unity. In each country there are various communities, religions, classes and languages.
Therefore, the feeling of national unity is necessary to bring these varying units together.

The people in U.S.A. and India are of varying races and languages. Hence it was necessary in
these countries to bring the people into one fold by disregarding their provincial and regional
differences.

In the achievement of these objectives, education has played a very important role. In each
country there are many political parties with a narrow outlook. The case of India may be cited.
Because of the narrow outlook of certain political parties, India was partitioned in 1947.

The British rulers wanted to weaken the feeling of national unity in the country; therefore they
introduced an alien or foreign or unfamiliar system of education which helped in strengthening
the British Empire but weakened the national unity of India.

Telling which was strengthened once again only after the achievement of Independence in 1947.
In Great Britain the Education Act of 1944 was passed to strengthen the national feeling of unity.
In U.S.A education is considered as the chief means for developing the feeling of national unity.

This was necessary because the people, who had come from Europe to settle, had varying
traditions, loyalties, beliefs and languages. The efforts of W.T. Harris, Henry Bernard and
Horace Man in developing this national feeling are worth a mention.

We may easily understand how Herr Hitler in his Nazi Germany through a particular system of
education strengthened the feeling of national unity. In Japan too, its particular system of
education played a prominent role in strengthening national unity both before and after the
Second World War.

Many countries in South East Asia and Africa have become independent after the Second World
War. In strengthening their national feelings, they had to encounter opposition from many
political parties.

Therefore, in these countries an attempt has been made to include some such factors in the aims
and contents of education which may foster nationalism in the citizens. Evidently, education has
to play a special role in the development of nationalism in a country. So education is an
important basis of national unity.

27
The Need of Flexible Curriculum for Students in Comparative Education

In many countries, efforts have been made for making the curriculum flexible in order to
accommodate the capabilities and aptitudes of various types of students. Hence the curriculum is
now being modified in terms of the need of students, and local and national requirements.

Now an attempt is also seen to make the curriculum for promoting the physical, mental,
emotional and moral development of the child.

The individual and social points are now kept in view in preparing a curriculum. The curriculum
is now being diversified for meeting the varying interests of students. The ideal of correlation
and integration of various subjects is being adhered to for doing away with the idea of separate
subjects which are now accepted as the integral or fundamental branches of the same
“knowledge —tree”.

Learning by doing at the primary stage and learning by production at the secondary level have
been accepted as the ideal to be followed. It is believed that this approach to education will
minimize the problem of unemployment and qualitative improvement, too, will be affected at the
same time. Mexico has accepted this principle in developing its educational system.

Russia and many African countries are trying to correlate or compare their educational systems
according to rural requirements.

In Hungary, the curriculum is so made as to save the student from physical and mental fatigue by
encouraging them to do some personal practice.

In France ample scope has been allowed in the curriculum for co-curricular activities which
include “physical training” and “games and sports”. For this purpose, in Belgium some
secondary school classes are organized near sea-shores, forests and hill-tops which are
sometimes covered with snow.

Assignment 1; Imagine you are the Minister of Education in Uganda, design a curriculum
suitable for the people of West Nile giving reasons why you have taken up your decision.
(3pages)

JUSTIFICATION (DEFENCE) FOR STUDYING COMPARATIVE EDUCATION

The study helps students to improve the education in their home country. Comparative
education helps students to acquire better understanding of education system of other countries
and borrow some aspects for better improvement of education at home.

28
The Rationale of Studying Comparative Education to Students in Tanzanian Educational
Institutions: Challenges and Implications for the Future.

Mr. Godlove Lawrent

Abstract

This paper gives the critical justifications for studying comparative education to students in
educational institutions in Tanzania. It also tries to trace back the short historical perspectives
of the field of comparative education, challenges facing the field of comparative education in
Tanzania and the implications of the field of comparative education for future improvement of
the educational systems. The paper concludes that, the study of comparative education is very
important for all Tanzanian students as it enables them become good educational policy makers,
educational planners and educational analysts. This paper also insists that the study of
comparative education is essential for adoption of policies useful for improving the education
quality in the country. However this paper suggests that there is a need to make the study of
comparative education as a compulsory discipline to all students from primary to tertiary level.

Introduction

Historically, the field of comparative education grew from international Education which
analyzes and fosters international orientation in knowledge and attitudes and brings together
students, teachers and scholars from different nations to learn about and from each other
(BAICES, 1973). However, comparative education itself refers to the study of various and often
contrasting educational systems with a view of understanding the similarities and differences
(University of Nairobi, 1993). It studies why educational systems (structure, organization,
curricula and financing) and processes vary, and how education relates to wider social factors
and forces. Likewise, BAICES (1973) defines comparative education as an academic and
interdisciplinary subject which applies historical, philosophical and social science theories and
methods to classify and explain characteristics of different nations’ educational system. The
study has long based its insights on number of countries and case studies of national education
systems.

Before 1950s, the study focused mainly on philosophical and cultural origins of national
educational system (Carnoy and Rhoten, 2002). Today, the field of comparative education is
moving towards more sophisticated examination in relation to economic, political and social
forces (Arnove, 2008). Furthermore, Adick (1992) claims that, comparative education focuses
much on explaining the diversity of development, processes of expansion and systematization of
modern education in different countries. Bray (2007) emphasizes that, comparative educators are
interested in examining the similarities and differences in the educational processes of various
groups, the examination of the educational relationships obtained between the developed and
developing areas.

Rationale or basis of Studying Comparative Education

29
In actual fact, students in educational institutions are not prepared without the study of
comparative education due to the following justifiable reasons. Comparative education provides
reference for reforms. Through studying the educational systems of other countries we can
discover which reforms are possible and desirable (University of Nairobi, 1993). In the 1990s,
for example before adopting educational reforms for grade 7 and 8; China studied the reforms in
Australia, England, Sweden, New Zealand and United States (Joong, et al, 2009). Before the
reform, the Chinese educational curriculum demanded students to study the same material,
memorizing text and writing examination. Therefore, China used the experience from those
countries to implement the reform. In the same way, Argentina learned to Chile the
decentralization reforms of Education and hence, adopted (Narodowski and Nores, 2001).
Through this reference, it is essentially important for Tanzanian students to study comparative
education for the same purposes. It is clear from this lesson that the education reforms in
Tanzania follow the similar path.

The study helps students to improve the education in their home country. Comparative education
helps students to acquire better understanding of education system of other countries and borrow
some aspects for better improvement of education at home. Paige (2005) emphasizes that,
comparative education contributes to the internalization of school curriculum and student
learning experience, develop students’ broader world views, cross–cultural and comparative
analytical skills. Similarly, the study of comparative education helps students to make connection
between the local and global, and the relationship between education, development and society.

Furthermore, comparative education help students to understand how educational systems are
shaped by wealth, ideology, social cultural features of the country and impacts of globalization
on education policy and practice in different regions and countries (Padavil, 2009). Narodowski
and Nores (2001) maintain that, the last decades were largely characterized by the amount of
content of the education policies developed worldwide due to the downfall of the USSR.
Therefore, educational policies in Latin America and other continents were dramatically altered
to reflect changed economic policies. The Tanzania Education system is shaped by the ideology
of socialism and self-reliance, thus all educational polices reflect the philosophy of education for
self-reliance. Carnoy and Rhoten (2002) claim that, globalization is a force reorganizing the
world’s economy and the main resources for that economy are increasing knowledge and
information. The global economy in turn shapes the nature of educational opportunities and
institutions, thus, studying comparative education is very essential since it helps students in
Tanzania and the world as whole to understand how economic, social cultural and ideological
factors affect the education system in a particular nation/country.

WHY WE STUDY COMPARATIVE EDUCATION

An important aspect of comparative education is contextualization. A nation's educational

system cannot be viewed properly without also looking at other things that might influence or
affect it. Social, political and economic conditions are all involved in shaping educational
systems and determining outcomes. Nations that have strong national traditions of education, for
example, might have better outcomes with less funding than nations that historically have not
placed a great value on education. Understanding cultural influences also is important when
developing techniques for assessment and comparison or when working on new educational

30
programs that can be introduced to specific regions. What works in one nation or region might
not work as well in another.

Comparative education is used in the development of educational testing procedures and the
creation of educational programs and frameworks. Comparing systems can provide educators
with ideas for revitalizing one system by incorporating elements of others, and it can allow
people to track progress over time. This can strengthen an educational system in addition to
creating an objective method of evaluation and study, providing meaningful data for people who
are concerned about educational outcomes and techniques.

It helps to determine strengths and weaknesses of education in your country.

It aids to improve the teaching and learning process.

It assists to improve education curriculum of the particular country.

It improves teaching techniques and methods.

It encourages friendship between the two or more countries.

DEVELOPMENT AND USE OF RELEVANT THEORIES

Though many scientists and researchers have approached the study of child development over
the last hundred or so years, only a few of the theories that have resulted have stood the test of
time and have proven to be widely influential or significant. Among this core group of theories
are five that will serve as the basis for the documents in this series. These are:

 Freud's psychosexual stage theory.

 Erikson's psychosocial stage theory.
 Kohlberg's moral understanding stage theory.
 Piaget's cognitive development stage theory.
 Bronfen brenner's ecological systems theory.

Theories are formulated to explain, predict, and understand phenomena or occurrence and, in
many cases, to challenge and extend existing knowledge within the limits of critical bounding
assumptions. The theoretical framework is the structure that can hold or support a theory or
philosophy of a research study.

Structural Functionalism is a sociological theory that attempts to explain why society functions
the way it does by focusing on the relationships between the various social institutions that make
up the society (e.g., government, law, education, religion, etc.)

The structural-functional approach is a perspective in sociology that sees society as a complex

system whose parts work together to promote solidarity and stability. It asserts that our lives are
guided by social structures, which are relatively stable patterns of social behavior. Social

31
structures give shape to our lives for example, in families, the community, and through religious
organizations. And certain rituals, such as a handshake or complex religious ceremonies give
structure to our everyday lives. Each social structure has social functions, or consequences for
the operation of society as a whole. Education, for example, has several important functions in a
society, such as socialization, and learning.

Thus, one of the key ideas in Structural Functionalism is that society is made-up of groups or
institutions, which are cohesive, share common norms, and have a definitive culture.[1] Robert K.
Merton argued that functionalism is about the more static or concrete aspects of society,[1]
institutions like government or religions. However, any group large enough to be a social
institution is included in Structural Functionalist thinking, from religious denominations to sports
clubs and everything in between. Structural Functionalism asserts that the way society is
organized is the most natural and efficient way for it to be organized.

Gender inequality offers a good illustration. According to Structural Functionalist thought,

women being subordinate to men allows the cogs or components or mechanisms of society to
function smoothly as everyone in the society knows his or her respective position in the
hierarchy. The implication of course is that, because society is functioning smoothly with gender
stratification or groups, such stratification is acceptable and efforts should not be made to change
the arrangement. This example illustrates that Structural Functionalism is generally seen as being
supportive of the status quo.

Another key characteristic of Structural Functionalism is that it views society as constantly

striving to be at a state of equilibrium, which suggests there is an inherent drive within human
societies to cohere or stick together. This is known as the cohesion issue.[1] Societies strive
toward equilibrium, not through dictatorial mandate by the leaders of society but rather because
the social structure of societies encourages equilibrium.

For example, Jim Crow laws in the southern United States were a formalized version of informal
structural advantages that empowered whites. Because of the history of slavery in the southern
United States, whites had amassed more wealth than blacks. During slavery, whites controlled
the government and all of the major institutions in the South. After slavery ended, whites
continued to control many of these institutions, but because they were outnumbered in some
areas by blacks, threatening their dominance, they instituted formal laws, Jim Crow laws, that
allowed them to maintain their structural advantages. And whites were able to pass these laws
because they already controlled many of the social institutions instrumental in the passage of
laws (e.g., courts, government, businesses, etc.). Thus, the advantages whites had prior to a
change in society allowed them to maintain their advantages after the change through both
informal and formal means because of the structure of society.

Structural Functionalism does much to explain why certain aspects of society continue as they
always have, despite some phenomena being clearly less beneficial for society as a whole (e.g.,
Jim Crow laws). However, Structural Functionalism falls short in explaining opposition to social
institutions and social structure by those being oppressed.

Assumptions

32
There are a number of key assumptions in Structural Functionalist theory. One of these, that
societies strives toward equilibrium, was detailed above. Another assumption is that institutions
are distinct and should be studied individually. Structural Functionalists look at institutions
individually as though they are divorced from other institutions. This is a mistake, as institutions
are interlinked in society and those employing a structural functionalist approach should be taken
into consideration the network of relationships that exist between these institutions.[2]

Definitions of Concepts

Social cohesion describes the bonds that bring people together in a society. In order for groups to
be cohesive in a social context, positive membership attitudes and behaviors have to be produced
and maintained.[3] Social cohesion can be looked at on both an individual and group level.
Individual-levels include: an individual’s desire or intention to remain a part of a group, her
attitudes and beliefs about the group, the individuals’ intention to sever, weaken, maintain, or
strengthen her membership or participation in a groups, and her susceptibility to group influence.
Social cohesion at a group level is directly affected by the individual members.[3]

Social inequality refers to any scenario in which individuals in a society do not have equal
social status. Areas of potential inequality include voting rights, freedom of speech and
assembly, the extent of property rights and access to education, health care, quality housing and
other social goods. Social inequality is an important characteristic of Structural Functionalism as
the theory assumes, since inequality exists, there needs to be a certain level of inequality in order
for a society to operate. One possible function of inequality is to motivate people, as people are
motivated to carry out work through a rewards system. Rewards may include income, status,
prestige, or power.

Interdependence is a central theme in structural functionalism; it refers to the parts of society

sharing a common set of principles. Institutions, organizations, and individuals are all
interdependent with one another.

Equilibrium, in a social context, is there internal and external balance in a society? While
temporary disturbances may upset the equilibrium of society because of social structure, society
will eventually return to a balanced, orderly state. That society will strive towards equilibrium
also it means that changes happen gradually or slowly.]

Propositions

Propositions are proposed relationships between two concepts. This section explores some of the
propositions of structural functionalism.

One proposition derived from Structural Functionalist theory is that people have social capital,
and that greater amounts of social capital translate into benefits. Well integrated members of an
institution (those with substantial social capital) will remain members of the institution in order
to maximize the potential of their social capital. Schepens found support for this proposition by
examining religious switching; less than 5% of church members in the Netherlands shift their
church associations during their lifetime, conserving and maximizing their social capital.[2]

33
One of the assumptions of Structural Functionalism is that a society is cohesive if it consists of
various intermediate groups which share the same norms. This assumption leads to another
proposition: The higher the level of integration between these intermediate groups, the more
cohesive society will be as a whole. The absence of social cohesion can result in greater violence
toward others and one's self.[1]

General Conceptual or theoretical or abstract Diagram

The diagram below is a general conceptual diagram of Structural functionalism. It shows that
all of the different organizations and institutions in society are interdependent. When one
institution in society changes, other institutions accommodate that change by changing as well,
though the ultimate effect is to slow overall change.

Interdependent means depending on each other: unable to exist or survive without each other
 interdependent organisms

Microsoft® Encarta® 2009. © 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

Deviance (abnormality, antisocial behavior) stratification

(Putting people into classes or social strata) INTERRELATED OR UNIFIED OR INTERCONNECTED

Specific Conceptual Diagram

Below is a chart depicting how deviance or deviation is functional for society and how society
responds to it. A "deviant" individual commits an act that is deemed by the rest of society as
criminal because it leads to public outrage and punishments. Because a large portion of society
respond to the action as though it is deviant, this draws a boundary between what is and is not
deviant. Thus, deviance actually helps to indicate what is not deviant, or, the function of labeling
behaviors or ideas as deviance is to insure that most people do not engage in those behaviors.
34
By deviance we refer to a state or condition markedly different from the norm or rule or
standard.

- DEVIANCE is a state or condition markedly different from the norm or standard or

custom (antisocial behavior) or Deviation or Abnormality.
- Outrage or disgrace or scandal.
- DEVIANTS= a person whose behavior deviates or diverges or differs from what is
acceptable.

History of Structural functionalism

Functionalism developed slowly over time with the help of many sociologists (are social
scientists who study the institutions and development of human society) in different parts of
the world. Perhaps the most significant contributors to the initial development of this theory are
Émile Durkheim and A.R. Radcliffe-Brown. However, we can begin with Herbert Spencer.

Herbert Spencer is an English sociologist, he was a forerunner of formalized Structural

Functionalism. He is best known for coining or inventing the phrase "survival of the fittest"
in his book Principles of Sociology (1896). Spencer’s intention was to support a societal form of
natural selection. One of the primary foci or emphases or attentions in Spencer's work was
societal equilibrium. Spencer argued that there is a natural tendency in society towards
equilibrium. Thus, even when the conditions of the society are altered, the resulting changes to
the social structure will balance out returning the society to equilibrium.[4]

In the late 19th century, a French Sociologist Émile Durkheim laid the primary foundations of
Structural Functionalism. Durkheim's theory was at least in part, a response to evolutionary
speculations or assumptions of theorists such as Edward Burnett Tylor.[5] Durkheim originally
wanted to explain social institutions as a shared way for individuals in society to meet their own
biological needs.

35
 He wanted to understand the value of cultural and social traits or behaviors or characteristics by
explaining them in regards to their contribution to the operation of the overall system of society
and life.

Later the focus for structural functionalism changed to be more about the ways that social
institutions in society meet the social needs of individuals within that society.

Durkheim was interested in four main aspects of society:

(1) Why societies are formed and what holds them together,

(2) Religion,

(3) Suicide, and

(4) Deviance or abnormality or aberration and crime.

Durkheim addressed his first focus in his book, The Division of Labor in Society.
[6]
Durkheim noticed that the division of labor was evident or apparent or obvious across all
societies and wanted to know why. Durkheim’s answer to this question can be found in his idea
of "solidarity". In older and more primitive societies, Durkheim argued that "mechanical
solidarity kept everyone together. By Mechanical Solidarity (unity or harmony) we refer to
everyone doing relatively similar tasks or job. For instance, in hunting and gathering societies,
there was not a substantial or considerable division of labor. People hunted or gathered.
Durkheim theorized that shared values, common symbols, and systems of exchange functioned
as the tools of cohesion or solidarity in these societies.
[7]
In essence or spirit, members of society performed similar tasks to keep the community
running. In more modern and complex societies, individuals are quite different and they do not
perform the same tasks. However, the diversity or variety actually leads to a different form of
solidarity or interdependence. Durkheim referred to this as "organic or biological solidarity.

"[8]. Organic solidarity leads to a strong sense of individuals being dependent on one another. For
instance, while a construction worker may be able to build homes for people, if he is injured on
the job, he will turn to a doctor for treatment (and probably a lawyer to sue his employer). The
division of labor in society requires specialization and the result is organic solidarity.

Durkheim's work on suicide was also tied to structural functionalism. In his book, Suicide,
Durkheim hypothesized or postulated or assumed that social relationships reduced the likelihood
of suicide. By collecting data across large groups in Europe, Durkheim was able to distinguish
patterns in suicide rates and connect those patterns with other variables.[7] Throughout the book,
Durkheim explained that the weaker social ties or bonds or relations a society possessed, the
more likely they were to commit suicide. Inversely or contrary wise, the greater the cohesive
bond between individuals, the less likely one was to commit suicide. One concrete example
Durkheim explored was the difference in solidarity between Protestants and Catholics. Due to a

36
variety of factors, Durkheim argued that Protestants had lower social solidarity than Catholics,
and their weaker bonds resulted in higher rates of suicide. Thus, solidarity helped maintain
societal order. (Another example is found in families)

Another thread or cord in the development of Structural Functionalism comes from England,
where it emerged from the study of anthropology (refers to the social science that studies the
origins and social relationships of human beings) in the early twentieth century in the theorizing
of Bronislaw Malinowski and A.R. Radcliffe-Brown. Malinowski argued that cultural practices
had physiological (physical or bodily) and psychological (mental, spiritual, psychosomatics,
emotional) functions, such as the satisfaction (gratification) of desires (wishes, needs, wants,
longings).[5]

Radcliffe-Brown’s structural functionalism focused on social structure (configuration or

assembly). He argued that the social world constituted a separate "level" of reality distinct from
those of biological forms (people) and inorganic forms. Radcliffe-Brown argued that
explanations of social phenomena or occurrence had to be constructed at the social level.[5] To
Radcliffe-Brown this meant that people were merely replaceable, temporary occupants of social
roles that were of no inherent (inborn, intrinsic, innate) worth. To Radcliffe-Brown individuals
were only significant in relation to their positions in the overall structure of social roles in
society.

In the United States, functionalism was formalized in sociological thinking by Talcott Parsons,
who introduced the idea that there are stable structural categories that make up the
interdependent systems of a society and functioned to maintain society. He argued that this
homeostasis or metabolic equilibrium is the critical characteristic of societies.

Parsons supported individual integration into social structures, meaning that individuals should
find how they fit into the different aspects of society on their own rather than being assigned
roles.

Parsons saw social systems as "a plurality or variety of individual actors interacting with each
other in a situation which has at least a physical or environmental aspect.

Actors who are motivated in terms of a tendency to the "optimization of gratification or

satisfaction or pleasure" and whose relation to their situations including each other is defined and
mediated in terms of a system of culturally structured and shared symbols. The foundation of
Parsons’ social system is the status-role complex which consists of structural elements or
positions that individuals hold in a system. These positions are referred to as statuses or ranks or
grades and are occupied by individuals who must carry out the roles in order to maintain the
order of the system. Therefore, within this social system individuals perform certain roles to
fulfill the system’s functions, these roles are a function of their statuses. As society progresses
there are new roles and statuses that occur allowing individuals to express their unique
personalities resulting in individualism or egoism or selfishness.

Another important aspect of Parsons’ social systems argument is his theory of action. Parsons
developed the theory of action based on the idea that the decision making (contributions) of an

37
individual in a social system has motivational significance to himself. The individual is
constantly reminded of the norms and values of society which binds him to society. The
individual is therefore motivated to reach personal goals that are defined by their cultural system
and simultaneously these goals benefit society as a whole.

Structural functionalism was the dominant approach of sociology between World War II and the
Vietnam War.

In the 1960’s Structural Functionalism was quite popular and used extensively in research. It was
“… perhaps the dominant theoretical orientation in sociology and anthropology”.[2] However, by
the 1970’s, it was no longer so widely credited. "Structural Functionalism has lost much
importance but modified it, directs much to sociological inquiry."[9]

Modern Examples of Structural Functionalist Oriented or concerned with Research

September 11, 2001

On September 11, 2001 modern American culture was disoriented or confused due to an attack.
This event affected both American travel customs, reflecting the Structural Functionalist idea
that a change in one element of society results in changes in other aspects of society. Before the
attacks, airport security in the U.S. existed, but they changed substantially as a result of the
attacks. Scrutiny of travelers was heightened and included new protocols like the removal of
shoes, belts, and eventually liquids as well as random, more detailed screenings. Thus, a change
in the cultural sense of security resulted in a corresponding change in travel protocol.

Increase in Technology

Modern technology has resulted in substantial changes to the economy and the military. Before
the advent or introduction of telephones, the internet, and video conferencing, most business
meetings occurred face to face (physical contact). If an individual had a business proposal for a
company in San Francisco but lived in New York, she would have to travel to San Francisco.
Modern technology has changed this, reducing the necessity of business travel. As a result, the
function of face to face meetings in business has changed, they are no longer a necessary part of
social interactions and have therefore begun to lose their structural role.

Likewise, the traditional approach to war between two nations was an all-out invasion involving
hundreds of thousands if not millions of troops. During WWI(World War One, America sent over
two million men to fight. During WWII, America sent over eleven million soldiers to fight.
During the Korean War America sent approximately 1.5 million troops. And finally, in 1990, just
over 700,000 soldiers fought in Operation Desert Storm. Due to the increase in military
technology and new military tactical norms, the number of military personnel present in war
zones has dramatically decreased. When America invaded Iraq in 2003, they sent 150,000
troops. Modern technology, including advanced long-range weapons and unmanned drones,
have changed the function of mass invasions.

38
Additional Reading

 Structural Functionalism umsl.edu

 On Structural Functionalism by Scott London
 Structural Functionalism SociologyIndex
 Understanding Social Problems, by Linda Mooney, David Knox and Caroline Schacht
 Webpage on Structural Functionalism
 SparkNotes Structural Functionalism

SOCIAL CAPITAL
A closely related concept is Social Capital – which is the support and information provided by
contacts and social networks which can be converted into educational success and material
rewards.

There are three ways in which middle class parents use their cultural capital

2. Middle class parents are better educated and are more able to help their children with
homework.
3. Middle class parents are more skilled in researching schools.
4. Middle class parents teach their children the value of deferred or delayed gratification or
pleasure.

The Two ways in which middle class parents use their social capital

1. They speak to parents of children who already attend the best schools.
2. They are more likely to know professionals who work in the best schools.

Supporting evidence for the importance of cultural capital in education

Diane Reay (1988) – Mothers make cultural capital work for their children. Her research is
based on the mothers of 33 children at two London primary schools. The mothers of working
class children worked just as hard as the middle class mothers. But the cultural capital of the
MC (middle Class) mothers gave their children an advantage.

Middle Class Mothers had more educational qualifications and more information about how the
educational system operated. They used this cultural capital to help their children with
homework, bolstering or strengthening or supporting their confidence and sorting out their
problems with teachers.

Stephen Ball argues that government policies of choice and competition place the middle class
at an advantage. Ball refers to middle class parents as ‘skilled choosers’. Compared to working
class parents (disconnected choosers) they are more comfortable with dealing with public
institutions like schools, they are more used to extracting and assessing information. They use
social networks to talk to parents whose children are attending the schools on offer and they are

39
more used to dealing with and negotiating with administrators and teachers. As a result, if entry
to a school is limited, they are more likely to gain a place for their child.

The school/ parent alliance: Middle class parents want middle class schools and schools want
middle class pupils. In general the schools with more middle class students have better results.
Schools see middle class students as easy to teach and likely to perform well. They will maintain
the schools position in the league tables and its status in the education market. 

Analysis point

Analysis refers to an investigation of the component parts of a whole and their relations in
making up the whole.

For the sociologists in this section, the cause of lower class failure is the very existence of
inequality itself in society and differences in power held by the working and middle classes.

The role of Cultural Capital – Evaluations

Cultural capital has proved difficult to operationalize and measure.

However, more and more research suggests that this is important in explaining middle class
success and working class failure.

It helps to explain why the Middle classes always do better despite compensatory education.

Related Posts

 Cultural Capital and Education (extended version)

 Why do Working Class Kids Lack Aspiration (Broad support for Cultural Capital
Theory)
 The effects of material deprivation on education.
 The effects of cultural deprivation on education.

Dependency theory (BAED 2)

One alternative model on the left is Dependency theory. It emerged in the 1950s and argues that
the underdevelopment of poor nations in the Third World derived from systematic imperial and
neo-colonial exploitation of raw materials.[25] Its proponents argue that resources typically flow
from a "periphery" of poor and underdeveloped states to a "core" of wealthy states, enriching the
latter at the expense of the former. It is a central contention of dependency theorists such as
Andre Gunder Frank that poor states are impoverished and rich ones enriched by the way poor
states are integrated into the "world system".[26]

40
Dependency models arose from a growing association of southern hemisphere nationalists (from
Latin America and Africa) and Marxists.[27] It was their reaction against modernization theory,
which held that all societies progress through similar stages of development, that today's
underdeveloped areas are thus in a similar situation to that of today's developed areas at some
time in the past, and that, therefore, the task of helping the underdeveloped areas out of poverty
is to accelerate them along this supposed common path of development, by various means such
as investment, technology transfers, and closer integration into the world market. Dependency
theory rejected this view, arguing that underdeveloped countries are not merely primitive
versions of developed countries, but have unique features and structures of their own; and,
importantly, are in the situation of being the weaker members in a world market economy.[28]

Primitive societies and their characteristics in anthropological context?

Anthropology refers to the study of humankinds with all its aspects especially human culture or
human development.

Primitive means original or occurring at its first stages.

3 Answers

Alice Estelle, Studied it enough that hopefully they'll pay me to do it someday.

Answered Jan 3, 2016 · Up voted by Sophee Langerman, studies Anthropology at University of
Michigan (2020)

41
As a rule, modern anthropologists have tried to get away from the term "primitive". When
anthropology was starting to become a science it was thrown around a bunch. However, calling
something primitive automatically labels it as lesser, or backward. It is kind of a loaded word and
has a number of negative connotations. Saying that any society is "primitive" is judging it in
comparison to other (typically Western) cultures,   usually one's own, a perspective known as
ethnocentrism. It implies that there is a "right" or "civilized" way of doing things and also shifts
the focus of anthropology from the descriptive, studying how a society functions, to the
prescriptive, how a society should function. In anthropology we instead try to understand
societies within their own contexts without applying any judgments, a practice called cultural
relativism. While it is impossible to ever be fully culturally relative when studying a society
(everyone brings their own perspective and background with them) it is the anthropologist's job
not to let it influence their research and to be as objective as possible.

That said, there are still efforts to categorize societies using more descriptive and objective
terms. One that might be closer to the answer you're looking for might be the different types of
political organization as defined by Elman Service. These are the Band, Tribe, Chiefdom, and
State. Before getting into it I will say that these are SUPER broad generalizations and there are
some who question the usefulness of this typology in defining every culture's political structure.
Some don't fit nicely. BUT here they are:

 Band, a small group of less than 100 individuals, usually an extended family connected
through kinship. There is no formal governing body or solid idea of political power.
Leaders are informal and command influence only through the power of their
relationships with those around them. It is the most egalitarian (equal) form and it is
typically associated with hunter gatherer (hunting animals and gathering plant foods)
peoples. They are often nomadic, moving camps around the landscape. Multiple bands
may sometimes group together only to later split apart, a practice called fusion and
fission. Traditional examples include the Kung San of the Kalahari and the Inuit of the
Arctic Circle.

The San making fire (Wikipedia)

42
  Tribe, increasing inequality and formalization of leadership. Tribes tend to be larger
than bands but still tend to have strong kinship ties among its members. Usually doesn't
have strong stratification (group ranking) but often has more entrenched political
structures, leaders having more power and there are sometimes "special societies" within
the community that carry prestige or pride and are organized along religious, family, or
other group lines. Often tribes practice horticulture (farming small plots only enough to
feed the community) and are more sedentary (living in one place for longer periods).
Examples include the traditional Yanomami of the Amazon and the Trobriand Islanders
off the coast of Papua New Guinea.

Yanomami house enclosure (openhousebcn.wordpress).

 Chiefdom, usually bigger than tribes and highly stratified with at least two distinct
classes, elite and commoner. Leadership is formal and condensed to a ruling individual,
a chief or other figure. This leader usually inherited this position, based on there lineage.
Chief rules over multiple smaller groups. They also have more formalized relations with
their neighbors, through trade, diplomacy, or warfare. Sometimes associated with
pastoralism (herding of animals), chiefdoms may also be horticulturalist or
agriculturalist (more intensive farming than horticulturalism, significantly altering the
land with the intention of producing extra food). Chiefdoms might be sedentary or
nomadic. They may have more reliance on trading with and raiding other neighboring
peoples than tribes or bands. There is also a stronger sense of territory and borders
though they tend not to be too clearly defined. Examples include the traditional Maasai
of East Africa, Muscogee Creek of the American Southeast, and the historic Celts of
Europe.

Horticulture refers to a simple agriculture without many tools: a simple form of agriculture
based on working small plots of land without using draft animals, plows, or irrigation
Microsoft® Encarta® 2009. © 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

43
 MAASAI LIVING IN SPECIAL HOUSES CALLED MANYATA

Part of a Maasai camp (Wikipedia).

 State, a society (the largest of the four) that is organized by a formal and specialized
government, often with bureaucracy and/or some other specialized governing class.
 This government represents or claims all the people within a defined territory.
 It has the highest level of stratification and inequality.
 They are all agriculturalists as agriculture is the only method of production that produces
enough food to feed the larger populations associated with states.
 Agriculture encourages labor specialization as the surplus produced allows for more
population and means that not everyone has to be a farmer.
 It also means that states are always sedentary or sitting and that land in itself becomes
"valuable".
 The exact type of government can come in a number of different forms. Examples
include all modern nations, most empires or Kingdoms you can think of, etc.

A view of the city of Teotihuacan, an ancient state level society in Mexico (Wikipedia).

MODERNIZATION THEORY

Modernization theory is subject to criticism originating among socialist and free-market

ideologies, world-systems theorists, globalization theorists and dependency theorists among

44
others. Modernization theory stresses not only the process of change but also the responses to
that change.

Modernization or transition theory is used to explain the process of modernization within

societies. Modernization refers to a model of a progressive transition from a 'pre-modern' or
'traditional' to a 'modern' society. Modernization theory originated from the ideas of German
sociologist Max Weber (1864–1920), which provided the basis for the modernization paradigm
or standard developed by Harvard sociologist Talcott Parsons (1902–1979). The theory looks at
the internal factors of a country while assuming that with assistance, "traditional" countries can
be brought to development in the same manner more developed countries have been.
Modernization theory was a dominant paradigm in the social sciences in the 1950s and 1960s,
then went into a deep eclipse or hide. It made a comeback after 1991 but remains a
controversial model.[1]

Overview

Modernization theory both attempts to identify the social variables that contribute to social
progress and development of societies and seeks to explain the process of social evolution.
Modernization theory is subject to criticism originating among socialist and free-market
ideologies, world-systems theorists, globalization theorists and dependency theorists among
others. Modernization theory stresses not only the process of change but also the responses to
that of change.

It also looks at internal dynamics while referring to social and cultural structures and the
adaptation of new technologies.

Modernization theory maintains that traditional societies will develop as they adopt more
modern practices. Proponents or supporters of modernization theory claim that modern states
are wealthier and more powerful and that their citizens are freer to enjoy a higher standard of
living. Developments such as new data technology and the need to update traditional methods in
transport, communication and production, it is argued, make modernization necessary or at
least preferable to the status quo.

That view makes critique difficult since it implies that such developments control the limits of
human interaction, not vice versa. And yet, seemingly paradoxically or illogically or puzzlingly,
it also implies that human agency controls the speed and severity of modernization. Supposedly,
instead of being dominated by tradition, societies undergoing the process of modernization
typically arrive at forms of governance dictated by abstract principles. Traditional religious
beliefs and cultural traits, according to the theory, usually become less important as
modernization takes hold.[2]

Historians link modernization to the processes of urbanization and industrialization and the
spread of education. As Kendall (2007) notes, "Urbanization accompanied modernization and
the rapid process of industrialization."[3] In sociological critical theory, modernization is linked
to an overarching or central process of rationalization or streamlining. When modernization

45
increases within a society, the individual becomes increasingly important, eventually replacing
the family or community as the fundamental unit of society.

Origins

Sociological theories of the late 19th century such as Social Darwinism provided a basis for
asking what were the laws of evolution of human society.[4] The current modernization theory
originated with the ideas of German sociologist Max Weber (1864–1920) regarding the role of
rationality and irrationality in the transition from traditional to modern society. Weber's approach
provided the basis for the modernization paradigm as popularized by Harvard sociologist Talcott
Parsons (1902–1979), who translated Weber's works into English in the 1930s and provided his
own interpretation.[5][6]

After 1945 the Parsonian version became widely used in sociology and other social sciences. By
the late 1960s opposition developed because the theory was too general and did not fit all
societies in quite the same way.[7]

Globalization and modernization

Globalization can be defined as the integration of economic, political and social cultures. It is
argued that globalization is related to the spreading of modernization across borders.

Global trade has grown continuously since the European discovery of new continents in the
Early modern period; it increased particularly as a result of the Industrial Revolution and the
mid-20th century adoption of the shipping container.

Annual trans-border tourist arrivals rose to 456 million by 1990 and almost tripled since,
reaching a total of over 1.2 billion in 2016.[8][9]

Communication is another major area that has grown due to modernization. Communication
industries have enabled capitalism to spread throughout the world. Telephony, television
broadcasts, news services and online service providers have played a crucial part in
globalization. Former U.S president Lyndon B. Johnson was a supporter of the modernization
theory and believed that television had potential to provide educational tools in development.[10]

With the many apparent positive attributes to globalization there are also negative consequences.
The dominant, neoliberal model of globalization often increases disparities between a society's
rich and its poor.[11] In major cities of developing countries there exist pockets where
technologies of the modernized world, computers, cell phones and satellite television, exist
alongside stark or unambiguous poverty. Globalists are globalization modernization theorists and
argue that globalization is positive for everyone, as its benefits must eventually extend to all
members of society, including vulnerable groups such as women and children.

46
Democratization and modernization

The relationship between modernization and democracy is one of the most researched studies in
comparative politics. There is academic debate over the drivers of democracy because there are
theories that support economic growth as both a cause and effect of the institution of democracy.
“Lipset’s observation that democracy is related to economic development, first advanced in
1959, has generated the largest body of research on any topic in comparative politics,”
(Przeworski and Limongi, 1997).

Larry Diamond and Juan Linz, who worked with Lipset in the book, Democracy in Developing
Countries: Latin America, argue that economic performance affects the development of
democracy in at least three ways.

First, they argue that economic growth is more important for democracy than given levels of
socioeconomic development.

Second, socioeconomic development generates social changes that can potentially facilitate
democratization.

Third, socioeconomic development promotes other changes, like organization of the middle
class, which is conducive to democracy.[12]

As Seymour Martin Lipset put it, "All the various aspects of economic development,
industrialization, urbanization, wealth and education are so closely interrelated as to form one
major factor which has the political correlate of democracy".[13] The argument also appears in
Walt W. Rostow, Politics and the Stages of Growth (1971); A. F. K. Organski, The Stages of
Political Development (1965); and David Apter, The Politics of Modernization (1965). In the
1960s, some critics argued that the link between modernization and democracy was based too
much on the example of European history and neglected the Third World.[14] Recent
demonstrations of the emergence of democracy in South Korea, Taiwan and South Africa have
been cited as support for Lipset's thesis.

One historical problem with that argument has always been Germany whose economic
modernization in the 19th century came long before the democratization after 1918. Berman,
however, concludes that a process of democratization was underway in Imperial Germany, for
"during these years Germans developed many of the habits and mores that are now thought by
political scientists to augur or predict healthy political development".[15]

Ronald Inglehart and Christian Welzel (2009) contend that the realization of democracy is not
based solely on an expressed desire for that form of government, but democracies are born as a
result of the admixture of certain social and cultural factors. They argue the ideal social and
cultural conditions for the foundation of a democracy are born of significant modernization and
economic development that result in mass political participation.[16]

Peerenboom (2008) explores the relationships among democracy, the rule of law and their
relationship to wealth by pointing to examples of Asian countries such as Taiwan and South

47
Korea, which have successfully democratized only after economic growth reached relatively
high levels and to examples of countries such as the Philippines, Bangladesh, Cambodia,
Thailand, Indonesia and India, which sought to democratize at lower levels of wealth but have
not done as well.[17]

Adam Przeworski and others have challenged Lipset's argument. They say political regimes do
not transition to democracy as per capita income rise. Rather, democratic transitions occur
randomly, but once there, countries with higher levels of gross domestic product per capita
remain democratic. Epstein et al. (2006) retest the modernization hypothesis using new data, new
techniques, and a three-way, rather than dichotomous, classification of regimes. Contrary to
Przeworski, this study finds that the modernization hypothesis stands up well. Partial
democracies emerge as among the most important and least understood regime types.[18]

Highly contentious is the idea that modernization implies more human rights, with China in the
21st century being a major test case.

Technology

New technology is a major source of social change. (Social change refers to any significant
alteration over time in behavior patterns and cultural values and norms.) Since modernization
entails the social transformation from agrarian societies to industrial ones, it is important to look
at the technological viewpoint; however, new technologies do not change societies by itself.
Rather, it is the response to technology that causes change.

Frequently, technology is recognized but not put to use for a very long time such as the ability to
extract metal from rock. Although that initially went unused, it later had profound implications
for the developmental course of societies.

Technology makes it possible for a more innovated society and broad social change. That
dramatic change through the centuries that has evolved socially, industrially, and economically,
can be summed up by the term modernization. Cell phones, for example, have changed the lives
of millions throughout the world. That is especially true in Africa and other parts of the Middle
East, where there is a low cost communication infrastructure. With cell phone technology,
widely dispersed populations are connected, which facilitates business-to-business
communication and provides internet access to remoter areas, with a consequential rise in
literacy.

Development and modernization

Development, like modernization, has become the orienting principle of modern times. Countries
that are seen as modern are also seen as developed, which means that they are generally more
respected by institutions such as the United Nations and even as possible trade partners for other
countries. The extent to which a country has modernized or developed dictates its power and
importance on the international level.

48
Modernization of the health sector of developing nations recognizes that transitioning from
'traditional' to 'modern' is not merely the advancement in technology and the introduction of
Western practices; implementing modern healthcare requires the reorganization of political
agenda and, in turn, an increase in funding by feeders and resources towards public health.
However, rather than replicating or repeating or duplicating the stages of developed nations,
whose roots of modernization are found with the context of industrialization or colonialism,
underdeveloped nations should apply proximal interventions to target rural communities and
focus on prevention strategies rather than curative solutions. That has been successfully
exhibited by the Christian Medical Commission and in China through 'barefoot doctors'.
Additionally, a strong advocate of the DE-emphasis of medical institutions was Halfdan T.
Mahler, the WHO(world health organization) General Director from 1973 to 1988. Related ideas
have been proposed at international conferences such as Alma-Ats and the "Health and
Population in Development" conference, sponsored by the Rockefeller Foundation in Italy in
1979, and selective primary healthcare and GOBI were discussed (although they have both been
strongly criticized by supporters of comprehensive healthcare). Overall, however, this is not to
say that the nations of the Global South can function independently from Western states;
significant funding is received from well-intention programs, foundations, and charities that
target epidemics such as HIV/AIDS, malaria, and tuberculosis that have substantially improved
the lives of millions of people and impeded or hindered future development.[19]

Modernization theorists often saw traditions as obstacles to economic growth. According to

Seymour Martin Lipset, economic conditions are heavily determined by the cultural, social
values present in that given society.[20]

Furthermore, while modernization might deliver violent, radical change for traditional societies,
it was thought worth the price. Critics insist that traditional societies were often destroyed
without ever gaining the promised advantages if, among other things, the economic gap between
advanced societies and such societies actually increased. The net effect of modernization for
some societies was therefore the replacement of traditional poverty by a more modern form of
misery, according to these critics.[21] Others point to improvements in living standards, physical
infrastructure, education and economic opportunity to refute such criticisms.

Criticism

From the 1960s, modernization theory has been criticized by numerous scholars, including
Andre Gunder Frank (1929 – 2005)[22] and Immanuel Wallerstein (born 1930).[23] In this model,
the modernization of a society required the destruction of the indigenous culture and its
replacement by a more Westernized one. By one definition, modern simply refers to the present,
and any society still in existence is therefore modern. Proponents or advocates of modernization
typically view only Western society as being truly modern and argue that others are primitive or
unevolved by comparison. That view sees unmodernized societies as inferior even if they have
the same standard of living as western societies. Opponents argue that modernity is independent
of culture and can be adapted to any society. Japan is cited as an example by both sides. Some

49
see it as proof that a thoroughly modern way of life can exist in a non-western society. Others
argue that Japan has become distinctly more western as a result of its modernization.

As Tipps has argued, by conflating modernization with other processes, with which theorists use
interchangeably (democratization, liberalization, development), the term becomes imprecise and
therefore difficult to disprove or refute.[24]

The theory has also been criticized empirically, as modernization theorists ignore external
sources of change in societies. The binary between traditional and modern is unhelpful, as the
two are linked and often interdependent, and 'modernization' does not come as a whole.

Modernization theory has also been accused of being Eurocentric, as modernization began in
Europe, with the Industrial Revolution, the French Revolution and the Revolutions of 1848
(Macionis 953) and has long been regarded as reaching its most advanced stage in Europe.
Anthropologists typically make their criticism one step further and say that the view is
ethnocentric and is specific to Western culture.

This deals with current styles and issues.

There were many proponents or advocates or supporters or champions of Modernization

Theory, such as, Walter Rostow, W.A. Lewis, Talcott Parsons, and Daniel Lerner. They all felt
that the rest of the world needed to look to the Western model of modernity and pattern their
society like the West in order to progress.

9 Most Important Characteristics of Modernization

1. Application of technology and mechanization:

This means in other words that the people give up their old ways of living, old methods of
agriculture and travelling. Previously, the majority of the people in India used to live in villages
in old ways in Kuccha houses and they used to cultivate their lands through ploughs and travel
by means of bullock-carts.

Now this has been given up entirely as the people now live in well-built houses, cultivate their
fields through tractors and use other modern methods of agriculture (chemical fertilizers or
manure, good seeds, irrigation system and harvesting through machines).

Now the ordinary people prefer to travel by means of buses and trains but the more affluent
section of the society i.e. the rich people prefer to travel by super-fast trains and aero planes.
This means in other words that the people are using modern methods of technology and
mechanization.

2. Industrialization:

Previously the people used to spin cloths through spindles and live in traditional ways and use
their old patterns of occupation and places of residence. When the industrialization of a country

50
takes places, the people give up their traditional rural and agricultural economy. Its place is taken
over by industrialization. New factories and mills continue to grow daily and use latest
techniques.

3. Urbanization:

When the industrialization of a country takes place, then the new centers of industries develop.
Consequently, the people of villages particularly the laborers migrate in large number to these
new centers in the cities with the hope that they will return to their villages after making enough
money but well their livelihood in the villages and agriculture cannot bear so much-burden.

Moreover, it is very inconvenient to them to come and go daily from the villages to the cities as
there is much rush in buses and trains and the traveling is very costly. So with the growing
industrialization of the country, the people in large number continue to migrate from the villages
to cities and settle permanently there. This in return causes many problems in the cities, housing,
and sanitation, improving methods of communication and acquiring more and more lands for
manifold purposes.

4. Rise in national and per capital Income:

The agricultural economy alone cannot increase the national wealth and per capita income as it
has to support the idle members of the society also. Therefore in order to raise the national and
per capita income, the old economy based on agriculture has to be supplemented by industrial
growth and its income because by exporting the industrial goods the country can make huge
profits.

5. Increase in Literacy:

Another prominent feature of modernization is that all-out efforts are made by the Government
and the society to wipe out illiteracy and strenuous efforts are made not only to send every child
to school but the adults is also persuaded to learn three R’s.

This education does not remain limited only to arts, science and commerce but also spreads to
higher medical education, research, technology and crafts. Thus the avenues of higher education
are made available to every person in all fields. So everybody runs after attaining higher
education.

6. Political participation:

When the best possible opportunities are offered to every person to attain higher education, the
people become enlightened. Economic development and equal distribution of wealth enables
everybody to share sometime from the pressing necessity of daily wants and devote it in political
participation.

51
Every voter begins to read newspaper and learn something about politics. The voter ultimately
becomes enlightened and votes for that party which is likely to solve economic problems and
take the country to further heights unattained so far.

Therefore the political participation is made possible in a democracy through political parties,
interest groups, and various other organizations. They influence the government for the welfare
of citizens and equal opportunities are made available in services to everybody irrespective of
caste or class, color, creed, religion, sex or such other considerations.

7. Development of Mass-Media techniques:

The modernization brings in its wake development of mass-media techniques. These mass-media
techniques include newspapers, broadcasting, postal facilities, movies, road, rail and air services,
electricity, and T.V. Through all these facilities, the citizens become enlightened and well-
informed and these in turn enable the citizens to serve the state in a better way.

8. Social Mobility:

When the modernization of a country begins to take place, then the people go on migrating from
the villages to cities in search of better amenities and jobs. The role of village Sarpanch becomes
insignificant and is replaced in the cities by the role of the leaders of various political parties and
the Unions. As the people become conscious, so they rally round that leader, who is likely to
deliver them goods.

9. Cultivation of national identity:

When the modernization of any country takes place, then the people begin to give up their
narrow loyalties and parochial ‘Considerations of caste, color, sex or creed. Their interests
become identified with ‘he interests of the nation.

Modernization does not necessarily mean discarding all traditional values and cultural or
political heritage:

Modernization does not necessarily mean that the people may discard all their traditional values
or cultural and political heritage. For example, the British are traditionally conservative but still
they have retained their old institutions like kingship and House of Lords.

Though their powers have been sufficiently curtailed or shortened, yet they have been made
useful institutions which could serve the growing needs of the society. Therefore the British are
considered as one of the most modern nations. Similar is the case with the Japanese, the French
and the Germans.

We, in India are also doing the same. Without losing our cultural or political heritage, we are
adopting latest technology and modern scientific techniques. Thus, we are marching towards
modernization with a great speed.

52
In addition to the segments of the discourse of modernity and modernization that have been
classified, a structure of essential features of modern society is revealed comprising 1)
universality (invariance) of social development; 2) civilization variability and uniqueness of
cultural programs; 3) emancipation trend and ...Feb 12, 2016

Particular facets (features) of the late modernity period include:

 Increasing role of science and technology.

 Mass literacy and proliferation of mass media.
 Spread of social movements.
 Institution of representative democracy.
 Individualism.
 Industrialization.
 Urbanization.

Education and schools;

The humanities are academic disciplines which study the human condition, using methods that
are primarily analytic, critical, or speculative, as distinguished from the mainly empirical
approaches of the natural and social sciences. Although many of the subjects of modern history
coincide with that of standard history, the subject is taught independently by various systems of
education in the world.
British education

Students can choose the subject at university. The material covered includes from the mid-18th
century, to analysis of the present day. Virtually all colleges and sixth forms that do teach
modern history do it alongside standard history; very few teach the subject exclusively.
Universities
At the University of Oxford 'Modern History' has a somewhat different meaning. The contrast is
not with the Middle Ages but with Antiquity. The earliest period that can be studied in the Final
Honor School of Modern History begins in 285.

DEPENDENCY THEORY

Definition; Dependency theory is the notion that resources flow from a "periphery" of poor and
underdeveloped states to a "core" of wealthy states, enriching the latter at the expense of the
former. It is a central contention of dependency theory that poor states are impoverished or
disadvantaged or underprivileged and rich ones enriched by the way poor states are integrated
into the "world system".

The theory arose as a reaction to modernization theory, an earlier theory of development which
held that all societies progress through similar stages of development, that today's
underdeveloped areas are thus in a similar situation to that of today's developed areas at some
time in the past, and that, therefore, the task of helping the underdeveloped areas out of poverty
is to accelerate them along this supposed common path of development, by various means such

53
as investment, technology transfers, and closer integration into the world market. Dependency
theory rejected this view, arguing that underdeveloped countries are not merely primitive
versions of developed countries, but have unique features and structures of their own; and,
importantly, are in the situation of being the weaker members in a world market economy.[1]

Dependency theory no longer has many proponents or supporters as an overall theory, though
some writers have argued for its continuing relevance as a conceptual orientation to the global
division of wealth.[2]

Dependency theory is the notion or concept or belief that resources flow from a "periphery" or
boundary of poor and underdeveloped states to a "core" of wealthy states, enriching the latter at
the expense of the former. It is a central contention of dependency theory that poor states are
impoverished or underprivileged or disadvantaged and rich ones enriched by the way poor
states are integrated into the "world system".

The theory arose as a reaction to modernization theory, an earlier theory of development which
held that all societies progress through similar stages of development, that today's
underdeveloped areas are thus in a similar situation to that of today's developed areas at some
time in the past, and that, therefore, the task of helping the underdeveloped areas out of poverty
is to accelerate them along this supposed common path of development, by various means such
as investment, technology transfers, and closer integration into the world market.

Vincent Ferraro, "Dependency Theory: An Introduction," in The Development Economics

Reader, ed. Giorgio Secondi (London: Routledge, 2008), pp. 58-64

Background

Dependency Theory developed in the late 1950s under the guidance of the Director of the United
Nations Economic Commission for Latin America, Raul Prebisch. Prebisch and his colleagues
were troubled by the fact that economic growth in the advanced industrialized countries did not

54
necessarily lead to growth in the poorer countries. Indeed, their studies suggested that economic
activity in the richer countries often led to serious economic problems in the poorer countries.
Such a possibility was not predicted by neoclassical theory, which had assumed that economic
growth was beneficial to all (Pareto optimal) even if the benefits were not always equally
shared.

Prebisch's initial explanation for the phenomenon was very straightforward: poor countries
exported primary commodities to the rich countries who then manufactured products out of
those commodities and sold them back to the poorer countries. The "Value Added" by
manufacturing a usable product always cost more than the primary products used to create
those products. Therefore, poorer countries would never be earning enough from their export
earnings to pay for their imports.

Prebisch's solution was similarly straightforward: poorer countries should embark on programs
of import substitution so that they need not purchase the manufactured products from the richer
countries. The poorer countries would still sell their primary products on the world market, but
their foreign exchange reserves would not be used to purchase their manufactures from abroad.

Three issues made this policy difficult to follow. The first is that the internal markets of the
poorer countries were not large enough to support the economies of scale used by the richer
countries to keep their prices low.

The second issue concerned the political will of the poorer countries as to whether a
transformation from being primary products producers was possible or desirable. The final
issue revolved around the extent to which the poorer countries actually had control of their
primary products, particularly in the area of selling those products abroad. These obstacles to
the import substitution policy led others to think a little more creatively and historically at the
relationship between rich and poor countries.

At this point dependency theory was viewed as a possible way of explaining the persistent
poverty of the poorer countries. The traditional neoclassical approach said virtually nothing on
this question except to assert that the poorer countries were late in coming to solid economic
practices and that as soon as they learned the techniques of modern economics, then the poverty
would begin to subside.

However, Marxists theorists viewed the persistent poverty as a consequence of capitalist

exploitation.

And a new body of thought, called the world systems approach, argued that the poverty was a
direct consequence of the evolution of the international political economy into a fairly rigid
division of labor which favored the rich and penalized the poor.

The debates among the liberal reformers (Prebisch), the Marxists (Andre Gunder Frank), and the
world systems theorists (Wallerstein) was vigorous and intellectually quite challenging. There
are still points of serious disagreements among the various strains of dependency theorists and it

55
is a mistake to think that there is only one unified theory of dependency. Nonetheless, there are
some core propositions which seem to underlie the analyses of most dependency theorists.

Dependency can be defined as an explanation of the economic development of a state in terms of

the external influences political, economic, and cultural--on national development policies
(Osvaldo Sunkel, "National Development Policy and External Dependence in Latin America,"
The Journal of Development Studies, Vol. 6, no. 1, October 1969, p. 23). Theotonio Dos Santos
emphasizes the historical dimension of the dependency relationships in his definition:

[Dependency is]...an historical condition which shapes a certain structure of the world economy
such that it favors some countries to the detriment of others and limits the development
possibilities of the subordinate economics...a situation in which the economy of a certain group
of countries is conditioned by the development and expansion of another economy, to which
their own is subjected.

(Theotonio Dos Santos, "The Structure of Dependence," in K.T. Fann and Donald C. Hodges,
eds., Readings in U.S. Imperialism. Boston: Porter Sargent, 1971, p. 226)

There are three common features to these definitions which most dependency theorists share.
First, dependency characterizes the international system as comprised of two sets of states,
variously described as dominant/dependent, center/periphery or metropolitan/satellite. The
dominant states are the advanced industrial nations in the Organization of Economic Co-
operation and Development (OECD). The dependent states are those states of Latin America,
Asia, and Africa which have low per capita GNPs and which rely heavily on the export of a
single commodity for foreign exchange earnings.

Second, both definitions have in common the assumption that external forces are of singular
importance to the economic activities within the dependent states. These external forces include
multinational corporations, international commodity markets, foreign assistance,
communications, and any other means by which the advanced industrialized countries can
represent their economic interests abroad.

Third, the definitions of dependency all indicate that the relations between dominant and
dependent states are dynamic because the interactions between the two sets of states tend to not
only reinforce but also intensify the unequal patterns. Moreover, dependency is a very deep-
seated historical process, rooted in the internationalization of capitalism. Dependency is an
ongoing process:

Latin America is today, and has been since the sixteenth century, part of an international system
dominated by the now-developed nations.... Latin underdevelopment is the outcome of a
particular series of relationships to the international system.

Susanne Bodenheimer, "Dependency and Imperialism: The Roots of Latin American

Underdevelopment," in Fann and Hodges, Readings, op. cit., p. 157. In short, dependency theory
attempts to explain the present underdeveloped state of many nations in the world by examining

56
the patterns of interactions among nations and by arguing that inequality among nations is an
intrinsic part of those interactions.

The Structural Context of Dependency: Is it Capitalism or is it Power?

Most dependency theorists regard international capitalism as the motive force behind
dependency relationships. Andre Gunder Frank, one of the earliest dependency theorists, is quite
clear on this point:

...historical research demonstrates that contemporary underdevelopment is in large part the

historical product of past and continuing economic and other relations between the satellite
underdeveloped and the now developed metropolitan or city or urban countries. Furthermore,
these relations are an essential part of the capitalist system on a world scale as a whole.

Andre Gunder Frank, "The Development of Underdevelopment," in James D. Cockcroft, Andre

Gunder Frank, and Dale Johnson, eds., Dependence and Underdevelopment. Garden City, New
York: Anchor Books, 1972, p. 3. According to this view, the capitalist system has enforced a
rigid international division of labor which is responsible for the underdevelopment of many areas
of the world. The dependent states supply cheap minerals, agricultural commodities, and cheap
labor, and also serve as the repositories or store houses of surplus capital, obsolescent
technologies, and manufactured goods. These functions orient the economies of the dependent
states toward the outside: money, goods, and services do flow into dependent states, but the
allocation of these resources are determined by the economic interests of the dominant states,
and not by the economic interests of the dependent state. This division of labor is ultimately the
explanation for poverty and there is little question but that capitalism regards the division of
labor as a necessary condition for the efficient allocation of resources. The most explicit
manifestation of this characteristic is in the doctrine of comparative advantage.

Moreover, to a large extent the dependency models rest upon the assumption that economic and
political power are heavily concentrated and centralized in the industrialized countries, an
assumption shared with Marxist theories of imperialism. If this assumption is valid, then any
distinction between economic and political power is spurious or fake or false: governments will
take whatever steps are necessary to protect private economic interests, such as those held by
multinational corporations.

Not all dependency theorists, however, are Marxist and one should clearly distinguish between
dependency and a theory of imperialism. The Marxist theory of imperialism explains dominant
state expansion while the dependency theory explains underdevelopment. Stated another way,
Marxist theories explain the reasons why imperialism occurs, while dependency theories explain
the consequences of imperialism. The difference is significant. In many respects, imperialism is,
for a Marxist, part of the process by which the world is transformed and is therefore a process
which accelerates the communist revolution. Marx spoke approvingly of British colonialism in
India:

57
England has to fulfil a double mission in India: one destructive, the other regenerating--the
annihilation of old Asiatic society, and the laying of the material foundations of Western society
in Asia.

Karl Marx, "The Future Results of the British Rule in India," New York Daily Tribune, No. 3840,
August 8, 1853.

For the dependency theorists, underdevelopment is a wholly negative condition which offers no
possibility of sustained and autonomous economic activity in a dependent state.

Additionally, the Marxist theory of imperialism is self-liquidating, while the dependent

relationship is self-perpetuating. The end of imperialism in the Leninist framework comes about
as the dominant powers go to war over a rapidly shrinking number of exploitable opportunities.
World War I was, for Lenin, the classic proof of this proposition. After the war was over, Britain
and France took over the former German colonies. A dependency theorist rejects this
proposition. A dependent relationship exists irrespective of the specific identity of the dominant
state. That the dominant states may fight over the disposition of dependent territories is not in
and of itself a pertinent bit of information (except that periods of fighting among dominant states
affords opportunities for the dependent states to break their dependent relationships). To a
dependency theorist, the central characteristic of the global economy is the persistence of poverty
throughout the entire modern period in virtually the same areas of the world, regardless of what
state was in control.

Finally, there are some dependency theorists who do not identify capitalism as the motor force
behind a dependent relationship. The relationship is maintained by a system of power first and it
does not seem as if power is only supported by capitalism. For example, the relationship between
the former dependent states in the socialist block (the Eastern European states and Cuba, for
example) closely paralleled the relationships between poor states and the advanced capitalist
states. The possibility that dependency is more closely linked to disparities of power rather than
to the particular characteristics of a given economic system is intriguing or fascinating and
consistent with the more traditional analyses of international relations, such as realism.

The Central Propositions or Schemes or Proposals of Dependency Theory

There are a number of propositions or suggestions or proposals, all of which are contestable,
which form the core of dependency theory. These propositions include:

1. Underdevelopment is a condition fundamentally different from undevelopment. The latter term

simply refers to a condition in which resources are not being used. For example, the European
colonists viewed the North American continent as an undeveloped area: the land was not
actively cultivated on a scale consistent with its potential. Underdevelopment refers to a
situation in which resources are being actively used, but used in a way which benefits dominant
states and not the poorer states in which the resources are found.

2. The distinction between underdevelopment and undevelopment places the poorer countries of
the world is a profoundly different historical context. These countries are not "behind" or

58
"catching up" to the richer countries of the world. They are not poor because they lagged behind
the scientific transformations or the Enlightenment values of the European states. They are poor
because they were coercively integrated into the European economic system only as producers
of raw materials or to serve as repositories of cheap labor, and were denied the opportunity to
market their resources in any way that competed with dominant states.

3. Dependency theory suggests that alternative uses of resources are preferable to the resource
usage patterns imposed by dominant states. There is no clear definition of what these preferred
patterns might be, but some criteria are invoked or raised. For example, one of the dominant
state practices most often criticized by dependency theorists is export agriculture. The criticism
is that many poor economies experience rather high rates of malnutrition even though they
produce great amounts of food for export. Many dependency theorists would argue that those
agricultural lands should be used for domestic food production in order to reduce the rates of
malnutrition.

4. The preceding proposition can be amplified: dependency theorists rely upon a belief that there
exists a clear "national" economic interest which can and should be articulated for each
country. In this respect, dependency theory actually shares a similar theoretical concern with
realism. What distinguishes the dependency perspective is that its proponents believe that this
national interest can only be satisfied by addressing the needs of the poor within a society,
rather than through the satisfaction of corporate or governmental needs. Trying to determine
what is "best" for the poor is a difficult analytical problem over the long run. Dependency
theorists have not yet articulated or spoken an operational definition of the national economic
interest.

5. The diversion of resources over time (and one must remember that dependent relationships
have persisted since the European expansion beginning in the fifteenth century) is maintained
not only by the power of dominant states, but also through the power of elites in the dependent
states. Dependency theorists argue that these elites maintain a dependent relationship because
their own private interests coincide with the interests of the dominant states. These elites are
typically trained in the dominant states and share similar values and culture with the elites in
dominant states. Thus, in a very real sense, a dependency relationship is a "voluntary"
relationship. One need not argue that the elites in a dependent state are consciously betraying
the interests of their poor; the elites sincerely believe that the key to economic development lies
in following the prescriptions of liberal economic doctrine.

The Policy Implications of Dependency Analysis (BAED)

If one accepts the analysis of dependency theory, then the questions of how poor economies
develop become quite different from the traditional questions concerning comparative
advantage, capital accumulation, and import/export strategies. Some of the most important new
issues include:

1. The success of the advanced industrial economies does not serve as a model for the currently
developing economies. When economic development became a focused area of study, the
analytical strategy (and ideological preference) was quite clear: all nations need to emulate the

59
patterns used by the rich countries. Indeed, in the 1950s and 1960s there was a paradigmatic
consensus that growth strategies were universally applicable, a consensus best articulated by
Walt Rostow in his book, The Stages of Economic Growth. Dependency theory suggests that the
success of the richer countries was a highly contingent and specific episode in global economic
history, one dominated by the highly exploitative colonial relationships of the European powers.
A repeat of those relationships is not now highly likely for the poor countries of the world.

2. Dependency theory repudiates or denies the central distributive mechanism of the

neoclassical model, what is usually called "trickle-down" economics. The neoclassical model of
economic growth pays relatively little attention to the question of distribution of wealth. Its
primary concern is on efficient production and assumes that the market will allocate the rewards
of efficient production in a rational and unbiased manner. This assumption may be valid for a
well-integrated, economically fluid economy where people can quickly adjust to economic
changes and where consumption patterns are not distorted by non-economic forces such as
racial, ethnic, or gender bias. These conditions are not pervasive in the developing economies,
and dependency theorists argue that economic activity is not easily disseminated in poor
economies. For these structural reasons, dependency theorists argue that the market alone is not
a sufficient distributive mechanism.

3. Since the market only rewards productivity, dependency theorists discount aggregate
measures of economic growth such as the GDP or trade indices or files. Dependency theorists
do not deny that economic activity occurs within a dependent state. They do make a very
important distinction, however, between economic growth and economic development. For
example, there is a greater concern within the dependency framework for whether the economic
activity is actually benefitting the nation as a whole. Therefore, far greater attention is paid to
indices such as life expectancy, literacy, infant mortality, education, and the like. Dependency
theorists clearly emphasize social indicators far more than economic indicators.

4. Dependent states, therefore, should attempt to pursue policies of self-reliance. Contrary to the
neo-classical models endorsed by the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank, greater
integration into the global economy is not necessarily a good choice for poor countries. Often
this policy perspective is viewed as an endorsement of a policy of autarky, and there have been
some experiments with such a policy such as China's Great Leap Forward or Tanzania's policy
of Ujamaa. The failures of these policies are clear, and the failures suggest that autarky is not a
good choice. Rather a policy of self-reliance should be interpreted as endorsing a policy of
controlled interactions with the world economy: poor countries should only endorse interactions
on terms that promise to improve the social and economic welfare of the larger citizenry.

60
LOOK AT A FICTIONAL SOCIAL NETWORK DIAGRAM.

A fictional social network diagram. It consists of 165 Nodes and 1851 Edges. The SVG-file was auto-
generated by script. The underlying node/edge data can be extracted from the circle/line elements.

WHAT IS STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONAL PARADIGM or MODEL or PATTERN?

The structural-functional paradigm is a framework for the structure of society. The

structural-functional approach tells that all parts in the society works together in order to form
a harmonious, sensible and stable society. ... Herbert Spencer linked the society to the human
body. Jan 12, 2018

Structural Functionalism is a sociological theory that attempts to explain why society functions
the way it does by focusing on the relationships between the various social institutions that make
up society (e.g., government, law, education, religion, etc)

Detailed Description
The structural-functional approach is a perspective in sociology that sees society as a complex
system whose parts work together to promote solidarity and stability. It asserts that our lives are
guided by social structures, which are relatively stable patterns of social behavior. Social
structures give shape to our lives - for example, in families, the community, and through
religious organizations. And certain rituals, such as a handshake or complex religious
ceremonies, give structure to our everyday lives. Each social structure has social functions, or
consequences for the operation of society as a whole. Education, for example, has several
important functions in a society, such as socialization, learning.

Thus, one of the key ideas in Structural Functionalism is that society is made-up of groups or
institutions, which are cohesive, share common norms, and have a definitive culture.[1] Robert K.
Merton argued that functionalism is about the more static or concrete aspects of society,[1]
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institutions like government or religions. However, any group large enough to be a social
institution is included in Structural Functionalist thinking, from religious denominations to sports
clubs and everything in between. Structural Functionalism asserts that the way society is
organized is the most natural and efficient way for it to be organized.

Gender inequality offers a good illustration. According to Structural Functionalist thought,

women being subordinate to men allows the cogs of society to function smoothly as everyone in
the society knows his or her respective position in the hierarchy. The implication, of course, is
that, because society is functioning smoothly with gender stratification, such stratification is
acceptable and efforts should not be made to change the arrangement. This example illustrates
that Structural Functionalism is generally seen as being supportive of the status quo.

Another key characteristic of Structural Functionalism is that it views society as constantly

striving to be at a state of equilibrium, which suggests there is an inherent drive within human
societies to cohere or stick together. This is known as the cohesion issue.[1] Societies strive
toward equilibrium, not through dictatorial mandate by the leaders of society but rather because
the social structure of societies encourages equilibrium.

For example, Jim Crow laws in the southern United States were a formalized version of informal
structural advantages that empowered whites. Because of the history of slavery in the southern
United States, whites had amassed more wealth than blacks. During slavery, whites controlled
the government and all of the major institutions in the South. After slavery ended, whites
continued to control many of these institutions, but because they were outnumbered in some
areas by blacks, threatening their dominance, they instituted formal laws, Jim Crow laws, that
allowed them to maintain their structural advantages. And whites were able to pass these laws
because they already controlled many of the social institutions instrumental in the passage of
laws (e.g., courts, government, businesses, etc.). Thus, the advantages whites had prior to a
change in society allowed them to maintain their advantages after the change through both
informal and formal means because of the structure of society.

Structural Functionalism does much to explain why certain aspects of society continue as they
always have, despite some phenomena being clearly less beneficial for society as a whole (e.g.,
Jim Crow laws). However, Structural Functionalism falls short in explaining opposition to social
institutions and social structure by those being oppressed.

Assumptions

There are a number of key assumptions in Structural Functionalist theory. One of these, that
societies strives toward equilibrium, was detailed above. Another assumption is that institutions
are distinct and should be studied individually.[citation needed] Structural Functionalists look at
institutions individually as though they are divorced from other institutions. This is a mistake, as
institutions are interlinked in society and those employing a structural functionalist approach
should be taken into consideration the network of relationships that exist between these
institutions.[2]

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Definitions of Concepts

Social cohesion describes the bonds that bring people together in a society. In order for groups to
be cohesive in a social context, positive membership attitudes and behaviors have to be produced
and maintained.[3] Social cohesion can be looked at on both an individual and group level.
Individual-levels include: an individual’s desire or intention to remain a part of a group, her
attitudes and beliefs about the group, the individuals’ intention to sever, weaken, maintain, or
strengthen her membership or participation in a groups, and her susceptibility to group influence.
Social cohesion at a group level is directly affected by the individual members.[3]

Social inequality refers to any scenario in which individuals in a society do not have equal social
status. Areas of potential inequality include voting rights, freedom of speech and assembly, the
extent of property rights and access to education, health care, quality housing and other social
goods. Social inequality is an important characteristic of Structural Functionalism as the theory
assumes, since inequality exists, there needs to be a certain level of inequality in order for a
society to operate. One possible function of inequality is to motivate people as people are
motivated to carry out work through a rewards system. Rewards may include income, status,
prestige, or power.[citation needed]

Interdependence is a central theme in structural functionalism; it refers to the parts of society

sharing a common set of principles.[citation needed] Institutions, organizations, and individuals are all
interdependent with one another.

Equilibrium, in a social context, is the internal and external balance in a society. While
temporary disturbances may upset the equilibrium of society, because of social structure, society
will eventually return to a balanced, orderly state. That society strives toward equilibrium also
means that changes happen slowly.[citation needed]

Propositions Repeated

Propositions are proposed relationships between two concepts. This section explores some of the
propositions of structural functionalism.

One proposition derived from Structural Functionalist theory is that people have social capital,
and that greater amounts of social capital translate into benefits. Well integrated members of an
institution (those with substantial social capital) will remain members of the institution in order
to maximize the potential of their social capital. Schepens found support for this proposition by
examining religious switching; less than 5% of church members in the Netherlands shift their
church associations during their lifetime, conserving and maximizing their social capital.[2]

One of the assumptions of Structural Functionalism is that a society is cohesive if it consists of

various intermediate groups which share the same norms. This assumption leads to another
proposition: The higher the level of integration between these intermediate groups, the more

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cohesive society will be as a whole. The absence of social cohesion can result in greater violence
toward others and one's self.[1]

General Conceptual Diagram

The diagram below is a general conceptual diagram of Structural functionalism. It shows that all
of the different organizations and institutions in society are interdependent. When one institution
in society changes, other institutions accommodate that change by changing as well, though the
ultimate effect is to slow overall change.

The structural-functional paradigm is a framework for the structure of society. The structural-
functional approach tells that all parts in the society works together in order to form a
harmonious, sensible and stable society. This approach sees the society as a macro-level
orientation. Each and every component is interrelated and it is concerns with broad patterns that
shape society as a whole. The larger social institutions of the society such as population,
education, economy, government play very important roles on shaping our lives. The family is
considered as the most favorable body composition of the social organization because family is
the most elementary and closest social structure which every individual attached to. For example,
assume that if the students are not present, the teachers would not exist as well. Because there is
an interrelated relationship between the students and teachers which represents that the society is
a complex system where parts coordinate together to balance and stabilize the civilization.
Auguste Comte, the “Father of Sociology” said that it is very important to keep the society
together because many traditions were weakened due to the rapid change of the humanity.
Herbert Spencer linked the society to the human body. For example, a society is composed by a
large number of individuals as a complete functional group. In human body, many cells and
tissues form the organs of the organism, such as hands, eyes, nose, mouth, ears, etc. Various
organs of the organism have its unique features to meet the needs of the organism and to
maintain its survival. Similarly, various social structures have its unique features to meet the
needs of the community and provide a stable and balance society. 

Case Study of Structural-Functional Paradigm

The social structures of marriage and family create deep social and emotional bonds that give
individuals in depth systems of support and generate expectations of social responsibility within
their members, achieving the function of creating social cohesion or unity or solidarity.

Basically, spouses or wives or husbands or partners support each other financially, socially,
emotionally and physically and are driven to achieve by socially defined expected standards of
married life.

Families provide the same systems of support for all of their family members, providing healthy
settings and opportunities for individual growth for the children.  

The structural – functionalism perspective sees the family doing its part by preparing its
members in a way that will benefit the society. The family is like a body or system and each
member performs vitally important functions.

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Similarly, the heart is dependent on the lungs and brain for the body to function properly. If one
part or a person is not doing its or his/her part then it is said to be dysfunctional. The family is
said to be not functioning as a whole and something is wrong with that family.

Social-Conflict Paradigm
The social-conflict paradigm or model or pattern is also a macro or large - oriented paradigm.

The social-conflict paradigm is one of the ideas of Karl Marx. He believes that social-conflict is
unavoidable. It is the driving force to improve and progress to a better society. Human beings
compete with each other to acquire the maximum benefits. The social-conflict theory opposes
with the structural-functional theory where the social components work together to stabilize the
society.

A person who poses or fakes powers and resources tend to oppress other groups which are lower
social class and this resulting in social-conflict. One will also be able to force others to accept
his/her views if they have the authority.  Social-conflict not only happens between different
classes, it can also occur in various religious, ethnics, cultural, etc.

The demand of human beings is endless, when the most basic desires are met, new needs will
then emerge. For example, Pacers want to have a bike; Bicyclists want to have a motorbike,
motorcyclists plan to buy a car… etc. The needs and desires of humans are endless causing
humans to work hard every day to fulfil their desires. However, this phenomenon or occurrence
eventually leads to a progressive society because everyone strives to achieve their needs.

Case Study of Social-Conflict Paradigm

A conflict theorist might ask, “Who benefits from the current higher educational system?” The
answer, for a conflict theorist attuned to unequal distributions of wealth, is the wealthy. The
educational system often screens out poorer individuals, not because they are unable to compete
academically, but because they cannot afford to pay for their education. Because the poor are
unable to obtain higher education, they are generally also unable to get higher paying jobs, thus
they remain poor.

The functionalist might say that the function of education is to educate the employees, a conflict
theorist might point out that it also has an element of conflict and inequality, favoring one group
(the wealthy) over other groups (the poor). Thinking about education in this way helps illustrate
why both functionalist and conflict theories are helpful in understanding how society works.

Symbolic-interaction Paradigm
Symbolic-interaction theory focuses on the study of the relationship between the individual and
others. It is a micro or small - level orientation which emphasizes the social interactions between
the individuals in some specific situations.

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As people interact with each other, a person’s self-awareness is the result of the judgment from
the surrounding people. The symbolic-interaction theory advocate humans have their own “self”,
and because of this “self” people play a “role” of others, and they gain the ability to look at
themselves through the eyes of others. 

If one does not have the ability to interact with the people and society, the social stability cannot
be maintained. Because of the shared reality that human created, the human social interaction can
be stable, expand and maintained. George Herbert Mead says that symbolic-interaction has three
characteristics:

1. It has an explanation on the behavior of others;

2. There is a definite process, which means one is ready to tell others when they do
something;
3. Have a prediction on others reaction, which is able to predict what they do will cause
what responses from others. This depends on the interaction between two individuals
have a shared meaning of the symbol system. Mead sees society as an organized
interaction between different individuals, this interactive or collaborative form of
organization depends on the role of the spirit, but also to establish an internal
communication process on the basis of the use of meaningful symbols.

Case Study of Symbolic-Interaction Paradigm

This considers applying symbolic interactionism to the marriage. The things such as,
commitments between spouses, a white bridal dress, a wedding cake, a wedding ceremony, a
wedding band and flowers are the symbols of marriage.

People relate some general meanings to these symbols. For certain individuals, they maintain
their own perceptions of what meaning are these symbols carrying. For instance, one of the
spouses may see their wedding rings as a symbol of “endless love” while the other may just see
them as a simple financial expense. Much faulty communication can result from the perceptions
of different people on the same events and symbols. Besides, the people choose to marry
symbolizes that human beings need a companion for their life. It symbolizes that every
individual needs financially, socially, emotionally and physically supports to lead a balanced and
steady lifetime.

ASSUMPTIONS OF STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONALISM

Structural functionalism makes 7 assumptions. These assumptions focus on several levels of

analysis {society, community, individual, social unit (eg. family, organizations) }: Systems have
a property of order and an interdependence of parts.

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CULTURAL CAPITAL
Cultural capital is the accumulation of knowledge, behaviors, and skills that one can tap into to
demonstrate one's cultural competence, and thus one's social status or standing in society. April
8, 2018

What Is Cultural Capital? Do I Have It? – Thought Co

https://www.thoughtco.com/what-is-cultural-capital-do-i-have-it-3026374

EXAMPLES OF CULTURAL CAPITAL

Examples of cultural capital would include knowledge, skills, and education. Both concepts
remind us that social networks and culture have value. Bourdieu discussed other forms of capital,
including economic and symbolic. Economic capital refers to monetary resources or those with
exchange value, i.e., money. Nov. 14, 2014

Social and Cultural Capital at School

By Sally Raskoff

Have you ever thought about how your social relationships at school (and elsewhere) might help
you in the future?

Social capital, conceptualized by sociologist Pierre Bourdieu, includes economic resources that
one gains from being part of a network of social relationships, including group membership.

Cultural capital, also from Bourdieu, includes non-economic resources that enable social
mobility. Examples of cultural capital would include knowledge, skills, and education. Both
concepts remind us that social networks and culture have value. Bourdieu discussed other forms
of capital, including economic and symbolic.  Economic capital refers to monetary resources or
those with exchange value, i.e., money.

Going to school, whether it is kindergarten through high school or college, generates a potential
to build both social capital and cultural capital. How do we build social capital? We belong to
groups and networks, some of which we may not even be aware.

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What groups or networks might you be part of? Each class you enroll and participate in has both
the teaching professional(s) and other students. Each student club that you may join consists of a
faculty sponsor and other students. Your major and minor academic emphasis may have its own
network or group. The college as a whole offers multiple points of access to social capital. If you
use campus resources such as learning or tutoring centers, programs for students with
disabilities, or those that serve under-represented students, such as the writing center, or financial
aid office.

So, how does being part of all these groups translate into building social capital?

The more immersed you are in that group, the more social capital you can potentially build. If
one only goes into an office once, that is not really group membership. But note how classes
sometimes take on a personality or group identity. Just being a member of a certain college
confers group membership. This is readily apparent at sports competitions with other colleges.
After you graduate, the alumni office will be calling with offers for social engagement and
requests for donations.

When you are part of these groups, you meet the people who are also members. Each office and
person you come into contact with could be a part of your current or future job hunt process. I
have had students who became student workers on campus because they were part of a group on
campus, even if it was just visiting our Writing Center regularly to get help with their written
assignments or the Tutoring Center to get help with class materials.

Being alumna of the University of Southern California, I was a part of quite a few groups when I
was there for graduate school. I was part of the Sociology department, taking classes and
working as a Teaching Assistant. I also worked for the Joint Educational Project, a service-
learning program that had its own house on campus and identity. I made my faculty committee to
oversee my research and that also became a group. All of these entities built social capital for me
as most alerted me to jobs or research grants both during my time at USC and later.

How do we build cultural capital? We engage in activities that generate our knowledge, skills,
and education.

When you are a college student, what you learn in class, in your major and minor academic
degree program, and overall, are all building cultural capital.  How much you engage with the
class materials might determine how much cultural capital you generate.

What if you’re not just taking the class for a grade but want to learn what it offers? You would
then be building cultural capital since you would immerse yourself in the class materials, do the
work with deep thought and preparation, interact with the faculty to understand how you can do
better, seek out additional resources to deepen your understanding of the topic (like the Everyday
Sociology Blog!), and you could access that information for years after, even perhaps for the rest
of your lifetime.  Gaining knowledge, building skills, and getting a true education will change
the way you think, the choices you might make, and what you have learned will become part of
you.

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My own example would show how my cultural capital came from accumulating knowledge and
skills through the many classes I took in my college career, how my major and degrees (BA,
MA, PhD), and my education overall, helped me move into positions that had higher and higher
social rank. Due to the experience I gained in the military, I was working as a computer
consultant a small non-profit organization when I graduated with my BA in sociology and social
work. I continued on to work on an MA in sociology and worked as a research consultant in
marketing research and other projects. When I moved to graduate school, I became a teaching
assistant – a status that is temporary and not necessarily higher than that of my previous jobs –
but then into teaching my own classes. I moved into the status of professor through building my
knowledge and gaining more skill in doing and teaching sociology.

Of course, cultural capital can be built outside formal education. When you read or learn new
information that can also be considered building cultural capital.

Using your experience or that of your colleagues, what other campus groups and networks can
you identify? Using your experience or that of your colleagues, how else might cultural capital
be generated?

Modernization theory
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Modernization theory is used to explain the process of modernization within societies.
Modernization refers to a model of a progressive transition from a 'pre-modern' or 'traditional' to
a 'modern' society. Modernization theory originated from the ideas of German sociologist Max
Weber (1864–1920), which provided the basis for the modernization paradigm developed by
Harvard sociologist Talcott Parsons (1902–1979). The theory looks at the internal factors of a
country while assuming that with assistance, "traditional" countries can be brought to
development in the same manner more developed countries have been. Modernization theory
was a dominant paradigm in the social sciences in the 1950s and 1960s, then went into a deep
eclipse or hide. It made a comeback after 1991 but remains a controversial model.[1]

Origins
Sociological theories of the late 19th century such as Social Darwinism provided a basis for asking
what were the laws of evolution of human society. [4] The current modernization theory originated with
the ideas of German sociologist Max Weber (1864–1920) regarding the role of rationality and
irrationality in the transition from traditional to modern society. Weber's approach provided the basis
for the modernization paradigm as popularized by Harvard sociologist Talcott Parsons (1902–1979),
who translated Weber's works into English in the 1930s and provided his own interpretation. [5][6]
After 1945 the Parsonian version became widely used in sociology and other social sciences. By the
late 1960s opposition developed because the theory was too general and did not fit all societies in
quite the same way.[7]

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Globalization and modernization
Globalization can be defined as the integration of economic, political and social cultures. It is argued
that globalization is related to the spreading of modernization across borders.
Global trade has grown continuously since the European discovery of new continents in the Early
modern period; it increased particularly as a result of the Industrial Revolution and the mid-20th
century adoption of the shipping container.
Annual trans-border tourist arrivals rose to 456 million by 1990 and almost tripled since, reaching a
total of over 1.2 billion in 2016. [8][9] Communication is another major area that has grown due to
modernization. Communication industries have enabled capitalism to spread throughout the world.
Telephony, television broadcasts, news services and online service providers have played a crucial
part in globalization. Former U.S president Lyndon B. Johnson was a supporter of the modernization
theory and believed that television had potential to provide educational tools in development. [10]
With the many apparent positive attributes to globalization there are also negative consequences.
The dominant, neoliberal model of globalization often increases disparities between a society's rich
and its poor.[11][ In major cities of developing countries there exist pockets where technologies of the
modernized world, computers, cell phones and satellite television, exist alongside stark poverty.
Globalists are globalization modernization theorists and argue that globalization is positive for
everyone, as its benefits must eventually extend to all members of society, including vulnerable
groups such as women and children.

Democratization and modernization

The relationship between modernization and democracy is one of the most researched studies in
comparative politics. There is academic debate over the drivers of democracy because there are
theories that support economic growth as both a cause and effect of the institution of democracy.
“Lipset’s observation that democracy is related to economic development, first advanced in 1959,
has generated the largest body of research on any topic in comparative politics,” (Przeworski and
Limongi, 1997).
Larry Diamond and Juan Linz, who worked with Lipset in the book, Democracy in Developing
Countries: Latin America, argue that economic performance affects the development of democracy
in at least three ways. First, they argue that economic growth is more important for democracy than
given levels of socioeconomic development. Second, socioeconomic development generates social
changes that can potentially facilitate democratization. Third, socioeconomic development promotes
other changes, like organization of the middle class, which is conducive to democracy. [12]
As Seymour Martin Lipset put it, "All the various aspects of economic development —
industrialization, urbanization, wealth and education — are so closely interrelated as to form one
major factor which has the political correlate of democracy".[13] The argument also appears in Walt W.
Rostow, Politics and the Stages of Growth (1971); A. F. K. Organski, The Stages of Political
Development (1965); and David Apter, The Politics of Modernization (1965). In the 1960s, some
critics argued that the link between modernization and democracy was based too much on the
example of European history and neglected the Third World.[14] Recent demonstrations of the
emergence of democracy in South Korea, Taiwan and South Africa have been cited as support for
Lipset's thesis.
One historical problem with that argument has always been Germany whose economic
modernization in the 19th century came long before the democratization after 1918. Berman,
however, concludes that a process of democratization was underway in Imperial Germany, for
"during these years Germans developed many of the habits and mores that are now thought by
political scientists to augur healthy political development". [15]

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Ronald Inglehart and Christian Welzel (2009) contend that the realization of democracy is not based
solely on an expressed desire for that form of government, but democracies are born as a result of
the admixture of certain social and cultural factors. They argue the ideal social and cultural
conditions for the foundation of a democracy are born of significant modernization and economic
development that result in mass political participation. [16]
Peerenboom (2008) explores the relationships among democracy, the rule of law and their
relationship to wealth by pointing to examples of Asian countries, such as Taiwan and South Korea,
which have successfully democratized only after economic growth reached relatively high levels and
to examples of countries such as
the Philippines, Bangladesh, Cambodia, Thailand, Indonesia and India, which sought to democratize
at lower levels of wealth but have not done as well. [17]
Adam Przeworski and others have challenged Lipset's argument. They say political regimes do not
transition to democracy as per capita incomes rise. Rather, democratic transitions occur randomly,
but once there, countries with higher levels of gross domestic product per capita remain democratic.
Epstein et al. (2006) retest the modernization hypothesis using new data, new techniques, and a
three-way, rather than dichotomous, classification of regimes. Contrary to Przeworski, this study
finds that the modernization hypothesis stands up well. Partial democracies emerge as among the
most important and least understood regime types.[18]
Highly contentious is the idea that modernization implies more human rights, with China in the 21st
century being a major test case.

Technology
New technology is a major source of social change. (Social change refers to any significant
alteration over time in behavior patterns and cultural values and norms.) Since modernization entails
the social transformation from agrarian societies to industrial ones, it is important to look at the
technological viewpoint; however, new technologies do not change societies by itself. Rather, it is
the response to technology that causes change. Frequently, technology is recognized but not put to
use for a very long time such as the ability to extract metal from rock.[citation needed] Although that initially
went unused, it later had profound implications for the developmental course of societies.
Technology makes it possible for a more innovated society and broad social change. That dramatic
change through the centuries that has evolved socially, industrially, and economically, can be
summed up by the term modernization. Cell phones, for example, have changed the lives of millions
throughout the world. That is especially true in Africa and other parts of the Middle East, where there
is a low cost communication infrastructure. With cell phone technology, widely dispersed populations
are connected, which facilitates business-to-business communication and provides internet access
to remoter areas, with a consequential rise in literacy.

Development and modernization

Development, like modernization, has become the orienting principle of modern times. Countries that
are seen as modern are also seen as developed, which means that they are generally more
respected by institutions such as the United Nations and even as possible trade partners for other
countries. The extent to which a country has modernized or developed dictates its power and
importance on the international level.
Modernization of the health sector of developing nations recognizes that transitioning from
'traditional' to 'modern' is not merely the advancement in technology and the introduction of Western
practices; implementing modern healthcare requires the reorganization of political agenda and, in
turn, an increase in funding by feeders and resources towards public health. However, rather than
replicating the stages of developed nations, whose roots of modernization are found with the context
of industrialization or colonialism, underdeveloped nations should apply proximal interventions to

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target rural communities and focus on prevention strategies rather than curative solutions. That has
been successfully exhibited by the Christian Medical Commission and in China through 'barefoot
doctors'. Additionally, a strong advocate of the DE-emphasis of medical institutions was Halfdan T.
Mahler, the WHOGeneral Director from 1973 to 1988. Related ideas have been proposed at
international conferences such as Alma-Ats and the "Health and Population in Development"
conference, sponsored by the Rockefeller Foundation in Italy in 1979, and selective primary
healthcare and GOBI were discussed (although they have both been strongly criticized by
supporters of comprehensive healthcare). Overall, however, this is not to say that the nations of the
Global South can function independently from Western states; significant funding is received from
well-intention programs, foundations, and charities that target epidemics such as HIV/AIDS, malaria,
and tuberculosis that have substantially improved the lives of millions of people and impeded future
development.[19]
Modernization theorists often saw traditions as obstacles to economic growth. According to Seymour
Martin Lipset, economic conditions are heavily determined by the cultural, social values present in
that given society.[20] Furthermore, while modernization might deliver violent, radical change
for traditional societies, it was thought worth the price. Critics insist that traditional societies were
often destroyed without ever gaining the promised advantages if, among other things, the economic
gap between advanced societies and such societies actually increased. The net effect of
modernization for some societies was therefore the replacement of traditional poverty by a more
modern form of misery, according to these critics.[21] Others point to improvements in living
standards, physical infrastructure, education and economic opportunity to refute such criticisms.

Criticism
From the 1960s, modernization theory has been criticized by numerous scholars, including Andre
Gunder Frank (1929 – 2005)[22] and Immanuel Wallerstein (born 1930).[23] In this model, the
modernization of a society required the destruction of the indigenous culture and its replacement by
a more Westernized one. By one definition, modern simply refers to the present, and any society still
in existence is therefore modern. Proponents of modernization typically view only Western society as
being truly modern and argue that others are primitive or unevolved by comparison. That view sees
unmodernized societies as inferior even if they have the same standard of living as western
societies. Opponents argue that modernity is independent of culture and can be adapted to any
society. Japan is cited as an example by both sides. Some see it as proof that a thoroughly modern
way of life can exist in a non western society. Others argue that Japan has become distinctly more
western as a result of its modernization.
As Tipps has argued, by conflating modernization with other processes, with which theorists use
interchangeably (democratization, liberalization, development), the term becomes imprecise and
therefore difficult to disprove.[24]
The theory has also been criticised empirically, as modernization theorists ignore external sources of
change in societies. The binary between traditional and modern is unhelpful, as the two are linked
and often interdependent, and 'modernization' does not come as a whole.
Modernization theory has also been accused of being Eurocentric, as modernization began in
Europe, with the Industrial Revolution, the French Revolution and the Revolutions of 1848 (Macionis
953) and has long been regarded as reaching its most advanced stage in Europe. Anthropologists
typically make their criticism one step further and say that the view is ethnocentric and is specific
to Western culture.

Dependency theory
One alternative model on the left is Dependency theory. It emerged in the 1950s and argues that the
underdevelopment of poor nations in the Third World derived from systematic imperial and neo-

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colonial exploitation of raw materials. [25] Its proponents argue that resources typically flow from a
"periphery" of poor and underdeveloped states to a "core" of wealthy states, enriching the latter at
the expense of the former. It is a central contention of dependency theorists such as Andre Gunder
Frank that poor states are impoverished and rich ones enriched by the way poor states are
integrated into the "world system".[26]
Dependency models arose from a growing association of southern hemisphere nationalists (from
Latin America and Africa) and Marxists.[27] It was their reaction against modernization theory, which
held that all societies progress through similar stages of development, that today's underdeveloped
areas are thus in a similar situation to that of today's developed areas at some time in the past, and
that, therefore, the task of helping the underdeveloped areas out of poverty is to accelerate them
along this supposed common path of development, by various means such as investment,
technology transfers, and closer integration into the world market. Dependency theory rejected this
view, arguing that underdeveloped countries are not merely primitive versions of developed
countries, but have unique features and structures of their own; and, importantly, are in the situation
of being the weaker members in a world market economy.[28]

Criticism
From the 1960s, modernization theory has been criticized by numerous scholars,
including Andre Gunder Frank (1929 – 2005)[22] and Immanuel Wallerstein (born 1930).[23] In
this model, the modernization of a society required the destruction of the indigenous culture and
its replacement by a more Westernized one. By one definition, modern simply refers to the
present, and any society still in existence is therefore modern. Proponents of modernization
typically view only Western society as being truly modern and argue that others are primitive or
unevolved by comparison. That view sees unmodernized societies as inferior even if they have
the same standard of living as western societies. Opponents argue that modernity is independent
of culture and can be adapted to any society. Japan is cited as an example by both sides. Some
see it as proof that a thoroughly modern way of life can exist in a non western society. Others
argue that Japan has become distinctly more western as a result of its modernization.
As Tipps has argued, by conflating modernization with other processes, with which theorists use
interchangeably (democratization, liberalization, development), the term becomes imprecise and
therefore difficult to disprove.[24]
The theory has also been criticised empirically, as modernization theorists ignore external
sources of change in societies. The binary between traditional and modern is unhelpful, as the
two are linked and often interdependent, and 'modernization' does not come as a whole.
Modernization theory has also been accused of being Eurocentric, as modernization began in
Europe, with the Industrial Revolution, the French Revolution and the Revolutions of
1848 (Macionis 953) and has long been regarded as reaching its most advanced stage in Europe.
Anthropologists typically make their criticism one step further and say that the view is
ethnocentric and is specific to Western culture.
Dependency theory
One alternative model on the left is Dependency theory. It emerged in the 1950s and argues that
the underdevelopment of poor nations in the Third World derived from systematic imperial and
neo-colonial exploitation of raw materials.[25] Its proponents argue that resources typically flow
from a "periphery" of poor and underdeveloped states to a "core" of wealthy states, enriching the
latter at the expense of the former. It is a central contention of dependency theorists such

73
as Andre Gunder Frank that poor states are impoverished and rich ones enriched by the way poor
states are integrated into the "world system".[26]
Dependency models arose from a growing association of southern hemisphere nationalists (from
Latin America and Africa) and Marxists.[27] It was their reaction against modernization theory,
which held that all societies progress through similar stages of development, that today's
underdeveloped areas are thus in a similar situation to that of today's developed areas at some
time in the past, and that, therefore, the task of helping the underdeveloped areas out of poverty
is to accelerate them along this supposed common path of development, by various means such
as investment, technology transfers, and closer integration into the world market. Dependency
theory rejected this view, arguing that underdeveloped countries are not merely primitive
versions of developed countries, but have unique features and structures of their own; and,
importantly, are in the situation of being the weaker members in a world market economy.[28]

LEGITIMACY THEORY
Legitimacy theory is derived from the concept of organizational legitimacy, which has been defined by
Dowling and Pfeffer (1975, p. 122) as: ... Legitimacy theory posits that organisations continually seek to
ensure that they operate within the bounds and norms of their respective societies.

Are desirable, proper, or appropriate within some socially constructed system of. norms, values, beliefs,
and definitions” (Suchman, 1995, p. 574, emphasis in original) Legitimacy theory has become one of the
most cited theories within the social and environmental accounting area.

Institutional theory is a theory on the deeper and more resilient aspects of social structure. It
considers the processes by which structures, including schemes, rules, norms, and routines,
become established as authoritative guidelines for social behavior.

Institutional theory - Wikipedia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institutional_theory

UGANDAS EDUCATION SYSTEMS

1. To ensure universal and equitable access to quality basic education for all children through:
Early Childhood Care and Development for children up to 8 years.

Mission and Objectives - Ministry of Education and Sports

www.education.go.ug/data/smenu/1/Mission%20and%20Objectives%20.html

This goal ensures that all girls and boys complete free primary and secondary schooling by 2030.
It also aims to provide equal access to affordable vocational training, to eliminate gender and
wealth disparities, and achieve universal access to a quality higher education.

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Goal 4: Quality education | UNDP in Uganda
www.ug.undp.org/content/uganda/en/home/...goals/goal-4-quality-education.html

Achieving inclusive and quality education for all reaffirms the belief that education is one of
the most powerful and proven vehicles for sustainable development. This goal ensures that all
girls and boys complete free primary and secondary schooling by 2030.

Goal 4: Quality education | UNDP in Uganda

www.ug.undp.org/content/uganda/en/home/...goals/goal-4-quality-education.html

THE AIMS OF EDUCATION IN UGANDA

The aim/purpose of education is to grow children into productive citizens that use their
knowledge, talents, and learned skills to sustain themselves and help others while pushing the
human race forward in areas of equality, equity, and harmony.

What is the main aim of education? - Quora

https://www.quora.com/What-is-the-main-aim-of-education

Meaning, Nature and Aims of Education. ... For a civilized and socialized society, education is
the only means. Its goal is to make an individual perfect. Every society gives importance
to education because it is a panacea for all evils. It is the key to solve the various problems of
life. Mar 26, 2012

Meaning, Nature and Aims of Education | John Parankimalil

https://johnparankimalil.wordpress.com/2012/.../meaning-nature-and-aims-of-education/

SYSTEM OF EDUCATION IN UGANDA

The system of education in Uganda has a structure of 7 years of primary education, 6 years of
secondary education (divided into 4 years of lower secondary and 2 years of upper secondary
school), and 3 to 5 years of post-secondary education.

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Education in Uganda - Wikipedia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education_in_Uganda

The government of Uganda recognizes education as a basic human right and continues to strive
to provide free primary education to all children in the country, however, issues with
funding, teacher training, rural populations, and inadequate facilities continue to hinder the
progress of educational development in Uganda means that education systems aren't the best.[1]

The Responsibilities Of the Ministry of Education

The responsibilities of Ministry of Education shall include the following:

1. To draw up strategies, policies and plans for educational reform and development; and to draft
relevant rules and regulations, and supervise their implementation.

2. To take charge of the overall planning, coordination and management of all forms of
education at various levels; to formulate, in collaboration with relevant departments, the
standards for the setting-up of schools of all types at various levels; to guide the reform of
education and teaching methods; and to take charge of the statistics, analysis, and release of
basic educational information.

3. To promote all-round development of compulsory education and equitable education; to take

charge of the macro-guidance and coordination of compulsory education; and to direct the
regular senior secondary education, pre-school education, and special education.

To lay down requirements for and basic documents for teaching in elementary education; to
organize the examination and approval of unified course materials for elementary education; and
to carry on quality-oriented education in an all-round way.

4. To provide guidance for the supervision over education nationwide, organize and direct the
inspection and evaluation of the implementation of the nine-year compulsory education and the
literacy campaign among the young and the middle-aged, and to monitor the quality and level of
the development of elementary education.

5. To provide guidance for the development and reform of employment-oriented vocational

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education; to formulate the curriculum catalogues for secondary vocational education,
documents for the guidance of teaching, and standards of teaching assessment; to enhance the
compiling of teaching materials for secondary vocational education and to improve the
occupational counselling.

6. To direct the development and reform of higher education, and further deepen the reform of
the administrative system of universities under the direct affiliation of the Ministry of Education.

To formulate the curriculum catalogues and documents for the guidance of teaching; to examine
and verify, in collaboration with relevant departments, the establishment, renaming, abolishment
and adjustment of higher education institutions; to undertake the implementation and
coordination of Project 211 and Project 985; to direct and coordinate all forms of higher
education and continuing education; and to provide guidance for the improvement of the
assessment of the higher education.

7. To take charge of the overall management of the educational funds under the jurisdiction of
this Ministry, take part in formulating policies for the raising and allocation of educational funds,
and capital investment in construction for educational purposes, and to prepare statistics of the
funds for education across the country.

8. To plan and direct the educational work for the ethnic minority groups, and to coordinate the
educational aids to the ethnic minority groups and ethnic minority areas.

9. To direct the work of ideology and political education, moral, physical, health, arts, and
national defence education in all types of schools at various levels; and to direct the construction
of the Party in institutions of higher learning.

10. To administer teachers’ work; to formulate and supervise the implementation of the standards
for qualification for teachers of various types and at various levels together in collaboration with
relevant departments; and to direct the training of people for the education system.

11. To manage the entrance examination for academic credentials for higher education and the
administration of records of students’ enrolment status; to make recruitment plans for higher
education in collaboration with relevant departments; to take part in drawing up the employment

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policies for college and university graduates; and to direct regular colleges and universities in
their work to facilitate the graduates’ job hunting and starting of their own businesses.

12. To plan and guide the research by institutions of higher education in natural sciences,
philosophy and social sciences; to coordinate and guide the institutions of higher education to
take part in developing the national innovation system, and undertake the State’s key projects
and programs for the development of science and technology; to guide the construction and
development of the scientific and technological innovation of institutions of higher education; to
direct the informatisation of education and promote the integration of production, teaching and
research.

13. To organize and guide international educational exchanges and cooperation; to formulate
policies of programs for Chinese students studying abroad and foreign students studying in
China, joint educational programs by Chinese and foreign educational institutions, and the
management of schools for the children of foreign nationals. To plan, coordinate and direct the
work of promoting the Chinese language in the world. To carry out educational cooperation and
exchanges with Hong Kong, Macao and Taiwan.

14. To formulate guidelines and policies for the nationwide standardisation and promotion of the
spoken and written Chinese language; to compile medium and long-term plans for the
development of the Chinese language; to formulate standards and criteria for Chinese and
languages of ethnic minority groups and to organize and coordinate the supervision and the
examination of the implementation of the standards and criteria; to direct the popularization of
Putonghua and the training of teachers of Putonghua.

15. To take charge of the work of the conferring of academic degrees; to be responsible for the
implementation of the conferral system for academic degrees; to be responsible for the work
towards international reciprocity in academic degrees, mutual recognition of academic degrees
and so on.　

16. To coordinate between the State departments and the UNESCO for cooperation in education,
science and technology, culture and other areas; to take charge of the liaison of the State
departments with the UNESCO Secretariat and relevant institutions and organizations.　　　　

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17. To carry out other work assigned by the State Council.

Grade Repetition and Primary School Dropout in Uganda

Kabay, Sarah
Harvard Educational Review, v86 n4 p580-606 Win 2016
Research on education in low-income countries rarely focuses on grade repetition. When
addressed, repetition is typically presented along with early school dropout as the "wasting" of
educational resources. Simplifying grade repetition in this way often fails to recognize
significant methodological concerns and also overlooks the unique insight that can be gained by
focusing on repetition. In this article, Sarah Kabay uses mixed methods research to investigate
repetition and its association with later school dropout in Ugandan primary schools. In a
representative sample of pupils from 136 schools, Kabay finds that in spite of a policy of
automatic promotion meant to limit repetition, 88 percent of pupils had repeated a grade and 11
percent had repeated three or more times. Kabay identifies age as a confounding variable for the
association between repetition and dropout, and argues that attention should be drawn to the age
of entry into schooling and language policy.
DEFINITION OF DROPOUT
In the United States, dropping out most commonly refers to a student quitting school before he
or she graduates or avoiding entering a university or college. It cannot always be ascertained that
a student has dropped out, as he or she may stop attending without terminating enrollment.
General Causes of High School Dropouts
Academic Failure. Struggling in school on a daily basis is the biggest reason most
students choose to drop out of high school. ...
Attendance/Preparation. Students must attend school consistently. ...
Disengagement. Source. ...
Pregnancy. ...
Financial Difficulties. ...
Mental Illness. ...
Drug Use/Addiction. ...
Disabilities.
Dropout Factors
Kids drop out of school for a variety of personal reasons. These factors include information
researchers have gathered over decades and why kids say they dropped out. Generally, kids from
low-income families are met with higher stress levels, lower quality accommodations, and a
perceived absence of resources which is why this segment of the population is most at risk for

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dropping out.
Frustrated teenage student Low-income families - Parents who work long hours or are
uneducated themselves may be unavailable to make sure teens go to school or help them with
homework. Kids in low-income families may also not have access to resources needed to
complete work at home.
Disabilities - Teens with physical or learning disabilities may not receive the help they need to
give them confidence in their own abilities.
English as a second language - Kids who have trouble understanding teachers or whose teachers
have trouble communicating with them may feel less confident in their ability to complete
school.
Academic underachievement - Teens who aren't performing well academically may be
unmotivated to work harder or may develop low self-esteem.
Social problems - Kids who are bullied or have trouble making friends may not want to stay in
school.
Mental health concerns - Depression, anxiety and other mental health issues can make it difficult
for kids to cope with a demanding school environment.
Drug and alcohol abuse - Teens under the influence aren't able to make sound decisions or
function in a typical manner in public.

Academic Failure
Struggling in school on a daily basis is the biggest reason most students choose to drop out of
high school. For example, according to the Anne E. Casey Foundation by America's Promise,
children who are not reading proficiently by fourth grade are four times more likely to quit high
school than their peers. Since reading is required for everything in higher grades, the lower the
reading level the harder time a student will have in school. For example, if John has trouble
reading then history, math, social studies, etc. will become more difficult increasing the
likelihood of failing classes. Discouraged, John might drop out of school since he doesn't feel it
is getting him anywhere, anyway.

Early Reading Interventions

Early intervention is crucial in keeping kids engaged, successful, and in school.
Parents, teachers, and administrators should be on the lookout for students who
are struggling with core courses, especially in the elementary years. Reading Partners points out
different strategies that parents and teachers can use to try to improve reading levels, like shared
reading, keeping books accessible, encouraging reading and one-on-one reading interventions.

Attendance/Preparation
Students must attend school consistently. A study done of public schools students in Utahshowed

80
that chronic absenteeism of even 1 year from 8 to 12 grade lead to a seven-fold increase in
dropping out. Chronic absenteeism is also blamed for students falling behind. Additionally,
absenteeism spikes in high school students.

Improving Attendance
Schools must carefully monitor attendance and notify parents immediately if students are
missing school on a regular basis. Aggressive persistence, teacher support, and engaging parents
could be the key to making sure students show up for school and stay there.

Disengagement

Often, students disengage from learning, feeling that their teachers do not care
for the course material or understand how to connect it to real life. Students who
are not involved with their school have a high chance of dropping out. According
to a study by the High School Survey of Student Engagement, at least 65% of
students are bored at least once a day. Additionally, over half of dropouts list
boredom as the reason for leaving school.

Engaging Minds
High schools need to seek a variety of activities to help engage all students. For
example, School Leaders Now points out that schools can try offering multiple
modes to graduation since everyone learns differently, along with more career
and technical classes since these can be more interesting to students. Learning
how to build a website can not only give a teen a career but keep them engaged in
school studies. In addition, schools, teachers, and administrators need to seek to
create a community atmosphere to help students feel as if they belong. Parents
can help by encouraging students to get involved in activities and develop talents
and outside interests besides academics.

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Pregnancy
Managing a healthy teen pregnancy while staying in school is extremely difficult.
According to the Child Trends, only about 53% of teen moms get their high
school diploma. The high dropout trend of teen mothers comes down to a lack of
support and child services that are offered. Additionally, these mothers need
financial means to raise a child which can be difficult while going to school.

Getting Support
Some ideas to help pregnant students include alternative high school options,
such as part-day or online courses. High school counselors can be of great
assistance in preventing pregnant students from dropping out of high school. In
addition, some schools offer in-school daycare for teen moms.

Financial Difficulties
According to a study by the National Center of Education Statistics, students with
low family incomes have the highest dropout rates at 9.4%. This is because many
times these children need to get a job rather than going to school so they can help
to support their families.

Getting Assistance
Creative options exist for students who must earn money while in school,
including work-study programs (students can earn credit for working part-time
jobs) and online programs for students to take classes when they aren't at work.
In addition, families may be eligible for financial resources. Communication with
school administrators on the impact of financial difficulties can provide a range
of options that will assist the family and keep the student in school.

Mental Illness
According to a Canadian study, those students with depression were twice as
likely to drop out of high school. This is because their illness can affect their
ability to learn and their engagement. These students also tend to go unnoticed
because their condition might be chalked up to being a teenager.

Eradicating the Stigma

Much like any other disease, knowing the warning signs of a mental illness can be
crucial to helping teens before they drop out. Finding services that can help to
treat their conditions, along with counseling services can make all the difference.

Drug Use/Addiction
Drug use among teens is a big problem. While it reached its lowest levels in
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2017, the rates of drug users in high school are still high. The National Center of
Drug Use and Health noted that 58.6 percent of dropouts were drug users. This is
compared to 22% of those still in school. As teens start using drugs or become
addicted not only does their engagement worsen but they start to miss more
school leading to them not coming at all.

Curbing the Drug Epidemic

Fixing the problem starts with educating students on drugs and the effects of
drugs. Teachers and parents can also work together diligently to watch for the
warning signs of drug use in teens. Additionally, it isn't just street drugs that need
to be worried about, communities and parents must also discuss the dangers
of abusing prescription drugs as well.

Disabilities
Students with disabilities, whether they are physical or emotional, have a harder
time in school. And it shows. According to a 2015 study, only about 62% of
students with disabilities graduate. Depending on their disability, it can not only
be harder for them to maneuver around the school, but they can become isolated
as well.

Interventions
Interventions are key to improving school life for students with disabilities
Schools might need to add physical aids for children with physical disabilities,
along with specific interventions for those with emotional/behavior issues. Not
only can administrators, teachers and parents work together, but it can be helpful
to get the community involved.

The Tough Choice: Staying In School

Staying in school is a choice. While there are numerous reasons that kids drop
out, programs and interventions can help to bring students back whether they are
bored or abusing drugs. Finding the right treatment option is key to getting our
kids back on the road to success.

Potential Causes of School Violence

You've seen school violence on television news broadcasts; large tragedies like the
recent Stoneman Douglas shooting are quite difficult to forget. However, school
violence can also encompass bullying and seemingly insignificant behaviors that
add up to teens feeling unsafe at school. School violence is a dangerous issue
because it can be difficult to highlight exactly what causes it.

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Challenges in the Education sector
The challenges facing the education sector include the following:

1. The  3.2%  growth of population per annual  is  creating an ever increasing pressure on
budget resources.
2. Weak institutional alignment.
3. Low utilization of ICT.
4. Inadequate budgetary resources allocation.
5. Primary children progressing to secondary school is still a problem.
6. Capacity gap in Education sector.
7. Inadequate infrastructure resulting in quality challenges.
8. Inadequate sports facilities.

TEACHER EDUCATION AND TRAINING

Teacher Training Education Project

Following the Universal Primary Education (UPE 1997) and the Universal Post-Primary
Education and Training (UPPET 2007) reforms, access to education has substantially increased
in Uganda. This has led to the expansion of existing schools and establishment of more primary,
secondary and tertiary institutions. These gains have made a profound contribution to improving
the education sector nationwide. However, there is a growing concern on the declining quality of
education due to the massive influx of students in existing schools. In this context, providing
teachers capable of delivering high quality education is crucial to improving the education sector
and fulfilling the United Nations Sustainable Goal 4 which is, "To ensure equitable and inclusive
quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all."

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In order to achieve this objective, the Government of Uganda received a grant from the Kingdom
of Belgium to finance the Ugandan-Belgian project entitled Teacher Training Education (TTE)
Project. The project is jointly executed by the Ministry of Education and Sports (MoES) and the
Belgian Development Agency (Enabel).

The first phase of the project was initiated in 2012-2017 for a period of 5 years and made
considerable gains and improvements in teacher education within National Teachers' Colleges. In
order to build on these gains, the second phase of project was launched in 2017-2021 for a period
of 4 years.

OBJECTIVE AND SCOPE OF WORK

The Teacher Training Education Project seeks to strengthen professional competencies of
teacher trainers and future teachers graduating from the National Teachers' Colleges (NTCs) in
Uganda with a specific emphasis on secondary teacher education.

To reach its objective, the project defined a strategy to address three main areas:

Institutional development component: to strengthen the colleges and MoES central

departments (TIET, CMU, PDU) management systems.
Infrastructure component: to rehabilitate, expand and equip the college facilities.
Pedagogy component: to improve the quality of teaching and learning in the colleges and
partner secondary schools.

Teacher Education

The teacher/tutor, instructor education and training department has a cross-cutting function that serves the need of all

Technical/ Vocational needs of the Ministry of Education & Sports. The  department is responsible for the training of: 

Teachers of primary and secondary schools 

Tutors of Primary Teachers' Colleges &  Health training institutions 
Instructors of Technical Training institutions 
Lectures for specialized training institutions including National Teachers' Colleges, Colleges of Commerce
and Technical Colleges among others.

The mission of the department is: "To provide support, guide, coordinate, regulate and promote

quality  teacher, tutor and instructor education for production of adequate, competent  and ethical teachers,

tutors and instructors".

TIET is mainly responsible for policy, control and maintenance standards through control of teacher education

curriculum program activities and examinations (The Education and Sports sector Annual Performance report, 2011).

This arrangement enhances flexibility, transparency and accountability and allows Teacher / Tutor, Instructor college

85
administrators to contextualize policies and information from the centre for effective implementation.

  The specific  objectives of The Teacher/Tutor, Instructor Education & Training Department  is to: 
Make Teacher/Tutor, Instructor Education & Training responsive to the needs of the education sector by
ensuring that Teachers/Tutors and Instructors are available in adequate numbers and of the right caliber and quality.
Make the Teacher/Tutor, Instructor preparation environment conducive to promote quality, efficiency and
effectiveness. 
Develop in teachers, Tutors and Instructors the  attitude and qualities needed for participation in techno-
cultural environment;  ability to teach, instruct and educate others; an awareness of the principals  that govern orderly
human relations within and across national boundaries; a  sense of responsibility to contribute both by teaching and
example to social,  cultural and economic progress; and by acquiring through training skills  relevant to the provision
of an enabling learning environment for  pupils/students/trainees. 
Improve the quality of the staff for the Teacher/Tutor, Instructor Education sub-sector.
Strengthen the Teacher/Tutor, Instructor colleges' staff, primary, secondary and technical school teachers
and head teachers, instructors and head instructors, health tutors and Principals of Health training schools,
Governing Councils, School Management Committees and Boards of Governors support system.

TIET department has three divisions; Pre-primary and Primary Teacher Education, Secondary Teacher Education

and Instructor and Tutor divisions. The department is headed by a Commissioner who is responsible for all teacher

development programs, including in-service and pre-service training. Each division is headed by an Assistant

Commissioner.  The structure of the department is as presented below:

Key outputs of the TIET department. 

Appropriate policies, plans and guidelines in  respect of Teacher/Tutor & Instructor education 

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 Adequate and well trained Teachers/Tutors &  Instructors 
Effective and efficient organization and  management of teacher education institutions and training colleges 
Timely advice on resource requirements for Teacher, Tutor & Instructor education.

Uganda
“In the college we learn to teach reading in English, but I prefer to teach reading in Luganda because most
children of lower primary age come to school when they are competent in it." 
Trainee teacher, Uganda

Main features of teacher education

There are 47 primary teachers colleges (PTCs) in Uganda; 45 are owned and funded by the government and 2
are owned by faith-based bodies. 23 of the government colleges are core institutions that run both pre- and in-
service programs and 22 are non-core institutions that have only pre-service programs.

The minimum entry requirement is O Level with pass in 6 subjects including mathematics, English and at least
two sciences.  Applicants can join only within 2 years of taking their O Level. This makes the average age of
entrants 17 years old.  A Level is considered an additional qualification because this background is perceived
to be far removed from the immediate needs of a primary school. It is believed that A Level leavers cannot be
interested in primary teacher training, otherwise they would have applied to join a college with the minimum
qualification. An Assistant Commissioner in the Department of Teacher Education (DTE) at the Ministry of
Education and Sports (MoES) says, “Those who wait too long are not first choice applicants and do not make
the best teachers”. Some students join PTCs as an alternative to the higher school certificate (HSC)
programme, either because they missed the grades, or because their parents cannot afford the fees for HSC. 

The government requires each college to have 450 students. However, in reality, some colleges have a much
smaller population while a few others fill beyond this expectation.  Overall the teacher training programme is
overseen by the DTE which articulates the policies, processes appointments and supervises the college
administration and professional development programmes.  The pre-service programme consists of two years
of training in content and pedagogy, with three school practice periods of 8 weeks each.  A government grant of
USh 1,500 per student per day is paid to each college to cover the running expenses of the pre-service
programme.  In-service students follow the programme for four years. They attend college during school
holidays, take school practice twice, and must pay their fees. 

A uniform curriculum is taught across the colleges, generated by Kyambogo University which has the mandate
for primary teacher education. The curriculum consists of Professional Studies, Mathematics, Language,
Science, Social Studies and Cultural Studies.  Trainees are trained to teach all subjects on the primary school
curriculum.  Kyambogo University also trains tutors, moderates and monitors college examinations. 

Trainees take promotional examinations at the end of Year One which determine their progress to Year Two. 
Students qualify with a Grade III Teacher Certificate, the basic requirement for a primary teaching post.  On

87
completion, a new teacher should be able to teach English, Mathematics, Science, Performing Arts, Production
Skills and Art & Craft at any level.  This approach differs from the practice in schools - teachers are deployed to
teach specific subjects and class levels depending on a school’s needs and the perceived ability of the
teacher. 

Tutors are trained by Kyambogo University and are now required to have a degree in Education. Practicing
tutors who hold only the Diploma in Teacher Education (DTE) are encouraged to upgrade their qualifications.
All tutors teach according to subjects of specialization. In most colleges they are present for two to three days
per week – when they are timetabled – being “allowed” by the college administrations to stay away the rest of
the week and “make ends meet”.  

Continuous professional development (CPD) programs are predominantly the responsibility of DTE through the
Teacher Development and Management System (TDMS) structures and are entrusted to Coordinating Centre
Tutors (CCTs) who are part of the college staff but are deployed to coordinating centres (CCs).  CCTs train the
teachers in various areas that they identify in consultation with head teachers and teachers in the CC schools. 
CC activities are funded at the average rate of USh 6000 per day per participant, for transportation and
feeding.  Currently there are 570 CCs in the country but some are not staffed by CCTs and this means that not
all teachers are reached with CPD programmes.  MoES often works with the cascade approach to CPD,
intending that tutors pass on skills and competences to teacher trainees, which often does not happen.  NGOs
and education funding agencies also play a role in CPD, especially by supporting entry/implementation of
innovations or interventions through the teacher’s college.

Challenges and opportunities

There are several challenges in primary teacher education today but some are more pressing than others. 
Among the latter are the challenges of limited government funding, the period of training and the absence of a
unified continuous professional development program.  These are linked and it is difficult to describe them
separately.  Many stakeholders feel that two years is inadequate for effective exposure to the theoretical
content of all the subjects taught and involvement in the practicum.  This is made worse by the funding.
Government pays small grants to colleges to cater for the programs, which cannot support tutors’ full
involvement in programs beyond their engagement with trainees in the classroom.  Since the colleges cannot
offer allowances, and the tutors have personal and family responsibilities to cater for, many go to work only
when they are expected in class.  Thus, the trainees interact with their tutors in structured space and lesson
activity and see little else of them.  Practicing teachers would have hoped to gain from professional
development programs but the current ones are considered fragmented and lack a systematic approach.

One major opportunity for improving the system lies in the widespread concern about the quality of teachers
and of teaching and learning, especially in the context of basic education. Another opportunity is the quest for
answers to the poor teaching of reading and mathematics in primary school.  A third is linked to respect for
research as a ground for informing practice.  The stakeholders we have reached so far subscribe to the belief

88
that quality of learning depends in large measure on teacher quality, and that children’s effective learning is a
justification for the funding input into basic education.

Research team
Lead Researcher:

 Dr Robinah Kyeyune

Teacher recruitment, deployment and retention in

Uganda's Secondary schools
Prompted by inequitable distribution of teachers in Secondary Schools, this study focused on an
analysis of the process for recruiting, deployment and retention of Secondary School teachers in
Uganda.
The study relied on cross-sectional survey design and used descriptive statistics in which both
qualitative and quantitative methods were used to collect data.
Data was collected from six districts selected from Northwestern, Eastern, South western and
Central regions of Uganda. The districts were Arua, Iganga, Kampala Masaka, Mbale and Mbarara.
The respondents included teachers, Head teachers, officials from the Ministry of Education and
Sports (MoES), Minstry of Public Service (MoPS), Education Service Commission (ESC) and District
Education Officers.
The findings showed that although the structure governing recruitment, deployment and retention
are in place, there remains a problem: the teaching jobs for Secondary School teachers are rarely
advertised, the recruitment policy was not documented and there was no regular schedule regarding
teacher recruitment. As a result, many people felt that there was no merit in recruitment.
Secondly, findings showed lack of clear criteria for deployment of teachers. Teachers were
dissatisfied with deployment practices and deployment as it was marred with nepotism.
Thirdly retention remains a problem because of unsatisfactory working environment, unclear reward
system and pay. Teachers were not aware of the upgrading policy.
In conclusion, although there are policies on recruitment, deployment and retention, these are hardly
used. This in turn has caused mistrust in the processes of recruitment and deployment. The study
recommends that the MoES and ESC should initiate recruitment schedule for teachers as well as
hiring a reputable organization to streamline the recruitment process in Uganda. In addition, the
MoES should control the training of teachers and apply the market system of teacher deployment by
letting teachers apply for posts in specific schools rather than posting them.
The MoES and ESC should ensure that there is a regular schedule for transfers of teachers. The
MoES and school administrators should initiate a vote in the staff development budget scheme for
contractural sponsoring for upgrading of teachers.
Alternatively, the MoES should support extension of soft loans to willing teachers specifically for
professional upgrading. The MoES and School Administrators should improve on the working
conditions of teachers as well as raising salaries.
URI
http://hdl.handle.net/10570/3739

89
Collections

 School of Education (SEd.) Collections

History
Kyambogo University was established in 2003 by the Universities and Other Tertiary Institutions Act
2001 by merging Uganda Polytechnic Kyambogo (UPK), the Institute of Teacher Education,
Kyambogo (ITEK), and the Uganda National Institute of Special Education (UNISE). [3]

Uganda Polytechnic Kyambogo

In 1928 the trade and technical courses at Makerere College (now Makerere University) were split
off into the new Kampala Technical School.[4] The school moved to Nakawa and became the
Kampala Technical Institute.[5] In 1958 that school was moved to Kyambogo renamed Uganda
Technical College and then was finally renamed Uganda Polytechnic, Kyambogo.

Institute of Teacher Education, Kyambogo

ITEK started as a government teacher training college in 1948 at Nyakasura, Kabarole District. In
1954, it transferred to Kyambogo Hill as a national teachers’ college and later became ITEK by
statute of parliament in 1989. [6]

Uganda National Institute of Special Education

UNISE was affiliated to the Department of Special Education at the faculty of education of Makerere
University, becoming an autonomous institution by Act of Parliament in 1998.

Campus[edit]
The university campus is located on Kyambogo Hill, approximately 8 kilometres (5 mi), by road,
[7]
 east of the central business district of Kampala, the capital city of Uganda.[8]

Organization and administration[edit]

As of January 2012,, Kyambogo University had six faculties and one school: [9]

 Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences

 Faculty of Education
 Faculty of Engineering
 Faculty of Science
 Faculty of Special Needs & Rehabilitation
 Faculty of Vocational Studies
 School of Management & Entrepreneurship

Notable academics[edit]
 John Ssebuwufu - Chemist, academic, and academic administrator. Chancellor of Kyambogo
University since 19 February 2014.[10]
 Elly Katunguka - Veterinarian, academic, and academic administrator - Vice chancellor of
Kyambogo University since 13 February 2014.[2][11]

90
NON GOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS (NGOs)
While the term "NGO" has various interpretations, it is generally accepted to include private
organizations that operate without government control and that are non-profit and non-criminal.
Other definitions further clarify NGOs as associations that are non-religious and non-military.
Jan 8, 2018.
What is an NGO (Non-Governmental Organization)? - Investopedia
https://www.investopedia.com/ask/answers/13/what-is-non-government-organization.asp

Non-governmental organization
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigationJump to search
"NGO" redirects here. For other uses, see NGO (disambiguation).

H.E. Pekka Haavisto, Minister for International Development of the Ministry for Foreign Affairs
in Finland at the first World NGO Day, Helsinki, Finland in 2014
Non-governmental organizations, nongovernmental[1] organizations, or nongovernment
organizations,[2][3] commonly referred to as NGOs,[4] are usually non-profit and sometimes
international organizations[5] independent of governments and international governmental
organizations (though often funded by governments)[6] that are active in humanitarian,
educational, health care, public policy, social, human rights, environmental, and other areas to
affect changes according to their objectives.[7][8][9][10] They are thus a subgroup of all organizations
founded by citizens, which include clubs and other associations that provide services, benefits,
and premises only to members. Sometimes the term is used as a synonym of "civil society
organization" to refer to any association founded by citizens,[11] but this is not how the term is
normally used in the media or everyday language, as recorded by major dictionaries. The
explanation of the term by NGO.org (the non-governmental organizations associated with the
United Nations) is ambivalent or unsure or uncertain. It first says an NGO is any non-profit,
voluntary citizens' group which is organized on a local, national or international level, but then
goes on to restrict the meaning in the sense used by most English speakers and the media: Task-
oriented and driven by people with a common interest, NGOs perform a variety of service and
humanitarian functions, bring citizen concerns to Governments, advocate and monitor policies
and encourage political participation through provision of information.[12]
NGOs are usually funded by donations, but some avoid formal funding altogether and are run
91
primarily by volunteers. NGOs are highly diverse groups of organizations engaged in a wide
range of activities, and take different forms in different parts of the world. Some may have
charitable status, while others may be registered for tax exemption based on recognition of social
purposes. Others may be fronts for political, religious, or other interests. Since the end of World
War II, NGOs have had an increasing role in international development,[13] particularly in the
fields of humanitarian assistance and poverty alleviation.[14]
The number of NGOs worldwide is estimated to be 10 million.[15] Russia had about 277,000
NGOs in 2008.[16] India is estimated to have had around 2 million NGOs in 2009, just over one
NGO per 600 Indians, and many times the number of primary schools and primary health centers
in India.[17][18] China is estimated to have approximately 440,000 officially registered NGOs.
[19]
 About 1.5 million domestic and foreign NGOs operated in the United States in 2017.[11]
The term 'NGO' is not always used consistently. In some countries the term NGO is applied to an
organization that in another country would be called an NPO (non-profit organization), and vice
versa. Political parties and trade unions are considered NGOs only in some countries. There are
many different classifications of NGO in use. The most common focus is on "orientation" and
"level of operation". An NGO's orientation refers to the type of activities it takes on. These
activities might include human rights, environmental, improving health, or development work.
An NGO's level of operation indicates the scale at which an organization works, such as local,
regional, national, or international.[20]
The term "non-governmental organization" was first coined or invented or created in 1945, when
the United Nations (UN) was created.[21] The UN, itself an intergovernmental organization, made
it possible for certain approved specialized international non-state agencies — i.e., non-
governmental organizations — to be awarded observer status at its assemblies and some of its
meetings. Later the term became used more widely. Today, according to the UN, any kind of
private organization that is independent from government control can be termed an "NGO",
provided it is not-for-profit, non-prevention,[clarification needed] but not simply an opposition political
party.
One characteristic these diverse organizations share is that their non-profit status means they are
not hindered by short-term financial objectives. Accordingly, they are able to devote themselves
to issues which occur across longer time horizons, such as climate change, malaria prevention, or
a global ban on landmines. Public surveys reveal that NGOs often enjoy a high degree of public
trust, which can make them a useful - but not always sufficient - proxy for the concerns of
society and stakeholders.[22]

HISTORY OF NGOs
Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) as we know them today are generally thought
to have come into existence around the mid-nineteenth century. It was only about a
century later that the importance of NGOs was officially recognized by the United

92
Nations. At the UN Congress in San Francisco in 1968, a provision was made in Article
71 of the Charter of the United Nations framework that qualified NGOs in the field of
economic and social development to receive consultative status with the Economic and
Social Council.

The development of modern NGOs has largely mirrored that of general world history,
particularly after the Industrial Revolution. NGOs have existed in some form or another
as far back as 25,000 years ago. Since 1850, more than 100,000 private, not-for-profit
organizations with an international focus have been founded. The growth of NGOs really
took off after the Second World War, with about 90 international NGOs founded each
year, compared with about 10 each year in the 1890s. Only about 30 percent of early
international NGOs have survived, although those organizations founded after the wars
have had a better survival rate. Many more NGOs with a local, national or regional focus
have been created, though like their international counterparts, not all have survived or
have been successful.

International non-governmental organizations have a history dating back to at least

1839. It has been estimated that by 1914 there were 1083 NGOs. International NGOs
were important in the anti-slavery movement and the movement for women’s suffrage,
and reached a peak at the time of the World Disarmament Conference. However, the
phrase “non-governmental organization” only came into popular use with the
establishment of the United Nations Organization in 1945 with provisions in Article 71
of Chapter 10 of the United Nations Charter for a consultative role for organizations
which are neither governments nor member states-see Consultative Status. The
definition of “international NGO” (INGO) is first given in resolution 288 (X) of ECOSOC
on February 27, 1950: it is defined as “any international organization that is not founded
by an international treaty”. The vital role of NGOs and other “major groups” in
sustainable development was recognized in Chapter 27 of Agenda 21, leading to intense
arrangements for a consultative relationship between the United Nations and non-
governmental organizations.

Rapid development of the non-governmental sector occurred in western countries as a

result of the processes of restructuring of the welfare state. Further globalization of that
process occurred after the fall of the communist system and was an important part of
the Washington consensus.

Globalization during the 20th century gave rise to the importance of NGOs. Many
problems could not be solved within a nation. International treaties and international
organizations such as the World Trade Organization were perceived as being too
centered on the interests of capitalist enterprises. Some argued that in an attempt to
counterbalance this trend, NGOs have developed to emphasize humanitarian issues,

93
developmental aid and sustainable development. A prominent example of this is the
World Social Forum, which is a rival convention to the World Economic Forum held
annually in January in Davos, Switzerland. The fifth World Social Forum in Porto Alegre,
Brazil, in January 2005 was attended by representatives from more than 1,000 NGOs.
Some have argued that in forums like these, NGOs take the place of what should belong
to popular movements of the poor. Others argue that NGOs are often imperialist in
nature, that they sometimes operate in a racialized manner in third world countries, and
that they fulfill a similar function to that of the clergy during the high colonial era. The
philosopher Peter Hallward argues that they are an aristocratic form of politics.
Whatever the case, NGO transnational networking is now extensive.

HISTORY OF NGOs IN INDIA

Stepping carefully around the pits and mounds, four men approached the only source
of light to be seen – a small kerosene lantern burning inside a mud and grass hut. There
were four residents inside – a couple and their two children, 10 and eight. They dug the
pits, cut the rock and hauled it to the trucks, all without salary. They were bonded
laborers, bonded for life and for generations to the owner of the pit because some
ancestor sometime had borrowed money and had been unable to pay it back. Two of
the four men who visited the hut that night in 1985 were from a nongovernmental
organization called Bandhua Mukti Morcha (Bonded Labor Liberation Front). The other
two were journalists brought by the NGO to prove that bonded labor – a form of slavery
– did exist right in the nation’s capital. After the visit, the men from the NGO went to the
police station to lodge a complaint, because bonded labor is illegal in India, and so is
child labor in a profession as hazardous as this. The complaints, and the articles written
by the journalists after the visit, were part of the NGO campaign to make the
government implement the law. Every day, different NGOs all over India are doing
things like this. Sometime it may be taking a sample of water from a well that has been
polluted by a nearby factory, getting the water analyzed and then filing a “public
interest petition” in a court to force the factory to follow anti-pollution laws. Another
time, it may be a heated debate with a bureaucrat on why all citizens should have the
right to be informed about all government decisions that affect their lives. Though the
term NGO became popular in India only in the 1980s, the voluntary sector has an older
tradition. Since independence from the British in 1947, the voluntary sector had a lot of
respect in the minds of people – first, because the father of the nation Mahatma Gandhi
was an active participant; and second because India has always had the tradition of
honoring those who have made some sacrifice to help others. In independent India, the
initial role played by the voluntary organizations started by Gandhi and his disciples was
to fill in the gaps left by the government in the development process. The volunteers
organized handloom weavers in villages to form cooperatives through which they could

94
market their products directly in the cities, and thus get a better price. Similar
cooperatives were later set up in areas like marketing of dairy products and fish. In
almost all these cases, the volunteers helped in other areas of development – running
literacy classes for adults at night, for example. In the 1980s, however, the groups who
were now known as NGOs became more specialized, and the voluntary movement was,
in a way, fragmented into three major groups. There were those considered the
traditional development NGOs, who went into a village or a group of villages and ran
literacy programs, creches for children and clinics, encouraged farmers to experiment
with new crops and livestock breeds that would bring more money, helped the weavers
and other village artisans market their products and so on – in short became almost a
part of the community in their chosen area (usually in rural India) and tried to fill all the
gaps left in the development process by the government. There are many examples of
voluntary organizations of this kind running very successfully in India for the last five
decades. Perhaps the most celebrated example would be the treatment centre for
leprosy patients run by Baba Amte in central India.

The second group of NGOs were those who researched a particular subject in depth,
and then lobbied with the government or with industry or petitioned the courts for
improvements in the lives of the citizens, as far as that particular subject was concerned.
A well-known example of an NGO of this type is the Centre for Science and
Environment. It was a CSE who picked up that sample of well water and then submitted
the results of the chemical analysis to a court because the organization had not been
able to get the factory to change its polluting practices in any other way. In the third
group were those volunteers who saw themselves more as activists than other NGOs
did. Of course, all NGOs undertook a certain amount of activism to get their points
across – they petitioned the bureaucrats, they alerted the media whenever they found
something wrong and so on. But this third group of NGOs saw activism as their primary
means of reaching their goals, because they did not believe they could get the
authorities to move in any other way. Perhaps the best-known example of an NGO in
this category is the Narmada Bachao Andolan (Save Narmada Campaign), an
organisation that opposed the construction of a series of large dams in a large river
valley of central India. The members of this NGO believe that large dams worsen water
scarcity for the majority of the people in the long run rather than solve the problem, and
they oppose the displacement it entails upstream of the dam. When the NBA found that
it could not persuade the planners in India to agree to its point of view, the NBA
members put up pickets, held demonstrations and tried every other way they could
think of to oppose the construction of the first of the big dams. Most of the NBA
member went to jail a number of times as a result. Right now, some of them – including
celebrated novelist Arundhati Roy – face the prospect of being jailed again, because
they criticized the Supreme Court of India when the court’s decision on dam

95
construction did not go in their favour. There is no strict boundary between these three
groups of NGOs – in fact, Baba Amte is now an important member of the Narmada
Bachao Andolan. And whatever be the category a particular NGO falls into, all of them
play an important role in modern India – they hold the politicians accountable to the
people. India is a representative rather than a participatory democracy. Once the
elections are over, the politicians who run the federal and state governments do not
really need to go back to the electorate for every major decision – there is no tradition
of referendums in India, as there is in Switzerland or Denmark. So, in the five years
between on election and another, the NGOs – and parts of the media, to some extent –
are often the only means available to the citizens to voice their opinions on any decision
taken by a government. In a large developing country like India, there are numerous
gaps left by the government in the development process – sometimes by intention,
sometimes due to lack of funds, sometimes due to lack of awareness. These are the
gaps that many NGOs try to fill in modern India. Some of them may work in areas that
the government does not want to get into – like fighting discrimination on the basis of
caste. Most Indian politicians do not really want to upset the existing caste hierarchy in
his or her constituency, because the politician is dependent for votes on the dominant
castes of that particular constituency. In the process, laws prohibiting discrimination on
the basis of caste are often ignored unless there is an NGO working in the area that is
willing to take up the cause of those being discriminated against.

The primary purpose of an Advocacy NGO is to defend or promote a specific cause. As

opposed to operational project management, these organizations typically try to raise
awareness, acceptance and knowledge by lobbying, press work and activist event.

Non-governmental organization - Wikipedia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-governmental_organization

Education and children are the two factors that are crucial for a more intuitive and futuristic
society. The primary purpose of an operational NGO is the design and implementation of
development-related projects. The primary purpose of an Advocacy NGO is to defend or
promote a specific cause.

What is the purpose of NGO? - Quora

96
https://www.quora.com/What-is-the-purpose-of-NGO

A non-governmental organization (NGO) is any non-profit, voluntary citizens' group

which is organized on a local, national or international level. Task-oriented and driven
by people with a common interest, NGOs perform a variety of service and humanitarian
functions, bring citizen concerns to Governments, advocate and monitor policies and
encourage political participation through provision of information. Some are organized
around specific issues, such as human rights, environment or health. They provide
analysis and expertise, serve as early warning mechanisms and help monitor and
implement international agreements.

NGO have the advantage of selecting particular places for innovative projects and
specify in advance the length of time which they will be supporting the project -
overcoming some of the shortcomings that governments face in this respect. NGOs can
also be pilots for larger government projects by virtue of their ability to act more quickly
than the government bureaucracy.

In some cases, NGOs become spokespersons or ombudsmen for the poor and attempt to
influence government policies and programs on their behalf. This may be done through
a variety of means ranging from demonstration and pilot projects to participation in
public forums and the formulation of government policy and plans, to publicizing
research results and case studies of the poor. Thus NGOs play roles from advocates for
the poor to implementers of government programs; from agitators and critics to
partners and advisors; from sponsors of pilot projects to mediators.

TYPES OF NGOs
There are numerous possibilities to classify NGOs. The following is the typology the
World Bank uses

Operational NGOs:
Their primary purpose is the design and implementation of development-related
projects. One categorization that is frequently used is the division into relief-oriented or
development-oriented organizations; they can also be classified according to whether
they stress service delivery or participation; or whether they are religious and secular;
and whether they are more public or private-oriented. Operational NGOs can be
community-based, national or international. Operational NGOs have to mobilize
resources, in the form of financial donations, materials or volunteer labor, in order to
sustain their projects and programs. This process may require quite complex
organization. Charity shops, staffed by volunteers, in premises provided at nominal rents
and selling donated goods, end up providing finance to the national headquarters.
Students in their vacations or during a break in their education provide labor for
projects. Finance obtained from grants or contracts, from governments, foundations or

97
companies, require time and expertise spent on planning, preparing applications,
budgeting, accounting and reporting. Major fund-raising events require skills in
advertising, media relations and motivating supporters. Thus, operational NGOs need to
possess an efficient headquarters bureaucracy, in addition to the operational staff in the
field.

Advocacy NGOs (sometimes called militant NGOs):

Their primary purpose is to defend or promote a specific cause. As opposed to
operational project management, these organizations typically try to raise awareness,
acceptance and knowledge by lobbying, press work and activist events.

NGO type can be understood by orientation and level of co-operation.

NGO types by orientation:

Charitable Orientation often involves a top-down paternalistic effort with little
participation by the “beneficiaries”. It includes NGOs with activities directed toward
meeting the needs of the poor -distribution of food, clothing or medicine; provision of
housing, transport, schools etc. Such NGOs may also undertake relief activities during a
natural or man-made disaster.

Service Orientation includes NGOs with activities such as the provision of health, family
planning or education services in which the program is designed by the NGO and
people are expected to participate in its implementation and in receiving the service.

Participatory Orientation is characterized by self-help projects where local people are

involved particularly in the implementation of a project by contributing cash, tools, land,
materials, labor etc. In the classical community development project, participation
begins with the need definition and continues into the planning and implementation
stages. Cooperatives often have a participatory orientation.

Empowering Orientation is where the aim is to help poor people develop a clearer
understanding of the social, political and economic factors affecting their lives, and to
strengthen their awareness of their own potential power to control their lives.
Sometimes, these groups develop spontaneously around a problem or an issue, at other
times outside workers from NGOs play a facilitating role in their development. In any
case, there is maximum involvement of the people with NGOs acting as facilitators.

98
NGO Types by level of operation:
Community-based Organizations (CBOs) arise out of people’s own initiatives. These can
include sports clubs, women’s organizations, and neighborhood organizations, religious
or educational organizations. There are a large variety of these, some supported by
NGOs, national or international NGOs, or bilateral or international agencies, and others
independent of outside help. Some are devoted to raising the consciousness of the
urban poor or helping them to understand their rights in gaining access to needed
services while others are involved in providing such services.

Citywide Organizations include organizations such as the Rotary or lion’s Club,

chambers of commerce and industry, coalitions of business, ethnic or educational
groups and associations of community organizations. Some exist for other purposes,
and become involved in helping the poor as one of many activities, while others are
created for the specific purpose of helping the poor.

National NGOs include organizations such as the Red Cross, YMCAs/YWCAs,

professional organizations etc. Some of these have state branches and assist local
NGOs.

International NGOs range from secular agencies such as REDDA BARNA and Save the
Children organizations, OXFAM, CARE, UNDP, UNICEF, Ford and Rockefeller Foundations
to religiously motivated groups. Their activities vary from mainly funding local NGOs,
institutions and projects, to implementing the projects themselves.

Apart from “NGO”, often alternative terms are used as for example: independent sector,
volunteer sector, civil society, grassroots organizations, transnational social movement
organizations, private voluntary organizations, self-help organizations and non-state
actors (NSA’s).

Roles of NGO according to the expectation of people:

NGOs play a critical role in all areas of development. People and policy makers are agree
on one thing that NGOs play a very important role in development. Role of NGOs vary
over the years as the policy of government changes. NGOs are almost dependent on
polices of government. Socio economic development is a shared responsibility of both
i.e. government and NGOs. Role of NGOs are complementary but vary according to
polices of government. If we closely pursue the voluminous literature on NGOs many
roles can be found according to the expectations of people. The major development

99
roles ascribed to NGOs are to act as:

Planner and implementer of development programmers,

Mobiliser of local resources and initiative,

Catalyst, enabler and innovator,

Builder of self-reliant sustainable society,

Mediator of people and government,

Supporter and partner of government program in activating delivery system

implementing rural development programs, etc.,

Agents of information,

Factor of improvement of the poor, and

Facilitator of development education, training, professionalization, etc.

Basically NGOs role is to prepare people for change. They empower the people to
overcome psychological problem and opposition of oppress. Its role cannot be denied

The Role Of NGOs and Communities:

Some NGOs see themselves as champions of the poor, lobbying government to give
them a better deal. Others play a watchdog role, ensuring that governments and utilities
remain honest, focused on serving the people. A third variety prefer to focus at ground
level, finding ways to bring communities together to provide basic services to those in
most need. Many look to combine these roles within one organization.

Partnerships can struggle to accommodate these different visions, making it hard to

harness the skills, abilities and local contacts that NGOs offer to best effect. NGOs
themselves can be torn between engaging other stakeholders in order to provoke
change from the inside and maintaining their independence from the outside. Equally,
how partnerships can engage and relate to poor communities is not straightforward.  In
some cases Community-Based Organizations are preferred to NGOs as partners.

The Role of NGOs in Rural Transformation:

100
Ninety percent of the world’s population lives below the poverty line. This is more
prominent in developing countries. There are a lot of schemes that are designed by the
Government to enrich the lives of the unfortunate and the underprivileged. As much as
the Government of Nations are assisting the down trodden and the underprivileged, an
equal measure is contributed by Non-Governmental Organizations.

Non-governmental organizations are funded by private donors and are also funded by
Government Initiatives. Non-Governmental organizations function in the following areas
of uplifting the lives of the underprivileged.

Health, Housing and Food – Providing for basic facilities

Gender Inequality Issues in Developing countries

Care for HIV -AIDS affected children and adults

Elder Care – A large proportion of elders are being neglected and many NGOs and
private donors have built orphanages for elders and senior citizens

Providing for education and vocational training such as Computer Typing etc

The quantity and the quality of social reforms that are undertaken by this section of
workers is phenomenal. There are also concerns about fraud and pilferage of funds that
have been expressed. For the first time, similar to Manufacturing and other institutions
that are being audited for compliance using standards such as ISO, social institutions are
also audited by a social standard that has been developed in the United Kingdom. Every
fortunate citizen of the world should think calmly about charity and upliftment of the
downtrodden or defeated in some aspect or the other. It may not be necessary to own a
champion NGO, but just a thought to donate money, medicines and other assets to the
poor is sufficient.

CONCLUSION
Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) are mainly for the betterment of the people
and society, it’s their duty also. There are different types of NGOs which have specific
area of focus and it works according to their interest area. In wikipedia it is mentioned
that there may be 3.3 million NGOs in India. But the other truth also that many NGOs
fails in playing their roles and it collapse and there may also be several reason behind it.
If all the NGOs truly realize its responsibilities and play their role perfectly then it is sure
that the conditions of individual as well as the society will change and it also helps in

101
nation building.

BACKGROUND TO UGANDAS PRIMARY

EDUCATION REFORM PROGRAMS
Evolution of our Education under the NRM
By Admin
Added 16th February 2018 01:39 PM

When Uganda gained her independence in October 1962, it came with a number of challenges;
one of them being the lack of enough qualified personnel to provide services for the country.

Elizabeth Kabibi works with Government Citizen Interaction Centre, Ministry of ICT and
National Guidance
By Elizabeth Kabibi

As schools open for first term, it is important to examine the evolution of the education
sector in Uganda.

When Uganda gained her independence in October 1962, it came with a number of challenges; o

lack of enough qualified personnel to provide services for the country. 

The other challenge was the need to give confidence to Ugandans that they were capable of
solving their own problems. Before independence, Ugandans felt incapable of accomplishing the
tasks of sustaining their independence as they were being educated to take the positions of
assistants to the European and Asian civil servants and teachers but not to be fully fledged
managers of institutions. 

Therefore, the education system in Uganda had to be restructured to remove the inferiority
feeling from the minds of the Ugandan and African students. In this effort, two important slogans
were inaugurated namely "the creation of African identity" and "the development of African
personality."

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A new structure was then set up to solve the above challenges. Among the changes made were:
the Primary school level to last seven years instead of six, the Junior Secondary section of two
years was abolished. Also, Teacher Training Colleges for Grade II teachers with primary school
education had to be phased out. Courses had to be mounted to upgrade the existing Grade II
Primary school teachers to Grade III status among several other reforms.

However; Uganda’s education sector suffered devastating set back in the 1970’s owing to civil
war and unrest that characterized the country at the time.

School infrastructure was run down and man power lost mainly to brain drain as people fled the
country to seek refugee elsewhere. This did not last since the NRM government shortly came to
power and suggested reforms to revamp the education system.

The programs that the system came up with were mainly to address issues of easy access to an
education for all. This was to do away with inequality among citizens.

A lot of progress has been made over the years, this could be reflected in the; introduction of
Universal education, construction of seed schools, introduction of the Students’ Loan Scheme,
rehabilitation of the already existing schools and the initiation of several avenues to increase
access to education.

The country’s literacy level is currently at 75%, and this is attributed to the expanded education
system. Today, we boast of 3,858 secondary schools, 19,718 primary schools, 142 Technical and
Tertiary Institutes and 45 Universities. In the year 2016/17, universities produced 17,895
graduates, and the Government is currently providing loans to 3,799 students in higher
education under the Students’ Loan Scheme.

Furthermore, the government is continuing with construction works at seven public institutions:
Makerere University, Muni University in Arua, Busitema University, Makerere University
Business School, Kyambogo University, Mbarara University of Science and Technology and
Uganda Management Institute. The construction works, which started in 2016, were done under
the Support to Higher Education, Science and Technology (HEST) project to build Uganda’s
human capital skills development capacity, particularly in education, science and technology, to
respond to labour market demands and spur productivity nationally.

Universal Primary Education (UPE), one of the Government’s main policy tools for eradicating
illiteracy and poverty through delivering an education for all was introduced in January 1997.
This followed a political commitment by the President, that the Government would meet the cost
of primary education for four children per family. But because many parents had more than four
children, it was soon extended to allow all pupils access to primary education.

UPE’s main objectives are;

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To provide the facilities and resources to enable every child to enter and remain in school until
the primary cycle of education is complete,

Make education equitable in order to eliminate disparities and inequalities,

Ensure that education is affordable by the majority of Ugandans and to reduce poverty by
equipping every individual with basic skills. Although all these haven’t been wholly achieved,
we can confidently say that a big percentage of the citizens have benefited from the project. We
recently saw the President presiding over the graduation ceremony of the UPE pioneers.  

Under the UPE programme, the Government abolished all tuition fees and Parents and
Teachers Association charges for primary education. Following its introduction, gross
enrolment in primary school increased from 3.1 million in 1996 to 7.6 million in 2003. This
amounts to an increase of 145% (4.5 million children), compared to an increase of 39% (0.9
million children) between 1986 and 1996.

In 2003, enrolment of girls in primary schools was slightly over 49% of total, falling behind that
of boys. This was a significant improvement compared to 44% and 44.5% for 1990 and 1993
respectively. The post UPE period witnessed a narrowing gap between the number of girls and
boys enrolled in primary schools.

As we kick start the new term and New Year, I call upon all students to guard jealously their
chance to an education, desist from strikes as these lead to destruction of school property. The
government has done a lot to put in place these structures for them to perish because of a small
mistake by a teacher or head teacher is unacceptable.

The writer works with Government Citizen Interaction Centre, Ministry of ICT and National
Guidance

ICT

The following are the challenges facing the sector:

Institution alignment of non -formal education training.

The amorphous structure of non-formal BTVET (Business, Vocational Education and Training)
aggravates the coordination and management problems resulting in increased transactional costs
within the sector

Inadequate budgetary resources

There are no adequate resources to meet current and emerging priorities: Public funding to
higher education has also been declining overtime. A lot of pressure is being put on the existing

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old facilities in public universities resulting into poor quality of service delivery

Capacity gaps in education

Teaching methods are old fashioned and books are not only inadequate but those that are
available are not always used effectively. For example at primary and sometimes secondary
levels many students leave school without having mastered required levels of literacy and
numeracy.

Social and cultural practices

Attitudes and perceptions affect the performance of the sector. Although the cost factor appears
to be the most important for boys, girls drop out of school due to teenage pregnancy, sexual
harassment and early marriages while for boys indifference to education is a key factor. In
addition, a significant number of girls help with household responsibilities. There is limited
access to education for marginalized groups including children with disabilities and those in post
conflict areas

Inadequate physical infrastructure

The schools lack  scholastic materials, classroom blocks, water and sanitation, and power supply

Inadequate sports facilities and equipment.

The schools do not have the resources to buy the sports equipment and maintain playing grounds

There has been a remarkable change in the sector over the past years, especially since the
inception of the Universal Education Programs and liberalization of the sector. More schools,
institutions, colleges and universities have been established by the private sector; and enrolments
in all these institutions have exponentially increased. The private sector participation in the
education sector has also been remarkable to the extent that education is increasingly being seen
as an export sector.

National Education Curriculum Reform

Uganda’s Ministry of Education is reviewing Uganda’s National Curriculum – the curriculum
taught in all of Uganda’s primary and secondary schools.  Maggie Sheahan, an Educate! Intern,
reports on Uganda’s current education system and highlights why reform is essential to the
development of Uganda’s future.

 In 1998 the Government of Uganda (GoU) began implementing an ambitious reform
programme called the Education Strategic Investment Plan (ESIP) in order to effect Universal
Primary Education (UPE). This paper offers a perspective on how the GoU has met the challenge
of financing education reform, addressed the need to improve the quality of basic education and
increased access and equity while improving efficiency at primary and post-primary levels of
education. The development model described in this paper privileges good governance and donor
co-operation within a Sector Wide Approach. Important lessons have been learned in Uganda

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including the need for political commitment to universal primary education within a clear
conception of whole sector reform. However, the discourse of SWAPs tends to function
primarily in the formal sphere and not at the level of the experience of most teachers, pupils and
their families, yet it is at this level that national education policies have to be mediated in
practice. More attention needs to be given in education sector reform to the processes as well as
the context of change.

In an age of globalization, the education system in Uganda has passed its expiration date.   For
half a century Ugandans have been using the same curriculum.  The national curriculum last
underwent reform in 1962, the year Uganda received independence.  This year, the Ministry of
Education has decided to finally assess the education system and overhaul a program that has
been stagnant for decades.  In Uganda, with 50% of its population under the age of 18, primary
and secondary school education is of paramount importance.  Many complain that education
here is unpractical and students are poor equip to address the issues Uganda faces.   

Educate! designed its program in light of Uganda’s education system.  We teach our scholars a
deeper understanding of community issues and then empower them with the tools to confront
these challenges head on.  We seek to fill in the gaps of what formal education leaves out.  We
know that the quality education needed in Uganda will not come solely from us. Though
Educate! can serve as a model towards a more relevant and practical education for youth, it is
essential for the government to recognize the potential that students hold for the future of the
country and to tap this potential by incorporating more progressive teaching methodologies
into their curriculum.  For this reason, the national curriculum review is tremendously
significant to Educate!’s vision of socially responsible leadership in Africa.

Education is highly valued in Uganda, demonstrated by the lengths many people undergo to
obtain school fees for themselves and their children.  School is not free here and most cannot
easily afford the cost.  This leaves the responsibility on parents, aunts, uncles and friends in
sending a child to school. 

Currently, the education curriculum focuses extensively on national exams.   “To say exam
results are important is an understatement,” James Katumba, an Educate! mentor explains.
“Exam results determine if you are awarded a secondary school certificate to graduate.   You
can attend 6 years of secondary school, but with poor marks, you risk ending up with nothing
to show for it.  Employers hire based on exam results, and it is the only factor universities
consider when accepting applicants.”  Bottom line: Exam results determine a person’s future. 
Because of this focus, the most relevant question must be,” What do exams test?”  

I’ve been told that students are expected to know the ins and outs of the Tennessee Valley
Authority, a 1933 US federal corporation that managed water development during the Great
Depression, instead of the current issues Uganda faces in terms of poverty and development.  
Students learn about out dated issues from countries half way across the world, and are
seldom taught to think about major challenges in their own backyard.   Most agree that
students learn theoretical knowledge over practical skills.  And many complain that innovation
and creativity are stifled and student potential untapped, leaving national problems neglected

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and solutions rarely discussed.

The Daily Monitor, one of Uganda’s leading newspapers, printed an editorial piece that sheds
light on this debate: 

“Education experts have for decades been contending that our education system, which is
characterized by cramming, has greatly undermined the country’s need for practical, free-
thinking, resourceful, functional and self-sustaining individuals. Most of the products our
education system is churning out are desperate job seekers who have certificates but without
the practical skills demanded by the labor market”

The essay goes on to discuss the need to teach students relevant information about Uganda and
Africa as a whole.  Education must go beyond the national exam, and teach how to generate
new ideas that lead to development.  As the editorial notes, many students are not able to go to
University, so it is imperative to equip secondary school students with the tools and knowledge
to be independent, innovative, and successful in their futures.

Many hope to see dramatic changes in Uganda’s Education system.  With high unemployment
and the need for development, the National Curriculum review might be one of the
government’s most important undertakings as it moves forward in 2010. 

Maggie Sheahan

Want To Know More?

Read Will An Overhaul Of The System Make Education More Relevant, a recent article
printed in the New Vision, one of Uganda’s leading News Papers.
OCT
... Teacher professional development continues to preoccupy education administrators who must
address the challenges of initial teacher training and continuing education programmes
( Mulkeen et al. 2007). Despite the quantitative success of the Ugandan education system, which
is characterised by the implementation of universal primary (Penny, Ward & Read 2008) and
secondary education policies and projects (Dejaeghere, Rhiannon & Kyeyune 2009;Chapman,
Burton & Werner 2010;UNESCO 2010), the quality of teaching and student achievement and,
yes, even their deterioration ( Penny et al. 2008) remain crucial challenges (Lewin & Stuart
2003;World Bank 2005;Penny et al. 2008). The limited amount of advanced training
opportunities for principals and teachers, the lack of official and directive policy governing the
level of competence to be achieved by principals, and the absence of appropriate training in this
regard ( Dejaeghere et al. 2009), as well as the rapid recruitment of insufficiently trained teachers
and principals (Chapman et al. 2010) all contribute to understanding Uganda's uniquely
challenging context. ...

... Teacher professional development continues to preoccupy education administrators who must
address the challenges of initial teacher training and continuing education programmes

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( Mulkeen et al. 2007). Despite the quantitative success of the Ugandan education system, which
is characterised by the implementation of universal primary (Penny, Ward & Read 2008) and
secondary education policies and projects (Dejaeghere, Rhiannon & Kyeyune 2009;Chapman,
Burton & Werner 2010;UNESCO 2010), the quality of teaching and student achievement and,
yes, even their deterioration ( Penny et al. 2008) remain crucial challenges (Lewin & Stuart
2003;World Bank 2005;Penny et al. 2008). The limited amount of advanced training
opportunities for principals and teachers, the lack of official and directive policy governing the
level of competence to be achieved by principals, and the absence of appropriate training in this
regard ( Dejaeghere et al. 2009), as well as the rapid recruitment of insufficiently trained teachers
and principals (Chapman et al. 2010) all contribute to understanding Uganda's uniquely
challenging context. ...

... Teacher professional development continues to preoccupy education administrators who must
address the challenges of initial teacher training and continuing education programmes
( Mulkeen et al. 2007). Despite the quantitative success of the Ugandan education system, which
is characterised by the implementation of universal primary (Penny, Ward & Read 2008) and
secondary education policies and projects (Dejaeghere, Rhiannon & Kyeyune 2009;Chapman,
Burton & Werner 2010;UNESCO 2010), the quality of teaching and student achievement and,
yes, even their deterioration ( Penny et al. 2008) remain crucial challenges (Lewin & Stuart
2003;World Bank 2005;Penny et al. 2008). The limited amount of advanced training
opportunities for principals and teachers, the lack of official and directive policy governing the
level of competence to be achieved by principals, and the absence of appropriate training in this
regard ( Dejaeghere et al. 2009), as well as the rapid recruitment of insufficiently trained teachers
and principals (Chapman et al. 2010) all contribute to understanding Uganda's uniquely
challenging context. ...

... These sentiments point to the fact that it is difficult to determine the MT in multilingual
situations since in some contexts children can have multiple MTs (Ricento 2002 ). Moreover, the
selection of a local language is not just for pedagogical issues but has significant cultural and
political implications (Penny et al. 2008). To understand the language policy better, let us look at
the education reforms in Uganda. ...

... This curriculum comprised four core subjects: language, mathematics, science and social
studies and eight other subjects. The curriculum, however, did not pay sufficient attention to
listening , speaking, reading and writing in the first three years of primary school (Penny et al.
2008). The teaching approach was mostly teacher-centred. ...

... More focus was and is still on the summative assessment. Soon it was realised that proficiency
in reading and writing were continuing to decline because of badly implemented literacy
programmes (Draku 2011; Penny et al. 2008). This called for another curriculum review in 2004
that brought in the TC. ...

... English becomes the medium of instruction from grade four onwards (Government of Uganda
1992). This language policy was implemented between 2000 and 2002, but the implementers did
not pay sufficient attention to listening, speaking, reading and writing in the first three years of
primary school ( Penny et al. 2008). This badly implemented literacy programmes resulted into a

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decline in reading and writing skills (Draku 2011; Penny et al. 2008), therefore necessitating a
curriculum review in 2004. ...

... This language policy was implemented between 2000 and 2002, but the implementers did not
pay sufficient attention to listening, speaking, reading and writing in the first three years of
primary school ( Penny et al. 2008). This badly implemented literacy programmes resulted into a
decline in reading and writing skills (Draku 2011; Penny et al. 2008), therefore necessitating a
curriculum review in 2004. The reviewed curriculum recom- mended the implementation of the
thematic curriculum in 2007 ( Acana et al. 2010;NCDC 2006). ...

The paper reports on a participatory action research study conducted in six rural primary schools
in Uganda in 2013 to establish why children taught in the local language had difficulties in
reading and writing. Findings through interviews, focus group discussions, reviews of exercise
books and lesson observations indicated that though it was easier for pupils to learn the concepts
in the local language; challenges ranging from poor translation, inadequate teachers’ language
proficiency, lack of instructional materials, high pupils’ enrolment, lack of administrative
support and teacher-centred approach of teaching, affected pupils’ learning to read and write.
Participants recommended adopting the child-centred pedagogy, incorporating instructional
materials, conducting continuous assessment and recording pupils’ competencies attained in
reading and writing. Teachers need to engage more in Participatory action research in order to
reflect on their practices and pupils’ learning, and collaboratively decide what works best and
what needs improvement in their classrooms.

Some educational problems of East Africa

ROBERT BIRLEY, PROF

01 Dec 1964

The organization Voluntary Service overseas sends children from Britain to developing countries
to assist in educational programs. It was this that prompted Professor Birley to visit Kenya,
Uganda and Tanganyika to discuss educational problems with schools, teachers and
administrators. The overriding problem for education in East Africa is a financial and economic
one as the income for these countries are generally not sufficient to build a system. However the
shortage of quality teachers also contributes to the lack of proper education. This then creates a
shortage of skilled labour. The policy makers therefore has a huge task in hand to build a

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satisfactory educational structure.

10 Major Challenges Facing Public Schools In US.

Are our public schools in a state of crisis? Learn about the 10 biggest
problems with public schools today, both from the perspective of the
administrators and the teachers
Few would argue that the state of our education system has plenty of room for
improvement. However, developing a plan to take schools in the right direction
is easier said than done. The first challenge lies in identifying underlying
problems keeping students from learning today. This challenge, in part, is due
to the fact that the problems may change considerably depending on who is
labeling them, whether it is students, parents, educators or lawmakers.
Consider this list of 10 major challenges currently facing public schools, based
on the perspective of many involved in the world of education today.
 

Classroom Size

Many areas of the country are facing classrooms that are literally busting out
at the seams. A report at NEA Today two years ago discussed how schools in
Georgia, in the midst of major funding cuts for schools, had no choice but to
lift all class size limits to accommodate students with the faculty the school
system could still afford to keep. More recently, Fairfax County in Virginia has
been looking into a proposal to increase classroom sizes in the face of
significant budget cuts. The Board of Education in South Carolina is also
weighing their options in this area.

When money gets tight, classroom numbers are often impacted. Yet, most
teachers agree that they cannot effectively teach every student in a
classroom, if the class size exceeds about 30. Their statements are backed
up by research. Class Size Matters cites a study performed by the Tennessee
Star that found classes of 15-17 students in grades K-3 provided both long
and short-term benefits to both the students and the teachers in those
classrooms. Minority students, those living in poverty and male students
appeared to benefit from smaller classroom sizes the most. 
 
Poverty
 

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Technorati reported last fall that 22 percent of the children in the U.S. live at or
below poverty level. American Graduate defines poverty as a family of four
with an annual income level of $23,050 or lower. American Graduate also
cites a report from the Southern Education Foundation, which shows in 17
states across the U.S., low-income students now comprise the majority of
public school students in those states. Some estimates put poverty levels for
public school students at 25% in the not-so-distant future.
Students living at or below poverty level tend to have the highest dropout
rates. Studies show that students who do not get enough food or sleep are
less likely to perform at their full academic potential. Schools know these
truths first-hand, and despite efforts to provide students with basic essentials,
teachers, administrators and lawmakers know there is simply not enough to
go around. 
 
Family Factors

Family factors also play a role in a teacher’s ability to teach students.

Principals and teachers agree that what is going on at home will impact a
student’s propensity to learn. Divorce, single parents, poverty, violence and
many other issues are all challenges a student brings to school every day.
While some teachers and administrators try to work with children in less than
ideal family environments, they can only do so much – especially when
parents are often not willing to partner with the schools to provide for the
children. 

Technology

Kids Health Guide reports that students are more technologically advanced

than many teachers today, putting instructors at a decided disadvantage in the
classroom. However, a student’s love of technology also tends to distract him
from his schoolwork, according to NEA Today. When teachers don’t have the
techno-savvy to compete with those devices, by bringing education and
technology together, it can be difficult to keep students’ interest and attention
to properly teach new concepts.

Technology needs to come into the classroom to keep up with the learning
demands of the 21stcentury. Schools that are already cash-strapped may find
an unsurmountable challenge in coming up with the funding to bring
computers and other forms of technology into their classes. Scholastic offers
some tips for school districts that want to fit the bill for technology, including
everything from asking individuals in the district for “big gifts” to going to Uncle

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Sam for the funding. The website also suggests negotiating prices on
technology when possible and allowing student to bring their own from home.

Bullying

Bullying is not a new problem, but it is one that has a profound impact on the
learning aptitude of many students today. Technology has given bullies even
more avenues to torment their victims – through social networking, texting and
other virtual interactions. Cyberbullying has become a major issue for schools,
as evidenced by the number of suicides that can be directly traced to bullying
events. The fact that laws are still fuzzy regarding cyberbullying adds to the
challenge – since parents, teachers and administrators are unsure of how to
legally handle such issues.

Student Attitudes and Behaviors

Many public school teachers also cite student attitudes, such as apathy and
disrespect for teachers, as a major problem facing schools today. A poll from
the National Center for Education Statistics cited that problems like apathy,
tardiness, disrespect and absenteeism posed significant challenges for
teachers. These issues were seen more frequently at the secondary school
level, rather than the primary grades.

No Child Left Behind

Many students, parents and teachers see No Child Left Behind as a detriment
or harm to the public education environment today. Although the current
Obama Administration is working to reform NCLB policies, the focus in
education on both the national and state level continues to be on the testing
process. Student test scores are now being used by a number of states as a
way to evaluate teacher performance, putting even more pressure on faculty
in schools to “teach to the tests.”
NEA Today quotes Kansas special educator Shelly Dunham as saying,
“Testing, testing, testing, what is the point of testing? Do we use the data to
remediate those who do not measure up? No!” Many teachers believe they
are forced to teach to the annual standardized tests, and activities like recess
and lunch have been cut way down to make more time for academics in light
of the new testing procedures. 

Parent Involvement

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Often teachers find there is no happy medium when it comes to parental
involvement, according to the Kids Health Guide. Some parents won’t be seen
for the entire school year, no matter what sort of issues might arise. Others
never seem to go away, hovering over the child and teacher and interfering
with the education process. There are ways parents can become involved and
support their child’s education at the same time, but teachers don’t always get
that level from parents.

Student Health

Obesity has reached epidemic proportions in the U.S., and the same poor
eating habits that led to the obesity problem may also be contributing to lower
student achievement. Obesity also increases a student’s risk for other
conditions, like diabetes and high blood pressure, which could result in higher
absenteeism and more academic issues.

The national school lunch movement Let’s Move! has been working to bring
healthier options into school lunchrooms across the country. According to
the website, the U.S. Department of Agriculture released new guidelines in
2012 to boost the nutritional quality of the meals students get at school.
Exercise programs are also coming to schools across the country to promote
more physical activity among students of all ages. However, it seems the
country as a whole still has a long way to go to get on the road to better health
on a large scale.
 
Funding

Budget cuts have created huge problems for most public schools in recent
years. Less funding means smaller staffs, fewer resources and a lower
number of services for students. While some argue that throwing more money
at the education problems won’t make them go away, others assert that lack
of funding caused many of the problems in the first place.
There are many problems in public schools today, but identifying those issues
is half the battle. With a laundry list of challenges to face, now is the time for
educators, parents and lawmakers to come together and begin to find
solutions – for the benefit of all students in public schools today.

School problems: what to expect

Ups and downs at school are part of life for many young people. A good relationship
with your child’s school and teachers can help you head off problems. If school

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problems do come up, it’s important that you quickly recognise and address them.

School problems can show up as poor academic performance, lack of motivation for

school, loss of interest in school work, or poor relationships with peers or teachers.

School difficulties range from minor to severe, might be very short-lived or last for
longer. Even short-term school problems can have a negative impact on how young
people feel about school – and themselves.

Children do better and stay longer at school when their parents and families are
involved. A strong relationship with your child’s school and its staff is important, even if
your child isn’t struggling.

Common signs of school problems

Sometimes, school problems will be easy to spot, and your child will want to talk to you
about them.

But sometimes your child might hide school problems from you or from teachers and
friends. For example, she might copy homework, pretend to be sick during important
tests, or not bring reports home. This can make it very difficult for you to pick up on a
problem. Sometimes even teachers might not spot the clues – especially if your child is
absent a lot.

So if you’re worried that your child is having school problems, there are some signs
you can look out for. You might notice that your child:

 makes excuses not to go to school or even skips school without your knowledge
 doesn’t want to talk about school, or seems critical or uncomfortable when talking
about school
 doesn’t seem engaged with school – for example, he might not be interested
in extracurricular activities or might have very few friends
 seems low on confidence or self-esteem – for example, he might say he’s ‘dumb’
or not as smart as his friends
 is getting detentions, or teachers are contacting you about attention or behaviour
problems
 refuses to do homework, rarely talks about homework, or seems bored with or
unchallenged by schoolwork – he might say he’s not learning anything new
 is getting lower marks than usual.

If you think you’ve spotted some signs of school problems, but your child doesn’t want
to talk about them, it might be a difficult conversation. You could start by talking about
what you think your child might be feeling. For example, ‘You look sad. I wonder if
you’re feeling worried about school?’

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There are lots of things you can do to help your child with school problems. You can
also get help from your child’s teacher, the principal or assistant principal, the school
welfare coordinator or other specialist teaching staff. You could also talk to your GP,
who might refer you to other health professionals, like psychologists, speech
therapists or occupational therapists.

Picking up school problems early on: why it’s important

If school problems aren’t picked up and addressed early, they can be bad for children in
the long term.

To start with, school problems might contribute to poor self-esteem. In the longer term,
they can affect your child’s mental health.

School problems can also lead to an increased risk of dropping out. Children who
have academic problems might be more likely to avoid school in the short term and to
leave school early in the long term. These children might also be less likely to do further
education or training in the future.

Another consequence of school problems is that children can get tagged with unhelpful
labels like ‘uninterested’, ‘easily distracted’, ‘lazy’ or ‘doesn’t try hard enough’. Young
people often start to believe these labels and think that they’re ‘troublemakers’ or
‘misfits’. All these labels suggest that children are to blame for school problems. But
school problems are often a sign that children aren’t getting enough support.

Finally, when children fit in at school and feel like they belong, it’s good for their
wellbeing. But children who have problems at school can experience a reduced sense
of belonging and wellbeing.

Causes of school problems

Some of the more common causes of school problems are underlying learning
difficulties or learning disabilities – like dyslexia – or behavioural or emotional issues.
But there are many other reasons why a young person might not be achieving
academically.

Personal factors might include:

 chronic illness
 mental health issues like depression or anxiety
 experiences of trauma, shock or pain
 difficulties with self-esteem, communication skills or social skills
 difficulties with listening, concentrating or sitting still.

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School factors might include:

 disliking, or not feeling connected to, the school culture or environment

 disliking school subjects, not liking the choice of subjects, or not feeling
challenged by the work
 poor school or academic support, especially in relation to heavy workloads
 not getting along with teachers or other students at school
 skipping school
 having trouble with managing time for things like extracurricular activities
 being bullied.

Children with additional needs

Some children and teenagers with attention problems, high levels of anxiety, or
impulsive or aggressive behaviour are at greater risk of problems at school. This is
because they might find it harder to adapt to the demands of the classroom setting, or
they might find it hard to concentrate during tasks and teacher instructions.

There’s also a strong link between physical health and academic performance.
Some children who have additional needs resulting from chronic illness, intellectual
disability, or behaviour or developmental difficulties might be more at risk of developing
academic problems or difficulties with relationships at school.

Children who miss a lot of school because of a temporary or chronic condition might find
it difficult to catch up when they return to school. This can also make them feel anxious
and stressed, which adds to the problem.

Academic performance might be influenced by reduced self-esteem or changes in peer

relationships that are linked to children’s additional needs.

Getting help for children with additional needs

Although not every child with additional needs will have academic
problems, establishing a strong relationship with your child’s school early and
regularly monitoring your child’s progress throughout schooling can help you pick up on
early signs of problems.

If problems do come up, you can get help from school staff as well as from your GP and
other health professionals.

It’s important to be aware of your child’s rights in relation to education. For more
information, read our article on education rights for children with disabilities.

Improving Monitoring and Evaluation

Improved monitoring and evaluation is needed to address two pressing issues: the

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first is assessment of the academic achievements of the system, while the other is
with monitoring the implementation of all aspects of the plan.

Two elements of Monitoring and Evaluation are considered in the plan. The first deals
with assessment of the academic achievements of the system while the other deals
with monitoring the implementation of all aspects of the plan.

Assessment

During the implementation of BEAMS the Measurement and Evaluation Unit of NCERD was
significantly reinforced. There was a specialist appointed for each region to help with the
introduction of the concept of continuous assessment and the development of the national
assessment tests that were done during the implementation of BEAMS.

The central unit was also reinforced with the appointment of a number of specialists to support
the developments that were planned during the period. The results were encouraging not only
because of the information provided to guide the planning process, but also because of the
learning that took place in the unit. More recently the Ministry has agreed to be a part of the
Early Grade Reading Assessment (EGRA) which is being undertaken by a number of countries.

It is important for the system to continue to obtain these measurements, which in essence are
providing the best indicator for learning and for the delivery of education in the country.

Monitoring of the Sector

One of the weaknesses during the last plan period was the absence of systematic and regular
monitoring of the progress of the plan. The 2003 plan outlined a proposed Monitoring and
Evaluation Structure but loss of staff in both the Planning and Management Information System
Units constrained the full execution of the system. There was some progress however, staff from
the Planning Unit received on-the-job training from the Monitoring and Evaluation Specialist of
BEAMS and one person was able to take over the preparation of reports for BEAMS when he
left. The Statistical Unit of the Ministry was enhanced by the employment of both a Senior
Statistician and a Statistician. Two persons in the Planning unit completed Masters degrees
and in general the work of the Unit in building an indicator system has been supported through
technical assistance from a consultant under the Social Statistics Project (overseen by the Office
of the President) It is strongly recommended that a stronger Monitoring and Evaluation System
with a comprehensive indicator system be an important component of this plan.

Developing Managerial Capacity and Making the

System more Accountable
There is a need to continue strategic efforts in developing managerial capacity and
making the system more accountable.

A recurrent issue raised by stakeholders, in particular parents, is the need for a

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better supervision system. The general consensus was that it was ineffective at both
the school and regional levels. At the school level it was felt that head teachers and
other senior administrators lacked management skills. These were also problems
that were highlighted in consultations for the previous plan.

Considerable emphasis was given to changing this during the last four years. The Ministry,
through NCERD, has trained over 500 school administrators in management through an 18
month distance education programme and more recently a Masters Degree programme is being
offered by the University of Guyana in collaboration with an American University for
administrators at school and regional departmental levels as well as potential managers of the
system. The Ministry now needs to assess whether the management training has had any impact
on the organisation and management of schools.

In a further effort to enhance managerial capacity and general supervision of the education
system, several organizational changes have been made at the central level in the last year. The
first was the Monitoring, Evaluation, Reporting and Development (MERD) Unit. This unit which
is headed by the Deputy Chief Education Officer, formerly responsible for Development, takes
under its umbrella, the Inspectorate Unit. The Inspectorate Unit was tasked with inspecting 10%
of approximately 1000 schools across the country everyyear. Limited human resources, through
loss of staff due to retirement or promotion made meaningful and effective inspection to improve
the standard and quality of education almost impossible for the Inspectorate to achieve. With the
new model of the MERD Unit however, meaningful and effective supervision can be achieved.
In this model, the Unit will conduct monitoring visits to each region at least twice a year using
appropriate monitoring and evaluation instruments. A sample of the schools in the regions,
especially poor performing schools, will also be visited in an effort to validate the data presented
on them by the Regional Education managers. Hence, MERD will assess pedagogical needs of
the Departments of Education and enhance the capacity of Regional Educational Managers in the
monitoring of schools in their regions.

Another organizational change at the central level was the establishment of the Policy
Implementation and Monitoring Unit (PIMU). This unit is now headed by the Deputy Chief
Education Officer (PIMU) who was formerly the Deputy Chief Education Officer
(Administration). This unit was established as a result of the high degree of non-compliance and
poor monitoring and implementation of policies in the education sector. The PIMU will take
under its umbrella the Schools Welfare Services, Parent Teachers Associations and the School
Board Secretariat. PIMU will now be responsible for general administrative functions for the
education system and implementing and monitoring of all policies and regulations, especially
those related to corporal punishment , financial regulations and relevant matters, release of
teachers to attend the University of Guyana, issuance, care and maintenance of textbooks,
establishment of private schools and related matters, placement at nursery, primary and
secondary levels through the respective Assistant Chief Education Officers (ACEO) and the
Placement Unit, rationalization of staff at the different levels through, the respective ACEOs,
gazetting and grading of schools and ensuring the appraisal of all employees. There are
indications that these changes will improve accountability but it is still too early to assess the
impact. There is however strong support for these changes.

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Developing an Inclusive Education System
Particular attention needs to be given to developing a more inclusive education
system that provides quality and equitable opportunities to indigenous and
hinterland children and children with disabilities. Gender equality and equity also
need to be integrated as a goal within a truly inclusive system.

The Ministry of Education understands the need for an education system that is
flexible and accommodates diversity. This means that the MOE has to create the
opportunity for all students to be in regular classes where the education programme
caters for their individual needs and where they are accepted and supported.

The development of an inclusive education system also means that the MOE has to make the
system flexible to cater for children along the entire spectrum from the very gifted to the severely
disabled. The tendency in Guyana however, is to regard inclusive education as necessary for
children with physical disabilities and to cater less for the gifted and highly talented children
UNICEF in a listing of the “Characteristics of a Rights- Based and Child-Friendly School”
supports the provision of an education opportunity that “meets differing circumstances and needs
of children (e.g. as determined by gender, culture, social class, ability level)”. In Guyana, efforts
have been made to reduce sex stereotyping in education material, to offer a module in the teacher
training programme on gender, to offer males and females the same programme options and to
respond to the needs of the indigenous communities where English may not be the first language
and where cultural norms may be somewhat different from other communities. In addition it has
sought to meet Special Education Needs. There have been different degrees of success in various
areas. Sex stereotyping in materials has certainly been significantly reduced and although there
are still perceptions in society about traditionally male and female subject areas, and males and
females cluster in different specialities in the higher grades, the Ministry offers the same
curriculum to all students.

There have been limited attempts to respond to the language issue with the Ministry supporting
the use of the children’s mother tongue, where possible, in the early years of school and giving
support to projects such as the Macushi Language project. These are very preliminary efforts and
more needs to be done at the teacher training level to respond to the needs of different genders or
groups. 

One of the areas of greatest concern has been the inability to adequately meet special education
needs of children with physical or mental disabilities. Although some efforts have been made in
the last five years to meet special education needs (SEN) it is probably true that this is one of the
most neglected areas in the education sector. This is reflected in surveys and consultations that
were conducted by other organisations such as the National Commission on Disability (NCD)
and the Volunteer Service Organisation (VSO), from which the education sector has benefited.
In a study carried out under the auspices of NCD with the assistance of VSO, it was found that of
the persons surveyed 15% have never attended school, 42% of which were under 16 years. There
are some children with disabilities who are able to access education in Special
Education Institutions; however data shows that less than 40% of the teachers in these schools
have sufficient training. Further research also reports that persons with disabilities who are
mainstreamed in regular schools have to contend with negative attitudes from other students and

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teachers.

During the period under review a special education module was developed, which every teacher
trainee at CPCE must take. This is a very basic module however and there is a critical need for
higher levels of specialised training to be offered. It is also essential to the effective
implementation of SEN programmes that the Ministry appoints a Special Education Coordinator
who will drive the process from the level of Central Ministry; especially since so much inter-
ministry and other levels of coordination is crucially necessary. The Ministry also needs to make
several policy decisions to give direction to the scope and strategies/methodologies of
implementation. These include the management and funding of special schools, level or scope of
inclusion, teacher training, curriculum modification, support services, levels of parent education
and partnership and career paths for teachers. Indeed, there are few persons willing to work in
this area, especially teachers, because the career path is very limited. The new plan must also
address these issues.

Improving the Number of Trained Teachers for Quality

Improvement in Education
One of the major problems that the sector faces with respect to teachers is the
continuous loss of trained teachers. In general, the average loss is about 12%
annually with 40 to 45 percent being trained teachers. Over a three year period 633
trained teachers left the public education sector for various reasons.

The need for more trained teachers has been highlighted under every key issue.
There is a very strong perception that more trained teachers will have a very positive
impact on the system. CPCE provides initial teacher education and training
programmes for Nursery (Early Childhood Education), Primary and Secondary school
teachers through a pre-service programme at the main campus and in-service
programmes, generally by distance mode, in 14 in-service centres spread across the
country.

TABLE 1 Teacher Graduates by Education Levels 2003-2007

Year ECE Primary Secondary Tec. Voc Total

 2003  1  12  67 20 100

 2004  62  187  79 33 361
 2005  118  213  142 39 512
2006 40 138 75 26 279
2007 60 136 76 47 319
Total 281 686 341 165 1571

Bachelor in Education degrees, a Certificate in Education and a post-graduate Diploma in

Education (for persons with a first degree) are also offered by the University of Guyana (UG) but
it should be noted that all of these persons are already teachers in the system. One issue that has

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been pending for many years is closer articulation between the programmes of CPCE and UG. It
is felt that UG should give more credit to the Trained Teacher Certificate offered by CPCE and
reduce the time that it takes for a teacher to complete the Bachelor in Education degree. In
addition the National Centre for Education Resource Development (NCERD) offers continuous
professional programmes to practising teachers.

No specific study has been done by the Ministry of Education to ascertain why teachers leave the
system voluntarily before the age of retirement but there is anecdotal evidence that better salary
options are a major reason for teachers from Guyana going to jobs in other sectors and to teach
outside of Guyana. It does not appear that Guyana in the near future will be able to compete with
salaries offered outside of the country, but there have been consistent attempts in recent years to
improve the salary and conditions of service for teachers. The Government and the Guyana
Teachers Union (GTU) entered into a multi-year agreement for increases in salaries as well as
payment of a vacation allowance for the special leave that teachers get after four years of service.
There were several clauses in the agreement that improve the position of teachers, but salaries
remain an issue.
TABLE 2 Number of Teachers in Schools by Categories 2007

Trained Untrained Trained Untrained

School/level  Total
Graduates Graduates. Teachers Teachers

 Nursery  118  3  882  873 (47%)  1876

 Primary  194  2  2134  1728 (43%)  4058
 S.D. Of Primary  11  1  201  287 (57%)  500
CHS 39 13 181 201 (46%) 434
GSS 317 169 1125 831 (34%) 2435
Total 679 181 (2%) 4523 3920 (42%) 9303
 At the secondary level the situation is further complicated by the fact that even though teachers
are trained they may not be teaching the subject in which they specialise.

There is very strong consensus that the proportion of trained teachers must be increased and
practising teachers must be encouraged to continually engage in professional development
programmes to keep abreast of trends in the profession.

Information and Communication Technology (ICT)

Effective incorporation of ICT in teaching and learning practices and improvement of
ICT equipment needs to be sustained.

Information and Communication Technology was identified as a key issue in a

number of areas. First, televisions, radios and, in particular computers, can be used
to support the delivery of quality education. Second, there is a need to produce
ICT/computer literate graduates and finally, computers can be used as a management

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tool in all levels of the system. The Government of Guyana has recognized the huge
potential of Information and Communication Technology
(ICT) to empower Guyanese to meet developmental challenges and strengthen the
economy.

The Government has therefore outlined various policies that are aimed at creating an
environment that will foster technology use and encourage investment in ICT. These include
fiscal policies that allow the import of computers free of tax and the integration of ICT in some
critical areas. Education is one of the most critical of these areas because narrowing the digital
gap is more than just providing physical access to computers and the Internet, people must
understand how to put it to good use.

The Education Strategic Plan (2003-2007) had as its most important objective the improvement
in the quality of the delivery of education especially in the area of literacy and numeracy. The
increased use of technology was among the strategies identified to achieve the improvement in
quality. At the primary level the teaching of mathematics by Interactive Radio Instruction for the
first three grades was introduced. A new methodology for teaching literacy, with a strong
emphasis on phonics, was implemented at the primary and nursery levels and, as indicated in the
section on literacy, some low performing primary schools were supported by innovative
technology, including the setting up of computer laboratories and the use of supporting software
programs in at least fourteen schools. At the secondary level the setting up of computer
laboratories has mainly been for the purpose of allowing students to pursue studies in
Information Technology and to offer this subject at the Caribbean Secondary Education
Certificate Examinations (CSEC) offered by the Caribbean Examinations Council (CXC).

In order to address the issue of computers to schools, the Ministry implemented a “Computers
for Schools” pilot project with assistance from the Organisation of American States (OAS). This
project has resulted in the placement of approximately 500 refurbished computers into schools
and the setting up of a Computer Refurbishing Centre at the Government Technical Institute
(GTI). The Ministry intends to continue this programme and encourage partnerships with private,
public and NGOs to help meet the ICT resource requirements.

The use of computer technology has also become a major necessity for the Technical and
Vocational Education and Training (TVET) Institutions. All of these institutions are offering
programmes on computer studies for those who had no exposure to the technology at school. In
addition, Computer Aided Design Training is now almost indispensable in instruction for
drafting in engineering, construction, interior design and so on. Further the TVET institutions are
now offering courses in the maintenance of computers.
The use of computers at all levels of the education system requires that teachers themselves be
familiar with the technology. The latest quarterly edition of the Newsletter from UNESCO’s
International Institute of Education Planning states that “Effective (not just formal) incorporation
of ICT in teaching practices is best provided through in-service teacher training and staff
development programs for education personnel”. The Education Strategic Plan 2003-2007 set as
a goal the improvement of equipment (including computer equipment) at the Cyril Potter College
of Education (CPCE) centres and greater orientation to education technology. This has started
but needs to continue during the next five years.

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Technical and Vocational Education
There is a shortage of trained staff in some disciplines and equipment and physical
facilities need to be upgraded.

Some of the problems in this sub-sector are similar to those for Science. Lack of
trained staff in some disciplines is one of them. Between 2003 and 2007 about 322
technical teachers were trained. It should be noted that these are not all new entrants
to the system; many are practicing teachers who are now being trained. The general
view is that this is an inadequate number. The majority of tools and equipment are
outdated and there are no specialist rooms to carry out the programme in some
schools.

Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) is the application of Science and
Technology and the reasons for the emphasis in this area are the same as those for Science and
Technology, but it is being highlighted as a separate issue. TVET is delivered in 8 post
secondary institutions under the control of the MOE. These institutions offer training up to Level
3 of the Caribbean Vocational Qualification (CVQ). This network of training institutions offers a
wide range of training programmes in Secretarial Science, Building, Mechanical, Electrical,
Craft Design and Hospitality subjects. These institutions are located in four regions and there is a
demand for additional facilities in other regions.

Prevocational Education is offered in General Secondary Schools, Practical Instruction Centres,

Community High Schools and several Primary Tops. The programmes done at this level can lead
to CXC certification or to the Basic Competency Certificate. This type of training and education
is seen as a vital link between the world of work and school.

The Ministry has received additional capital funds during the last two years to upgrade the
prevocational programme in the schools offering the BCCP. There were some procurement
problems in the first year so the programme has been slower off the ground than anticipated. The
Ministry has also used these BCCP schools to offer a vocational programme (Skills for Life) to
out-of-school youth. The recommendation is to gradually increase the number of schools that are
properly equipped to offer this pathway.

Science and Technology

The lack of students opting to study Science and Technology leads to a lack of
teachers in the field, which in turn contributes to a poor quality of science education
at both secondary and tertiary levels.

One school of thought holds that the differences in scientific and technological
infrastructure and the popularisation of science and technology are among the most
important causes of differential social and economic levels between developing and
developed countries. This view is accepted by educators and stakeholders in
Guyana. It is felt that rapid technological changes and changes in the structure of the
economy on a local and global level require the Ministry to place considerable
emphasis on Science and Technology, including Information Technology, which will

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be dealt with in more depth further on in the document.

The current situation is that the number of students opting to do science at the secondary level in
Guyana is very small. In Biology, Chemistry and Physics the number of entries is below a
thousand for each subject area while it is just over a thousand in Information Technology. The
numbers taking Electronics, Mechanical Engineering Technology and Building Technology are
even smaller (less than 200 in most areas). An analysis of the situation reveals that the problem
begins at the primary level where science is often taught like any other subject with little
practical application and there is no real effort to begin an introduction to technology.
The problem is compounded by a shortage of competent teachers to deliver science and
technology at both levels. The problem has become a vicious circle with small numbers at the
secondary level becoming even smaller at the tertiary level. For teachers to teach successfully at
the secondary level, they require a first degree in the subject discipline. Only a few persons
graduate each year in Biology, Chemistry, Physics and Information Technology and most of the
Science graduates do not go into teaching. The result is that under-qualified teachers are required
to teach these subjects in the secondary schools. At the secondary level many laboratories are not
functioning and laboratory assistants/technicians are no longer appointed to schools.
The Ministry has recently embarked on an emergency in-service programme to improve the
qualifications of persons teaching English and Mathematics. Approximately 300 practising
teachers are enrolled. The intent is to extend this initiative to Science teachers in the near future.
Efforts have also been made to provide laboratories to schools that do not have them and to
rehabilitate existing ones. These programmes will have to continue over the next five years.

Universal Secondary Education

Quality is a major concern as well as increasing access at this level. Priority issues
are: poor quality of primary graduates entering secondary schools; poor retention of
students especially males; poorer quality of education in Primary Tops and
Community High Schools; low performance in Mathematics and English; a high
proportion of untrained teachers and a need for more specialist teachers; a high level
of student and teacher absenteeism and the need for upgraded physical facilities.

Guyana, in common with other CARICOM countries, embarked on a policy of Universal

Secondary Education (USE) more than five years ago. Generally the strategy was to improve the
quality of education offered at this level by amalgamating Secondary Departments (SD) of
Primary schools/Primary Tops (Grades 7 to 9) and Community High Schools (CHS) into General
Secondary Schools (GSS) in which all students could present for the Caribbean Examination
Certificate (CXC) or an alternative competency-based Certificate. The reason for the change was
that that each type of school followed a different programme for different time periods (3 to
5 years), and the education programmes offered at the Secondary Departments and CHS were
regarded as lower in quality when compared with that offered at GSS. Among the expected
outcomes was that 40% of secondary school leavers should achieve Grades 1 to 3 proficiency in
five subjects at one sitting. In 2007 the MOE, with assistance from the World Bank,
commissioned a critical analysis of the policies and plans for achieving secondary education
goals, the development of a simulation model to estimate the costs of major alternative policy
options and the provision of recommendations to GOG for the finalisation of secondary

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education policy for Guyana.

The report presents nine key findings. In the first two the view is posited that quality primary
education outcomes are the basis for achieving USE. Essentially it is felt that Grade 6 completion
rates, primary school attendance and the Secondary School Entrance Examination results
determine the demand for secondary education. There is poor transition from primary to
secondary across all regions but it appears to be greater for boys in Georgetown and Region 4.
The report also highlights the disparity between results of hinterland and coastal rural regions
and coastal urban regions; the former having much lower averages in Mathematics and English.
Secondary grade repetition, especially of males in Grade 7 remains high (14.4% males, 8.8%
females in 2005). The report points out that “Hinterland Grade 7 repetition rate (17.6%) and
Coastal urban repetition (18.3%) are different phenomena but each threatens the viability of
secondary education”. In general, retention of students from Grades 7 through 11 is too low.
Overall only 38% of Grade 7 students from 2001/2002 were still present in Grade 11 in
2005/2006. More disturbing is the fact that male retention was 31.5% compared with 45.6% for
girls.
 TABLE 1 – Secondary School – Dropout Rates by Level and Sex Secondary School Drop-Outs by Education
District and Sex
2004 - 2005
2005 - 2006 2006 - 2007

Education
   Number of Drop- % Drop-Out  Number of Drop- % Drop-Out Number of Drop-
District  
outs Rate outs Rate outs

 Male  Female Total Male Female Male Female Total Male Female Male
 Region 1  119 126  245 26.67  20.67  59  43  102  3.00  2.67  17

Region 2 248 158 406 13.33  10.67  95  85  181 9.33   12.33  185

Region 3 309 275 584 8.67  8.33  249  252  501  4.33  4.33 497 

Region 4 868 625 1493 19.33  17.33  814  694 1508   18.33  17.33  673

Georgetown 728 775 1503 4.33  5.00  796  648  1444  5.00  4.00  606

Region 5  133 197 330 4.67  5.67  196  217  413  6.67  8.00  211

Region 6 476 648 1124 17.33  28.00  633  540  1173  7.67  8.33  511

Region 7 69 45 114 6.33  3.67  32  40  72  3.33  4.00  81

Region 8  47 59 106 8.00  12.00  54  38  92  8.00  6.33  41

Region 9  33 32 65 1.33  1.33  170  161  331  7.67  7.67  141

Region 10 18 16 24 3.00  1.33  3  2  5  0.33  0.33  83

Total 3048 2946 5994 12.00  3102 3102  2720  5822  10.67  10.33  3046

The report also highlights low student attendance rates especially in Secondary Departments of
primary schools and CHS (60%).

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The other key findings focus on the quality of teachers at this level, the range of subjects offered
and on CXC results. The proportion of trained teachers is too low and very unevenly distributed.
The problem is compounded by the loss of trained teachers, especially trained graduates, and
their replacement by untrained persons. The report also highlights poor CXC outcomes in
English Language and in Mathematics and the fact that the number of students achieving 5
subjects (Grades 1-3) is less than half the planned outcome.

Many of the issues documented in the report were also expressed by persons in the regional
consultations. The drop-out rate of boys was a matter of particular concern, which many felt was
partially due to the inability of many of the secondary institutions to offer a programme that
would capture their interest. The lack of technical facilities in the CHS and SD of primary
schools was also highlighted.

There has been some progress in the last five years in achieving some of the objectives set in the
2003 Plan, especially in the conversion of CHS and, to a lesser extent, the amalgamation of SDs.
The BEAMS and GEAP projects provided over 5000 new places in GSS so the proportion of
students in this type of school increased by over 15% while the proportion in SD and CHS
declined. There has also been some work done on the review of curriculum and a policy
document on secondary education has been prepared by senior education managers. There are
still unattained objectives. In many cases conversion of schools has not been done according to
the
recommendations outlined in two previous secondary projects (GEAP and SSRP) and the result
has simply been a change in name without any real change in the programme offered to students.
In particular, the policies and strategies for the alternative pathway have been piloted in some
schools but there is need for additional training of teachers for the new programme and the
relevant equipment and supplies need to be available in a timely manner.

School Health, Nutrition and HIV & AIDS

School Health, Nutrition and HIV & AIDS: good health and nutrition and some
essential life skills were highlighted as essential inputs and outputs of a good quality
basic education. Additional training and effective monitoring were among identified
needs. One of the achievements during the last plan period was the drafting of the
Education sector “School Health, Nutrition, HIV and AIDS” (SHN, HIV/AIDS) policy
and plan. The overarching principle that guided the drafting of both the policy and
plan has been Guyana’s commitment to the achievement of Education for All. In
pursuit of this, the strategic plan for SHN, HIV/AIDS has been developed in order to
improve the education, health and nutrition of school children, teachers and other
members of the education sector of Guyana.

This is because the Government of Guyana recognises that good health and nutrition are not only
essential inputs but also important outcomes of a good quality basic education. A new unit has
already been set up to coordinate and implement the activities of this plan and two persons have
already been contracted. An excellent collaborative relationship has been developed with the
Ministry of Health and this will continue in the new plan period.

Nutrition
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The School feeding programme has to be more targeted and delivered to recipients on
aconsistent basis. The community-based school feeding programme, which is facilitated by funds
from the EFA-FTI programme, is being implemented in 60 of the 138 primary schools in the
four hinterland regions (1, 7, 8 and 9). The milk and biscuit snack programme served over 80%
of the nursery and primary schools each year but this was often on a sporadic basis because of
the difficult terrain in some regions, high transportation costs and inadequate funding. There was
also a specific programme in about nine communities in Region 9 that offered a
locally manufactured peanut butter and cassava bread snack on a more consistent basis. The
programmes which are regularly implemented have had a very positive effect on attendance and
the Ministry has gathered baseline data that facilitated the measurement of this and other results
of the community based lunch programme. The second round of data is now being collected.

HIV and AIDS

The education sector has a vital role to play in response to this epidemic. There is need for
additional training and effective monitoring of teachers. Among the most pressing issues
affecting people in Guyana is HIV and AIDS. The Ministry of Education has therefore taken the
decision to position HIV prevention within the context of an holistic programme of school health
and nutrition activities and sees the education sector as having a vital role to play in the
country’s response to the epidemic. During the last five years, the main vehicle for implementing
the education component of the HIV and AIDS programme in schools has been the Health and
Family Life Education Programme (HFLE). Recent evaluation of this programme highlighted the
need for additional training and effective monitoring of teachers trained to deliver the
programme.

School/Classroom Environment
There is a need to improve the school and classroom environment in order to
contribute to the improvement of the quality of education. Specifically, areas of
concern are school facilities and utilities, supervision of both hinterland and coastal
regions, implementing child-friendly programmes, and absenteeism rates of both
students and teachers.

The development of a quality education system is the result of many factors. Those highlighted
in the consultations are: facilities with adequate space and in a good state of repair; clean water
and proper sanitation facilities; support services which include school feeding, and other forms
of economic assistance, screening programmes and welfare services. The need for relevant
curriculum, child-centred and child friendly approaches, more use of technology (computers,
televisions etc.) and more regular attendance by students and teachers was also raised in various
meetings.

Several initiatives were implemented, with varying degrees of success, during 2003-2007 to deal
with these issues.

 Improvement of physical facilities/infrastructure: about 50% of schools still need sanitary

facilities and utilities upgraded.

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The Ministry completed and published its non-academic standards, which give clear guidelines
on the minimum standards schools should try to attain with regard to physical facilities,
availability of equipment, teacher/pupil ratio and so on. During this five-year period, the
maintenance budget of the Ministry rose from US$3.1million in 2003 to US$4.36 million in
2007. In addition, new schools, some of them replacing dilapidated structures, were constructed
with the greatest investment being at the secondary level. Concerted efforts have been made
under various programmes to improve the physical environment of schools. Under the EFA-FTI
programme 37 primary schools had their utilities (water, sanitation and electricity)
upgraded. UNICEF and PAHO contributed to the improvement of water and sanitary facilities in
over 30 additional schools and further work was done under the capital programme with national
funds. In summary, during the last five years about 25% of primary schools had their water and
sanitation facilities upgraded. Training workshops to sensitise the school communities on better
environmental practices accompanied the refurbished
facilities. In the view of stakeholders, upgrading of physical facilities needs to continue. This is
particularly true at secondary level.

Child-friendly Initiatives: there are a large number of schools (over 70%) which still have
not adopted the child-friendly programme.

In the 2003-2007 period, the Ministry stepped up its efforts to create child-friendly and effective
primary schools. An instrument was designed to assess the degree to which a school could be
deemed to be childfriendlyand this was shared with all regional departments. In the coastal
regions, Region 6 continued the work started with assistance from UNICEF, encouraging the
formation of student governments, library and learning corners, cooperative group learning and
close school-community relations. About 50% of the primary schools in this region are
implementing various components of this programme and about half of those have all
the components present; with the exception of flexible promotion. Region 2 has been the success
story of this programme. All of their primary schools (38) are now trained to use child-friendly
methodologies and the approach is being followed in all of the schools. In Georgetown and
Region 4 child-friendly initiatives are being piloted in 7 schools in which many of the students
come from poor socio-economic circumstances. In the hinterland regions the Ministry, with
funding from the EFA-FTI and UNICEF and with technical assistance from the Colombian NGO
“Escuela Nueva-Fundacion Volvamos a la Gente”, resuscitated the hinterland version of the
child-friendly school (Escuela Nueva programme) with a new emphasis on multi-grade
teaching. The Ministry however was unable to roll out these initiatives in the systematic way
outlined in the 2003 plan, except in the regions mentioned, and less than half of the expected
number of schools is fully implementing the programme. In both the hinterland and coastal
regions a major problem was lack of dedicated supervision and support to teachers. In the
hinterland in particular, the first schools selected were long distances away from the regional
offices. It has been recommended that the Ministry employ sub-regional coordinators who
can monitor and support the schools on a more regular basis. Shortage of staff in regional
departments and inadequate funds to travel to do monitoring was also an issue for coastal
regions.

Instructional time: high absenteeism rate (at least 25%) by both students and teachers
Stakeholders also expressed great concern about absenteeism on the part of teachers and students

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at all levels. In both cases (i.e. for teachers and students) absenteeism ranges between 25 to 40
percent. The need for higher levels of attendance was also highlighted by the consultant who
carried out an in-depth analysis of secondary education in Guyana. The 2003-2007 Plan had
included higher levels of attendance as a specific objective (80% for hinterland regions and 90%
for coastal regions) but while there has been some improvement,especially in some of the
hinterland regions, the overall rates are still under 80%. The Ministry has strengthened the
welfare sections in all of the regional education departments in the past year in an attempt to deal
with this and other child protection issues.
 Innovative Technology: continued and more innovative use of technology to support
classroom instruction and the delivery of distance education programmes were among
recommendations by stakeholders to mitigate the shortage of skilled teachers in some
areas.
The introduction of technologies to support learning in schools was initiated under several
projects supported by external funding. At the primary level both the BEAMS project and its
forerunner the Primary Education Improvement Project (PEIP) built computer laboratories in a
small number (18) of schools. Under the BEAMS project a supportive software “Success Maker”
was introduced into 14 schools which have been monitored and supported on a consistent basis.
There has been a 100% improvement in the language and mathematics results in 10 of these
schools and improvement continues on a consistent basis. Although this is a small pilot the
improvement in performance has led to a demand for similar interventions in other schools. As a
part of the Innovative Technology component of BEAMS, over the last year, 30 phonics kits
have been distributed to schools and primary school teachers have been trained to use these kits.
In addition 300 scholastic libraries have been bought for schools. It is too early to assess the
effect of these interventions but the results of these schools in the National Assessments for
Grades 2 and 4 will be closely monitored. The use of distance education modes as in the case of
the delivery of Mathematics via an interactive radio programme and English and Mathematics
through television programmes have also been considered as innovative. Continued and more
innovative use of technology to deliver distance education was among recommendations by
stakeholders to mitigate the shortage of skilled teachers in some areas.

PROBLEMS OF EDUCATION CASE STUDY KENYA

5 Most Severe Challenges Facing Secondary School

Students.
There are many challenges that are facing the education sector in Africa and have been facing
for quite some time now. These challenges affect the students’ educational learning and
understanding in big way. The major reasons for the many challenges faced by secondary
school students in Africa are due to corruption and selfishness. Politicians would rather
embezzle the funds that are allocated for the purpose of developing secondary schools instead
of investing in the schools. Most European countries invest in schools, but Africa is not willing to
learn. This article seeks to highlight the major challenges faced by secondary school students.
1. Unqualified teachers
A vast majority of most private secondary schools in Africa are only after profit and not on the
knowledge that should be impacted on the students. This is one of the major challenges with the
education sector in Africa. The private school owners of most private secondary schools employ

129
unqualified teachers who lack the expertise on teaching profession to teach students. This is
one of the many reasons why many students end up performing poorly and also one of the root
causes of examination malpractices.

2. Poor Infrastructure
When it comes to the level of poor infrastructure, there is no debate that African
secondary school students make use of poor infrastructural structure during their
studies. This includes the use of poorly built schools, which in turn negatively affects
their level of understanding. An example could be, students learning in a class which
has little or no roofing; it if happens to rain, what could possibly happen to the students
and the teacher teaching them at that particular time? The only result is that either the
lesson ends immediately or the students are dismissed for the day.
3. Inadequate payment
Another challenge facing secondary school students in Africa is the inadequate
payment of teachers. Teachers being inadequately paid, leads to nationwide teachers’
strikes. This negatively affects students, especially those in their final year. Teachers
boycott classes up until a decision is made by the government at the various teachers’
unions. In the mean time, students end up missing on a lot of learning which could later
affect them at the end of the term, or during their final examinations, for those in their
final year. Paying the teachers good and adequate salaries will make the qualified
educated Africans develop an interest in teaching.; and in the long run students will find
education rather interesting than stressful.
4. Poor government monitoring
Most governments in Africa do not have monitoring teams. Every government should at
least ensure they appoint or elect monitoring teams. These teams help the government
by visiting various secondary schools and closely examining the quality of teachers,
infrastructural level, and other key areas that need to examine in secondary schools. If
this is effectively implemented, secondary schools will reduce the number unqualified
teachers, and ensure that students get the best form of quality education that can be.
5. Computer learning
It is no secret that computers are now taking the center stage of learning in the whole
world. However, one of the major challenges students face is the non-availability of
computer instructors. Despite the fact that computers have been installed, the million
dollar question is who will ensure the students learn the computer skills? Employing
good instructors that are well paid will help the students to acquire the necessary skills

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needed in computer.

More other challenges facing education in Kenya include;

There are several challenges that have been as blocks for attainment of goals and
objectives of education in Kenya. Some of these challenges are natural, some
financial in nature while others are economically and socially induced. Political
challenges also are a major reason why these goals and objectives are still not
achievable. 

Here are some of the challenges of education in Kenya:

1. Lack of adequate infrastructure and shortage of permanent classrooms in primary

schools, particularly in poor counties. For example in North Eastern parts of the
country. 

2. Lack of clear legal guidelines on the implementation of inclusive education and non
formal education programs. The guidelines provided for implementation of educational
plan are always inefficient.
3. Lack of reliable data on children with special needs, out-of-school children and
illiterate adults and youth. This results due to inadequate machines and personnel in
collecting, analyzing and recording correct data.

4. Shortfall of adult literacy teachers as well as teaching and learning materials. There
are no proper motivation and clear follow up on adult education which discourages
education in this level.

5. Low transition rates from primary to secondary, secondary to higher education

institutions, and higher education to special fields or job market.

6. Outdated curricula for technical, vocational education and training. 

7. Inadequate physical facilities for technical, vocational education and training as well
as mechanisms for quality assurance; 

8. Limited resources for expansion of universities to cope with the number of students
leaving secondary schools.

9. Mismatch between skills offered by universities and the demands of the labour
market. 

10. High number of HIV/AIDS orphans. 

11. High pupils to teacher ratios in densely populated areas and low pupil to teacher
ratios in less populated regions.

12. Due to the need to contain the wage bill to manageable levels, the government does

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not employ new teachers, but only replaces those who leave through death, resignation
or retirement. This has led to shortfall of teachers in schools.

Strategies to address these challenges

1. The Ministry of Education has drafted a national policy on ECE, which provides
guidelines on the implementation of the ECE programmes. The draft policy is under
discussion with the stakeholders before being finalized and adopted. 
2. Adult literacy survey was conducted between June and August 2006 and findings
should establish the actual literacy levels in the country. 
3. Draft policy on gender and education is being developed. 
4. Draft policy on Open and Distance Learning (ODM) being developed. 
5. Review of all laws on education and training is on-going through a task force on legal
frame work for education and training. 

Ministry of Education has prepared a draft paper on teacher employment and

deployment to ensure equitable staff distribution.

EDUCATION SYSTEM IN NIGERIA (WEST AFRICA)

Education in Nigeria is overseen by the Ministry of Education. Local authorities take responsibility
for implementing state-controlled policy regarding public education and state schools. The education
system is divided into Kindergarten, Primary education, Secondary education and Tertiary education.
Nigeria's central government has been dominated by instability since declaring independence
from Britain, and, as a result, a unified set of education policies has not yet been successfully
implemented. Regional differences in quality, curriculum, and funding characterize the education
system in Nigeria.[2][3] Currently, Nigeria possesses the largest population of out-of-school
learning youth in the world.[3]

Students at a public school in Kwara State.

Primary education
Primary education begins at around age 3 for the majority of Nigerians. Students spend six years in
primary school and graduate with a school-leaving certificate. Subjects taught at the primary level
include mathematics, English language, Christian Religious Knowledge, Islamic knowledge studies,
agricultural science,home economics and one of the three main indigenous languages and
cultures: Hausa-Fulani, Yoruba, and Igbo. Private schools also offer computer science, French, and

132
Fine Arts. Primary school students are required to take a Common Entrance Examination to qualify
for admission into the Federal and State Government Secondary schools, as well as private ones.
Before 1976, education policy was still largely shaped by the colonial policy of the British Colonial
Period. In 1976, the Universal Primary Education program was established. This program faced
many difficulties and was subsequently revised in 1981 and 1990. [4] The Universal Basic
Education, UBE, came as a replacement of the Universal Primary Education and intended to
enhance the success of the first nine years of schooling The UBE involves 6 years of Primary School
education and 3 years of Junior Secondary School education, culminating in 9 years of uninterrupted
schooling, and transition from one class to another is automatic but determined through continuous
assessment. This scheme is monitored by the Universal Basic Education Commission, UBEC, and
has made it "free", "compulsory" and a right of every child. [5] Therefore, the UBEC law section 15
defines UBE as early childhood care and education. The law stipulates a 9-year formal schooling,
adult literacy and non-formal education, skill acquisition programs, and the education of special
groups such as nomads and migrants, girl child and women, Al-majiri, street children and disabled
people (Aderinoye, 2007). [6]

Secondary education
Students spend six years in Secondary School,that is 3 years of JSS (Junior Secondary School),
and 3 years of SSS (Senior Secondary School). By Senior Secondary School Class 2 (SS2),
students are taking the GCE O’Levels exam, which is not mandatory, but some students take it to
prepare for the Senior Secondary Certificate Examination. The Senior Secondary School ends on
the WASSCE. Junior Secondary School is free and compulsory. It leads to the BECE, which opens
the gate to Senior Secondary School.[7] SSS curriculum is based on 4 core subjects completed by 4
or 5 elective subjects. Core subjects are: English; mathematics; Economics; Civic Education; one or
more electives out of biology, chemistry, physics or integrated science; one or more electives out of
English literature, history, geography or social studies; agricultural science or a vocational subject
which includes: Commerce, food and nutrition, technical drawing or fine arts. [7]
After the BECE, students can also join a technical college. The curriculum for these also lasts 3
years and leads to a trade/craftsmanship certificate. [8]
The Federal Republic of Nigeria is made up of thirty-six States and the Federal Capital Territory.
There are about two Federal Government Colleges in each state. These schools are funded and
managed directly by the Federal Government through the Ministry of Education. Teachers and staff
are Federal Government employees. Teachers at the Federal Government schools are required to
possess a bachelor's degree in Education or in a particular subject area, such as, Mathematics,
Physics etc. These schools are supposed to be model schools carrying and maintaining the ideals of
secondary education for Nigerian students. Admission is based on merit, determined by the National
Common Entrance Examination taken by all final year elementary school pupils. Tuition and fees are
very low, approximately twenty five thousand naira ($69.08), because funding comes from the
Federal Government.[6]
State-owned secondary schools are funded by each state government and are not comparable to
the Federal government colleges. Although education is supposed to be free in the majority of the
state-owned institutions, students are required to purchase books, uniforms and pay for
miscellaneous things costing them an average of fifty thousand naira ($200) in an academic year.
Teachers in State-owned institutions usually have a National Certificate of Education or a bachelor's
degree, but this is not always the case as many secondary schools in Nigeria are filled with
unqualified teachers who end up not being able to motivate their students. Often these schools are
understaffed due to low state budgets, lack of incentives and irregularities in payment of staff
salaries.[6] Some state-owned secondary schools are regarded as elite colleges because of the
historically high educational standard and producing alumni who have prominent citizens in the

133
various careers. These included King's College, Lagos and Queen's College, Lagos. However, the
college ranking of these institutions have since dropped because of the arrival of some private
institutions.
Private secondary schools in Nigeria tend to be quite expensive with average annual fees averaging
from two hundred and fifty thousand naira to One million naira($1000.00 – $4000.00). These schools
have smaller classes (approximately twenty to thirty students per class), modern equipment and a
better learning environment. Most teachers in these institutions possess at least a bachelor's degree
in a specific course area and are sent for workshops or short term programs on a regular basis. [6]

Promotional examinations
With the introduction of the 6-3-3-4 system of education in Nigeria, the recipient of the education
would spend six years in primary school, three years in junior secondary school, three years in
senior secondary school, and four years in a tertiary institution. The six years spent in primary school
and the three years spent in junior secondary school are merged to form the nine in the 9-3-4
system. Altogether, the students must spend a minimum period of six years in Secondary School.
During this period, students are expected to spend three years in Junior Secondary School and
three years in Senior Secondary School.[6]
The General Certificate of Education Examination (GCE) was replaced by the Senior Secondary
Certificate Examination (SSCE). The SSCE is conducted at the end of the Secondary School studies
in May/June. The GCE is conducted in October/November as a supplement for those students who
did not get the required credits from their SSCE results. The standards of the two examinations are
basically the same. A body called West African Examination Council (WAEC) conducts both the
SSCE and GCE. A maximum of nine and a minimum of seven subjects are registered for the
examination by each student with Mathematics and English Language taken as compulsory. [6]
A maximum of nine grades are assigned to each subject from: A1, B2, B3 (Equivalent to Distinctions
Grade); C4, C5, C6 (Equivalent to Credit Grade); D7, E8 (Just Pass Grade); F9 (Fail Grade). Credit
grades and above is considered academically adequate for entry into any University in Nigeria. In
some study programs, many of the universities may require higher grades to get admission. [6]
The Federal Government policy on education is adhered to by all secondary schools in Nigeria. Six
years of elementary school is followed by six years of secondary school. Junior Secondary school
consists of JSS1, JSS2 and JSS3 which are equivalent to the 7th, 8th and 9th Grade while the
Senior Secondary school consists of SS I, SS 2, and SS 3 which is equivalent to the 10th, 11th and
12th Grade. The Senior Secondary School Examination (SSCE) is taken at the end of the SS 3.
The West African Examination Council (WAEC) administers both exams. Three to six months after a
student has taken the SSCE examination, they are issued an official transcript from their institution.
This transcript is valid for one year, after which an Official transcript from the West African
Examination Council is issued.
The National Examination Council is another examination body in Nigeria; it administers the Senior
Secondary School Examination (SSCE) in June/July. The body also administers the General
Certificate of Education Examination (GCE) in December/January. Students often take both WAEC
and NECO examinations in SSS 3.[6]

International education
As of January 2015, the International Schools Consultancy (ISC)[9] listed Nigeria as having 129
international schools.[10] ISC defines an 'international school' in the following terms "ISC includes an
international school if the school delivers a curriculum to any combination of pre-school, primary or
secondary students, wholly or partly in English outside an English-speaking country, or if a school in
a country where English is one of the official languages, offers an English-medium curriculum other

134
than the country’s national curriculum and is international in its orientation." [10] This definition is used
by publications including The Economist.[11]

Tertiary education
The government has majority control of university education. Tertiary education in Nigeria consists of
Universities (Public and Private), Polytechnics, Monotechnics, and Colleges of education. The
country has a total number of 129 universities registered by NUC among which federal and state
government own 40 and 39 respectively while 50 universities are privately owned. In order to
increase the number of universities in Nigeria from 129 to 138 the Federal Government gave 9 new
private universities their licences in May 2015. The names of the universities that got licenses in
Abuja included, Augustine University, Ilara, Lagos; Chrisland University, Owode, Ogun State;
Christopher University, Mowe, Ogun State; Hallmark University, Ijebu-Itele, Ogun State; Kings
University, Ode-Omu, Osun State; Micheal and Cecilia Ibru University, Owhrode, Delta
State; Mountain Top University, Makogi/Oba Ogun state; Ritman University, Ikot-Epene, Akwa- Ibom
State and Summit University, Offa, Kwara State.
First year entry requirements into most universities in Nigeria include: Minimum of SSCE/GCE
Ordinary Level Credits at maximum of two sittings; Minimum cut-off marks in Joint Admission and
Matriculation Board Entrance Examination (JAMB) of 180 and above out of a maximum of 400
marks are required. Candidates with minimum of Merit Pass in National Certificate of Education
(NCE), National Diploma (ND) and other Advanced Level Certificates minimum qualifications with
minimum of 5 O/L Credits are given direct entry admission into the appropriate undergraduate
degree programs.[6]
Students with required documents[12] typically enter university from age 17-18 onwards and study for
an academic degree. Historically, universities are divided into several tiers:

First generation universities[edit]

Five of these Universities were established between 1948 and 1965, following the recommendation
of the Ashby Commission set up by the British Colonial Government to study the necessity of
university education for Nigeria.[13] These universities are fully funded by the federal government.
They were established primarily to meet a need for qualified personnel in Nigeria and to set basic
standards for university education. These universities have continued to play their roles for the
production of qualified personnel and the provision of standards, which have helped to guide the
subsequent establishments of other generations of universities in Nigeria. Universities in this tier are

 University of Nigeria, Nsukka

 University of Lagos
 Obafemi Awolowo University
 Ahmadu Bello University Zaria
 University of Ibadan[6]
Second generation universities
With the increasing population of qualified students for university education in Nigeria and the
growing needs for scientific and technological developments, setting up more universities became
imperative. Between 1970 and 1985, 12 additional universities were established in various parts of
the country.[6]

Third generation universities

The need to establish Universities to address special areas of Technological and Agricultural

135
demand prompted the establishment of 10 additional Universities between 1985 and 1999. [6]

State universities
Pressures from qualified students from each state who could not readily get admissions to any of the
Federal Universities continued to mount on States Governments. It became imperative and urgent
for some State Governments to invest in the establishment of Universities. [6]

Private universities
The Federal Government established a law in 1993, allowing private sectors to establish universities
following guidelines prescribed by the Government. [6]
The typical duration of undergraduate programs in Nigerian universities depends largely on the
program of study. For example, Social Sciences/Humanity related courses are 4 Years, I.C.T related
courses are 4 years, Engineering/Technology related courses are 5 Years, Pharmacy courses are 5
Years, and Law courses are 5 Years, each with two semester sessions per year. Medicine
(Vet/Human) degrees take 6 Years and have longer sessions during the year. [6]

Vocational education
Within education in Nigeria, vocational training and informal education dominate as the central forms
of sharing regionally specific knowledge.[14] Administration of vocational education in the country is
overseen by the National Board for Technical Education. [15] In the early 1980s, as a result of high
unemployment rates for school graduates, the Nigerian government placed a new emphasis on
making vocational programs available to students. [16] Vocational education is now available to
students in Nigeria beginning at the secondary level, and the Nigerian government has declared its
dedication to improving technical and vocational education through a number of commissions and
programs. The most significant plan for improvement was the Master Plan for 2001-2010 for the
Development of the National Vocational Education system developed by the Federal Ministry of
Education in 2000. Current challenges for the enforcement of these systems includes a shortage of
teachers, poor statistics on the labour market needs, and outdated curriculum and technology at
vocational training centers.[15] As it stands now, students in Nigeria can pursue either a National
Technical Certificate or an Advanced National Technical Certificate. Administration of these
certificates is overseen by the National Business and Technical Examinations Board (NABTEB). [17] In
addition to institutional forms of vocational education, the Nigerian government allows and
encourages participation in apprenticeships. These apprenticeships are instrumental in instilling the
skills involved with a specific trade, but they also instill a commitment to community values including:
patience, determination, and respect.[14] Child Labour laws prevent children younger than 15 from
entering the workforce, but children less than 15 years of age may legally procure apprenticeships.
[15]
 While efforts are being made to improve the quality and availability of vocational education, many
policy oriented approaches have been blocked by a small number of politicians. [18] The failures to
properly implement a national approach to worker's education has roots in the political instability of
the country. To this end, many academics have questioned if politicians are attempting to
intentionally subjugate the working class through a lack of educational breadth. [19]

Informal education and literacy programs

136
The photograph above shows School age children participating in literacy education.

Informal modes of education have formed a foundation for tertiary education in Nigeria for many
years and are still at play today. These programs and structures are difficult to study and assess
unanimously as they are decentralized and unique in their missions and practices. [20] Many
academics have concluded that an overall lack of funding and centralization has significantly
hindered the quality, funding, and implementation of literacy programs for both school age children
and adults.[3] However, many have achieved success at promoting employment and increasing
economic mobility for those who have utilized the programs. In addition to
vocational apprenticeships, the Nigerian government and various NGOs have introduced communal
based strategies for increasing literacy rates among both children and adults. One such example is
the Centre of Excellence for Literacy and Literacy Education (CELLE), an NGO committed to
accelerating national development through literacy education. In 1992, CELLE launched the Premier
Reading Club (PRC), which is a nationally organized club with defined structure and methods for
teaching children and adults to read and share their ideas. [21] These programs have achieved varying
levels of success with the primary challenge being that funding is difficult to come by. Formal and
informal literacy education in Nigeria received a significant boost under the colonial rule of Britain,
but since independence in 1960, educational funding across the board has been lacking. [21] Informal
education has also aimed at addressed issues other than illiteracy. Calls to incorporate
informal HIV/AIDS education into the prison education system have been frequent and met with
limited and varied response. This population is in need of this education as inmates are not exposed
to the standard methods of TV and print media campaigns addressing the issue. [22] From a
psychological perspective, much of the informal education of adults is based on western research
regarding psychology and social sciences. However, increasing academic movements are aiming to
contextualize and build upon these western based ideals for the sake of social betterment in Nigeria,
as well as developing nations around the world. [23] Overall, the informal education system in Nigeria
can be described as nuanced and complicated. Despite large support for investment in adult literacy
and vocational programs, small groups of politicians and funding challenges have stalled the
implementation of many literacy and vocational programs. [18] One study regarding the involvement of
the national government in education and literacy programs concluded that the high illiteracy rates in
Nigeria were significantly related to the government's lack of commitment towards its standardized
education policies.[3]

Female education
Education has been recognized as a basic human right since the 1948 adoption of the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights. A positive correlation exists between the enrollment of girls in primary

137
school and the gross national product and life expectancy.[24] Because of this correlation, enrollment
in schools represents the largest component of societal investment into human capital. [25] Rapid
socioeconomic development of a nation has been observed to depend on the calibre of women and
their education in that country. Women participation in education has been on increase, several
motivations are employed by NGO, local, state, and federal government to encourage more women
in education. Women can now been seen in various high-profile careers. [26] That being said, there are
still many challenges preventing gender equality in the Nigerian education system. There is a
significant bias against female involvement in specific academic disciplines, with studies showing the
existence of sex-based stereotyping of students by teachers in secondary schools. [27] The most
dominant barriers are currently teen pregnancy, teen marriage, religious beliefs, poverty, and poor
school facilities.[28] In recent years, the rise of militancy groups such as the Boko Haram and the
Niger Delta militancy have contributed to destabilization of the education system. Both now and
historically, girls have disproportionately experienced the impacts of this destabilization. [3]

description=Female literacy rate in Nigeria by state in 2013

  > 90%
  80–90%
  70–80%
  60–70%
  50–60%
  35–50%
  < 35%

THE EDUCATION SYSTEM IN EGYPT

In recent years the Government of Egypt has given greater priority to improving the education
system. According to the Human Development Index (HDI), Egypt is ranked 111 in the HDI, and 9 in
the lowest 10 HDI countries in the Middle East and Northern Africa, in 2014. With the help of
the World Bank and other multilateral organizations Egypt aims to increase access in early childhood

138
to care and education and the inclusion of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) at all
levels of education, especially at the tertiary level. [1] The government is responsible for offering free
education at all levels. The current overall expenditure on education is about 12.6 percent as of
2007.[2]Investment in education as a percentage of GDP rose to 4.8 in 2005 but then fell to 3.7 in
2007. The Ministry of Education is also tackling a number of issues: trying to move from a highly
centralized system to offering more autonomy to individual institutions, thereby increasing
accountability.

The photo above shows Egyptian boys reading.

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Mansoura_University.jpg/220px-
Mansoura_University.jpg

Above is Mansoura University.

The public education system in Egypt consists of three levels: the basic education stage for 4–14
years old: kindergarten for two years followed by primary school for six years and preparatory school
(ISCED Level 2) for three years. Then, the secondary school (ISCED Level 3) stage is for three
years, for ages 15 to 17, followed by the tertiary level. Education is made compulsory for 9 academic
years between the ages of 4 and 14. Moreover, all levels of education are free within any
government run schools. According to the World Bank, there are great differences in educational
attainment of the rich and the poor, also known as the "wealth gap." Although the median years of
school completed by the rich and the poor is only one or two years but the wealth gap reaches as
high as nine or ten years. In the case of Egypt, the wealth gap was a modest 3 years in the mid-
1990s.[3] Overall, the composite education Index in the MENA Flagship Report: The Road Not
Traveled showed promising results of the people of singers relative educational achievements. Of

139
the 14 MENA countries analyzed, Egypt achieved the education which has been really bad over the
years. There has been a lot of attacks in their schools. [4]

The Lycée Français d'Alexandrie of Alexandria in 2001

Egypt launched its National Strategic Plan for Pre-University Education Reform (2007/08 – 2011/12).
[5]
 The Strategic Plan (which has the subtitle ‘Towards an educational paradigm shift’) mirrors Egypt's
commitment to a comprehensive, sustainable, and collective approach towards ensuring an
education of quality for all and developing a knowledge society. Its key elements are: access and
participation; teachers; pedagogy; curriculum and learning assessment; textbooks and learning
materials; management and governance; and a quality improvement strategy. [6]
Promotional examinations are held at all levels except in grades 6 and 9 at the basic education level
and the grade 12 in the secondary stage, which apply standardized regional or national exams.
The Ministry of Education is responsible for making decisions about the education system with the
support of three Centers: the National Center of Curricula Development, the National Center for
Education Research, and the National Center for Examinations and Educational Evaluation. Each
center has its own focus in formulating education policies with other state level committees. [7] On the
other hand, the Ministry of Higher Education supervises the higher education system.

Relief of Horemheb's tomb - 18th dynasty of Egypt - Saqqara

There is also a formal teacher's qualification track in place for basic and secondary education levels.
The teachers are required to complete four years of pre-service courses at university to enter the
teaching profession. Specifically with respect to teacher's professional development to
raise mathematics, science and technology teaching standards, the Professional Academy for
Teachers offer several programs. Local teachers also take part in the international professional
training programs.[7]
Starting in 2007, the Ministries of Education, Finance, and Local Development (and others) started
informal discussions to experiment with the decentralization of education. Working groups were
established to make more formal proposals. Proposals included ideas for starting with recurrent
expenditures, using a simple and transparent formula for carrying out fiscal transfers, and making
sure that transfers would reach the school itself.

140
Library at Bibufe

During 2008 design was carried out, three pilot governorates (Faiyum, Ismailia, and Luxor) were
chosen, and monitoring and capacity building processes and manuals were agreed upon. The
formula is quite simple, and includes enrolment, poverty, and stage of education as drivers.
During 2009 funding was decentralized all the way to the school level, and schools began to
receive funding. As of late 2009, the pilot showed few if any problems, and the expected results
were materializing quite well, in terms of stimulating community participation, allowing schools
to spend more efficiently and assess their own priorities, and increasing the seriousness of
school-based planning by creating a means to finance such plans, among other expected results.
An informal assessment of the pilot revealed that the funding formula money precipitated an
increase in community donations. The survey results show that the ratio of the median values of
community donations of the pilot year to the previous year was 2.20. Parallel to these efforts in
the education sector, other sectors (for example, certain aspects of housing and municipal
services) in Egypt are planning to decentralize decision-making and spending, now nationwide
(without a pilot stage in limited governorates), in a phased approach. Education plans to be one
of the lead sectors in this process. In addition to administrative and financial decentralization,
there is an increasing emphasis on involving elected local popular councils (which exist
at governorate and districtlevel) in the horizontal oversight of expenditure and planning across
the decentralizing sectors, and as they come on stream in the decentralization process. Within the
education sector, as of late 2009 plans are being made to decentralize certain lines of funding and
planning for capital equipment and infrastructure, in all governorates, all the way to school level
in the case of smaller units of capital equipment, or levels higher than the school for items such
as new infrastructure. The education sector does expect to continue to use the original 3 pilot
governorates as a special observatory to assess and understand how well the process is
proceeding.[8] [9]

Boys' school

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History of education in Egypt[edit]
Modern education was introduced under the auspices of Ottoman Pasha Muhammad Ali during the
early 1800s. He started a dual system of education at the time: one serving the massege attending
traditional schools (Mansourya) and another called Madrasa (Arabic word for school) for the elite
civil servants. The Mansourya taught students the basics of reading and writing throughout
memorizing and reciting Qur'anic verses with no emphasis on experimentation, problem solving or
learning-by-doing; while the Madrasa offered a more modern educational pedagogical or tutorial. . [10]
[11]

Demographics[edit]

UIS Literacy Rate Egypt population plus15 1980 2015 by UNESCO Institute of Statistics

The overall literacy rate in Egypt is 72 percent as of 2010, being 80.3% for males and 63.5% for
females.[12] There is special attention given by the government and other NGOs to reduce gender
disparity in education and to achieve the 2015 Millennium Development Goal of universal primary
education.
The Egyptian educational system is highly centralized, and is divided into three stages:

 Basic Education (Arabic: ‫التعليم األساسى‬, transliteration: al-Taʿaleem al-Asassī)

 Primary Stage
 Preparatory Stage
 Secondary Education (Arabic: ‫التعليم الثانوى‬, transliteration: al-Taʿaleem al-Thanawī)
 Post-Secondary education (Arabic: ‫التعليم الجامعى‬, transliteration: al-Taʿaleem al-Gammeʿī)
Since Egypt's extension of the free compulsory education law in 1981 to include the Preparatory
Stage, both Primary and Preparatory phases (Ages 6 through 14) have been combined together
under the label Basic Education. Education beyond this stage depends on the student's ability.

Government schools
Generally speaking, there are two types of government schools: Arabic Schools and Experimental
Language the governmental national curriculum in the Arabic Language. A governmental English
language curriculum is taught starting at first Primary year and either French, German, Spanish or
Italian is added as a second foreign language in Secondary Education. The good thing for Egyptians
it is for free but there is about 75 students per class for some of them.

 Experimental Language Schools, teach most of the government curriculum (Science,

Mathematics and Computer) in English, and adds French or German as a second foreign
language in Preparatory Education. An Advanced English language curriculum is provided in all

142
 Educational stages, Except for the last year. Social Studies are taught in Arabic. Students are
admitted into first grade at age seven; a year older than Arabic schools.
 STEM Schools, project-based learning schools in which students make a project each
semester called "Capstone": that increases students' engineering skills, the application of the
subjects in real life and the integration between subjects and each others. Beside the Capstone
there are intensive subjects .
Private schools
Generally speaking, there are four types of private schools:

 Ordinary schools, their curriculum is quite similar to that of the government schools, but the
private schools pay more attention to the students' personal needs and to the school facilities.
and this one would be holding around 45 student per class which is still a lot for one teacher
 Language schools, teach most of the government curriculum in English, and add French or
German as a second foreign language. They are expected to be better than the other schools,
because of the facilities available, but their fees are much higher. Some of these schools use
French or German as their main language of instruction, but it may be difficult for the student to
study in governmental universities in Arabic or English afterward. and also holds around 40
student per class for some schools like this because it is rare to find one and also the cost is 20
add to the cost of the ordinary private school which is between US$800 to US$1500 for the
year's fee.
 Religious schools, are religiously oriented schools as Azhar schools or Catholic schools.
these ones are not as the previous one it's a little better too which is around 40 student per class
and around $2000 US a year per student 4 years old which is still affordable to the most
population of Egypt but mostly not still that Education that they are looking for to give it to their
children .
 International schools, are private schools that follow another country's curriculum. The
schools offer better activities, facilities, and teaching faculty.
Many of the private schools were built by missionaries, are currently affiliated with churches and
provide quality education.
Many private schools offer additional educational programs, along with the national curriculum, such
as the American High School Diploma, the British IGCSE system, the French baccalauréat, the
German Abitur and the International Baccalaureate. These are the types of private schools in Egypt.

Basic education[edit]
The basic education consists of pre-primary, primary and preparatory levels of education
(ISCED Level 0, 1, 2). In Egypt, the Ministry of Education coordinates the preschool education.
In 1999-2000 the total enrollment rate of pre-primary students was 16 percent and that increased
to 24 percent in 2009. Irrespective of private or state run, all preschool institutions come under
Ministry of Education. It is the Ministry's duty to select and distribute textbooks. According to
the Ministry's guidelines, the maximum size of a preschool should not exceed more than 45
students. Ministry of Education is also getting support from the international agencies, such as
the World Bank to enhance the early childhood education system by increasing access to
schools, improving quality of education and building capacity of teachers[13] At the primary level
(ISCED Level 1) students could attend private, religious or government schools. Currently, there
are 7.8 percent of students enrolled at primary level in private schools as of 2007.[14] The total
enrollment of students at primary level is 105 percent in 2007.[15] The examinations at grade 3 are

143
on district (edara) level.[7] Though there is a push for Egyptian children to attend primary school,
educators are often ill-equipped to teach them. As of 1995, a mere 7 percent of primary school
teachers in Egypt had received a university degree; the remaining 93 percent only had nine years
of formal education.[16]
The second tier of basic compulsory education equivalent to (ISCED Level 2) is the 'preparatory
stage' or 'lower secondary' which is three years long. Completion of this tier grants students the
Basic Education Completion Certificate. The importance of completion of this level of education
is to safeguard students against illiteracy as early drop outs at this stage easily recede into
illiteracy and eventually poverty.

Secondary education
Secondary education consists of three tracks: general, vocational/technical and the dual-system
vocational education known as Mubarak-Kohl schools. The general secondary stage includes 3
years of education, whereas the secondary vocational track could be for 3–5 years. To enter the
secondary level, the students must pass a national exam which is given at end of the secondary
stage. As of year 2004 the 77.3 percent of students completing preparatory stage are estimated to
be enrolled in secondary education.[15] At this level, students have formative and summative
assessments during the first year and the average of the end of year national standardized exams
for year two and three qualifies the students to take the Certificate of General Secondary
Education-Thanawiya Amma, which is one of the requirements for admission into the
universities. So far efforts are underway with the support of multilateral organizations to make
the general and vocational secondary system less rigid and provide equal opportunities to
students of various wealth quintiles in the two tracks to opt for higher education. This is also
being implemented by the World Bank led secondary enhancement project in Egypt.
Secondary education consists of three different types: general, technical or vocational.
Technical education, which is provided in three-year and five-year programs, includes schools in
three different fields: industrial, commercial and agricultural. The UN and other multilateral
organizations are working towards improving the technical and vocational training system in
Egypt. It is recommended to the Ministry of Education to introduce broad vocational skills in the
curricula of general secondary schools. In this way students will be able to gain certification in
practical skills needed in the job market.[17] The Ministry of Education (MoE) controls pre-
tertiary, school-based programs that can start after grade 6 and that enroll the largest number of
students in TVET-over 2 million students. The Ministry of Higher Education (MoHE) controls
the middle technical institutes (MTIs). These draw their enrollments from MoE's general
secondary schools or technical schools and have much smaller enrollment numbers. Graduates of
the MoE's vocational programs can enter vocational training centers (VTCs).[18] From the 2004
data, it is estimated that 30 percent of the secondary students have opted for the vocational track.
[19]
 Government of Egypt has undertaken some promising initiatives to strengthen the
management and reform of the TVET system. In 2006 the Industrial Training Council (ITC) was
created through a ministerial decree with a mandate to improve coordination and direction of all
training related entities, projects and policies in the Ministry. Its action is framed by the global
"Technical Education Strategy (2011/2012-2016/2017).[20] The focus on technical education and
training aims at resolving the issue faced by most firms to employ skilled work force: According
to the Enterprise Surveys in 2007, 31 percent of the firms in Egypt identify labor skill level as

144
the major constraint of doing business in the country.[21]

Al-Azhar system
Another system that runs in parallel with the public educational system is known as the Al-Azhar
system. It consists of six years of primary stage, a three-year preparatory stage and finally three
years of secondary stage. The Ministry of education reduced the number of secondary school
years from four to three years in 1998, so as to align the Al Azhar system with the general
secondary education system. In this system as well, there are separate schools for girls and boys.
Al Azhar education system is supervised by the Supreme Council of the Al-Azhar Institution.
The Azhar Institution itself is nominally independent from the Ministry of Education, but is
ultimately under supervision by the Egyptian Prime Minister.Al Azhar schools are named
"Institutes" and include primary, preparatory, and secondary phases. All schools in all stages
teach religious subjects and non-religious subjects. The bulk of the curriculum, however, consists
of religious subjects as described below. All the students are Muslims. Al-Azhar schools are all
over the country, especially in rural areas. The graduates of Al-Azhar secondary schools are
eligible to continue their studies at the Al-Azhar University. As of 2007 and 2008, there are 8272
Al-Azhar schools in Egypt. In the early 2000s, Al-Azhar schools accounted for less than 4% of
the total enrollment. The graduates of this system are then automatically accepted into Al-Azhar
University. In 2007, the Pre-University enrollment in Al- Azhar institutes is about 1,906,290
students.

Higher education system

See also: Academic ranks in Egypt and List of universities in Egypt
Egypt has a very extensive higher education system. About 30% of all Egyptians in the relevant
age group go to university. However, only half of them graduate.[22]
The Ministry of Higher Education supervises the tertiary level of education. There are a number
of universities catering to students in diverse fields. In the current education system, there are
17 public universities, 51 public non-university institutions, 16 private universities and 89 private
higher institutions. Out of the 51 non –university institutions, 47 are two-year middle technical
institutes (MTIs) and four are 4–5 years higher technical institutes’.[23] The higher education
cohort is expected to increase by close to 6 percent (60,000) students per annum through 2009.[24]
In 1990, a legislation was passed to provide greater autonomy to the universities.[25] But still the
education infrastructure, equipment and human resources are not in place to cater to the rising
higher education students. Gross enrollment in tertiary education increased from 27 percent in
2003 to 31 percent in 2005.[26] But there has not been a similar increase in spending on improving
the higher education system in terms of introduction of new programs and technologies. Both at
national level (inspection systems, examinations) and at local level (school level student
assessments) measures of the success of education strategies and the performance of the system
are weak. The inspectorate system does not provide either solid technical support to school staff,
nor an effective monitoring mechanism for failing schools. The examination system at the end of
preparatory and secondary levels—Thanaweyya Amma, does not measure higher-order thinking
skills, but concentrates rather on rote memorization. Scores can thus be raised significantly by
exam specific tutoring, therefore, students with more resources can afford private tutoring which

145
helps them to score higher on the national standardized exams and hence are accepted in top
universities in Egypt. Hence, this competitive process of selection restricts students’ degree
options and results, hence making students opt for programs and careers which are of little
interest to them.[27]
The Egyptian tertiary education is steered by a centralized system with institutions having little
control on the decisions of the curriculum, program development and deployment of staff and
faculty. Improving system governance and efficiency is an imperative that takes on added
urgency given that a significant population bulge has reached the higher education system. The
actual number of students entering higher education grew by 17 percent per year between
1992/93 and 1997/98. The consequence was a sharp decline in per student spending of around 40
percent in real terms over that period. The higher education cohort is projected to continue to
increase by close to 6 percent (60,000 students) per annum through 2009. This means that
significant efficiencies will need to be introduced into the system just to maintain quality at its
current inadequate level. The performance and quality of higher education is currently severely
compromised by overly centralized order to improve the already outdated system, rigid
curriculum and teaching practices. Improving system governance and efficiency is an imperative
that takes on added urgency given that a significant population bulge has reached the higher
education system. The actual number of students entering higher education grew by 17 percent
per year between 1992/93 and 1997/98. The consequence was a sharp decline in per student
spending of around 40 percent in real terms over that period. The higher education cohort is
projected to continue to increase by close to 6 percent (60,000 students) per annum through
2009. This means that significant efficiencies will need to be introduced into the system just to
maintain quality at its current inadequate level.[28] The Government of Egypt recognizes that
there are real challenges to be faced in the sector, foremost amongst which are the need to
significantly improve sector governance and efficiency, increase institutional autonomy,
significantly improve the quality and relevance of higher education programs, and maintain
coverage at existing levels. Recent Government actions to build political consensus on issues
critical to reform have created a climate that is ripe for change. The Ministry of Higher
Education (MOHE) acts as a champion for reform. The Minister, appointed in 1997, quickly
established a committee for the reform of higher education (known as the HEEP Committee)
which drew in a wide range of stakeholders including industrialists and parliamentarians. A
National Conference on higher education reform was held in February 2000, and a Declaration
for action emanating from the Conference was endorsed by the President and the Prime Minister.
The Declaration identified 25 specific reform initiatives. The Bank agrees with, and supports, the
Declaration. A range of multilateral and bilateral agencies,including the World Bank, also concur
with the Declaration's proposals, and are committed to supporting various aspects of the reform
process.[29] The Government's Higher Education Reform Strategy Egyptian higher education
reform strategy included 25 projects addressing all the reform domains, is implemented over
three phases until 2017, and corresponds to the government's five-year plans as follows:
First phase from 2002 to 2007
Second phase from 2007 to 2012
Third phase from 2012 to 2017
Priority has been given to 12 projects in the first phase of implementation (2002–2007) and were

146
integrated into the following six projects: HEEP Six Priority Projects (2002–2007)
Higher Education Enhancement Project Fund (HEEPF),
Information and Communications Technology Project (ICTP),
Egyptian Technical Colleges Project (ETCP),
Faculty of Education Project (FOEP),
Faculty Leaders Development Project (FLDP),
Quality Assurance and Accreditation Project (QAAP).
In August 2004, HEEP strategic priorities were adjusted to become responsive to the
requirements of quality and accreditation and to correspond to the government's approach to
improving scientific research. The adjustment added two more dimensions: first, developing post
graduate studies and scientific research and second, addressing students’ extra-curricular
activities in addition to the continued implementation of the six prioritized programs during the
first phase. Due to the dynamic nature of the reform strategy, which entails reconsidering
priorities for each period, a Strategic Planning Unit (SPU) was established for the MOHE to
ensure the sustainability of planning and project monitoring during the three phases and for
future ones. A Students’ Activity Project (SAP) was also initiated as part of program
accreditation similar to scientific research and post graduate studies.[30] There are both private
and public institutions of higher education in Egypt. Public higher education is free in Egypt, and
Egyptian students only pay registration fees. Private education is much more expensive.

International education
As of January 2015, the International Schools Consultancy (ISC) listed Egypt as having 184
international schools.[31] ISC defines an 'international school' in the following terms "ISC
includes an international school if the school delivers a curriculum to any combination of pre-
school, primary or secondary students, wholly or partly in English outside an English-speaking
country, or if a school in a country where English is one of the official languages, offers an
English-medium curriculum other than the country's national curriculum and is international in
its orientation."[31] This definition is used by publications including The Economist.[32]

Education and the community

There were a few attempts to make a positive impact and educational reform from the civil
community in Egypt but those efforts remained very limited on their impact on the educational
process. Education crisis in Egypt is very complicated, public education is not capable of
providing quality education and is hardly providing any education with the shortage in facilities,
lack of trained educators and inflation in classes. Private (including International) is still
incapable of reform for the lack of interest, shortage in trained educators, defective curricula,
commercialization of education and finally a customized accreditation system that involves the
irrevocable licensure of International schools based on candidacy for accreditation while
candidacy for accreditation is originally based on the initial efficiency of the school in providing
the educational services including its status as a legal education provider that it doesn't get to get
unless it is a candidate school, which is setting the cart before the horse.

147
No community efforts have been done to address the crisis of education in Egypt until 2008,
when the [International-Curricula Educators Association (ICEA)].[33]winner of Pan Africa
Award, 2011[34] was established with modest financial resources but great expectations.
The Community addressed itself to contributing to solving the educational problems in Egypt
including the shortage in research, statistics and entrepreneurship in the field of education.
On 2009 it's started involving volunteers through the UNV program and has successfully began
to develop its range of not-for-profit services to address several needs of the educational
community in Egypt starting from affordable certified teacher training and going making its way
through all the required student activities stimulating citizenship whether on the local or the
global level.
Among their initiatives "the Science Across Egypt[35][36] initiative and "Egypt: Another Nation at
Risk Report[37]" specially to address the post revolution needs of educational reform by the power
of people. Direct link to read the report online and download[38]
Founder and president of ICEA, Gihan Sami Soliman(winner of Pan Africa prize 2011[39] is an
educator who wrote several articles and papers.[40][40] on the necessity of reform based on
community consensus on the compelling need for change, such as meaning Education in Egypt is
Still Awaiting Revolution, meaning: Quality Education in Our Schools the Unattainable Simple,
"[42][43]" [44][45] and several other articles beside working with Dr. Ahmed Abdel Azeem on
providing workshops on several related topics such as science in relation to life, biodiversity and
Fungal Conservation in relation to education[46] in part of the Science Across Egypt Project. in
addition to conducting awareness campaigns, protests and teacher training.[47] ICEA has won the
Pan Africa Award for Education Entrepreneurship, 2011.[34] for the Science Across Egypt Project
they initiated. Science Across Egypt © is a copyright protected name. In 2013, Soliman instituted
a model for Cybernetics in education by the Sinai Sustainability Cybernetics Project.[48]

Agricultural education
The Egyptian Ministry of Education (MoE) aiming to develop agricultural knowledge and skills
among young people set up by 2010/2011 133 secondary agricultural schools 133 in different
cities and districts. Agricultural education is divided into a three-year and a five-year system.
Both 3 year and 5 year options provide theoretical information taught in the classroom and
practical aspects taught in laboratories, workshops and farms. These schools coordinate with the
Ministry of Agriculture to provide training opportunities for teaching staff about technical
farming issues at agricultural research centres. Farming plots are provided to schools and to offer
job opportunities to graduates at institutions affiliated to the Ministry of Agriculture.[49]

Challenges
Although significant progress has been made to increase human capital base through improved
education system, still the quality of education experience is low and unequally distributed. Due
to lack of good quality education at the basic and secondary levels, there has been a
mushrooming market for private tutoring. Now to take private tuition has become more of an
obligation than a remedial activity. According to the Egypt Human Development Report (2005),
58 percent of surveyed families stated that their children take private tutoring. The CAPMAS
(2004) survey showed that households spend on average around 61 percent of total education
148
expenditure on private tutoring. In addition, per household expenditure of the richest quintile on
private tutoring is more than seven times that of the poorest.[25] Among the issues is the lack of
sufficient education in public schools and the need for private tuition. As of 2005, 61-70% of
Egyptian students attend private tuition.[50] Other common issues include: theft of public
educational funds[51] and leakage of exams.[52]
Egypt also has a shortage of skilled and semi-skilled workforce. But there has been an abundance
of low-skilled laborers. Even if there are any high-skilled workers available, their quality of
training is quite poor. This is mostly a problem in small-medium companies and large public
industries that work in "protected" domestic markets. The average gross production per worker is
lower than other North African countries: Morocco and Tunisia. Youth unemployment is also
very high, primarily due to lack of education system in providing necessary training under TVET
programs.
Most importantly, Egyptian education faces a main challenge because of the quality of teachers
that teach in public schools. An ethnography study conducted by Sarah Hartmann in 2008
concluded that most teachers in Egypt resort to teaching for lack of better options and because
the nature of the job does not conflict with their more important gender role as mothers. The low
salaries offered by the public schooling system in Egypt attracts low-skilled employees. A study
conducted in 1989 documenting the bureaucracy of the Egyptian Ministry of Education
concluded that teachers' annual salary in Egypt is, on average, $360.[53] A later study conducted
in 2011 showed that teachers earn an average annual salary of $460 which is less than half the
country's average annual per-capita income.[54] Following the low quality of teachers in Egypt,
they lack basic psychological background that would allow them to deal with students. Corporal
punishment is a common practice in Egyptian schools even though it has not been deeply
discussed in literature. A recent example was brought to media's attention in 2011 when a pre-K
teacher[55] was caught on video consistently beating his students harshly The teacher was sent to
court but the parents and students protested for questioning him expressing that this is what they
believe to be the best way to deal with their youngsters.
A study conducted by UNESCO on educational equity in world's 16 most populous countries
placed Egypt in the middle range in terms of equity of primary and secondary enrollments across
governorates in Egypt.[56] But when the wealth component is added to education attainment, the
results are not very encouraging. There are significantly higher enrollment rates in wealthier
regions at both the primary and secondary levels. This confirms that more efforts are needed to
reduce the wealth gap in educational attainment.

Holidays
Academic weekly holidays are on Fridays and sometimes, in addition to, either Saturdays or
Sundays.
In addition to some of the state official holidays, religious or secular, there are two main
vacations. The school summer vacation starts at the beginning or middle of June and ends around

149
the middle of September. Winter vacation starts from the middle of January and goes to the
beginning of February.

THE EDUCATION STRUCTURE OF EGYPT

CURRENT TRENDS IN
INTERNATIONAL EDUCATION

10 Important Trends in Education

to Expect in 2018

150
By Alisa Bates, PhD • January 2, 2018

Educators, administrators, and those in higher education who are committed to ensuring quality
experiences for students across the ages (and for new growth opportunities for themselves too)
should be excited for the year ahead. There’s no question that 2018 will bring light to a variety of
topics and issues that could monumentally affect the way we teach and the way students learn.
Read on to learn about some of our predictions and trends in education that we’re seeing and
anticipating, and be sure to follow the embedded links to explore the topics in more depth.

Opportunities to develop programs for Career & Technical Education (CTE) and

associated high-quality apprenticeships and best practices will emerge; e.g., health, automotive,
and mechatronics programs. A bill passed by the House in 2017 focuses on improving CTE
programming, recognizing that not all programs are equally well resourced or supported. The
education field will need to carefully balance early career opportunities in these fields with
program features that set students up for long-term success as fields evolve over time. For an
interesting look at the tradeoffs in these areas, check out this article in The Atlantic.

Opportunities for practicing teachers to participate in residency-based preparation

programs for pre-service teachers will continue to grow, including the use of the gradual release
model in teacher preparation clinical experiences. Residencies are commonly designed to support
areas of high need (secondary math and science, special education) that result from extensive
teacher turnover, particularly in major city school districts. The creative partnership between
districts, graduate programs of education, and non-profits that fund stipends for the candidates
can result in teachers who stay in the system for longer periods, providing students with
increased learning opportunities from experienced teachers.

Teachers and school leaders will see opportunities to become trained mentors and leaders
in providing induction programs with mentoring and support through the early years of an
educator’s career in both the teaching and school principal professions.

Programs such as those offered through The New Teacher Center have been around for
quite a while but renewed attention to issues of turnover and attrition in the field continue to
focus efforts that support new teacher retention. Programs are available at the school, district,
and state level that foster ongoing reflection and mentoring opportunities for early career
teachers and administrators.
Information on building the skills of paraprofessionals who work alongside teachers in
classrooms will really develop. As paraprofessionals continue to work with some of the most
marginalized populations in classrooms, building their skills and capacities for this work is
crucial for ensuring quality educational experiences for all. Finding creative ways to
embed professional development opportunities within and throughout the school day and year
will continue to be a goal for districts around the country.

Leveraging technology in education will be of paramount interest to teachers and educators;

e.g., Flipgrid, a video discussion platform is being employed with young children in schools. It is
amazing how quickly young children engage and embrace learning with the opportunity to
151
incorporate technology into their practice. Tools that foster oral, audio, and written skills are of
interest to young learners and allow them to express themselves beyond the capacity of their
writing abilities. Much work with critical thinking can also be done in this manner when tools
such as Seesaw blogs or flipgrid are used to support learning.

Interest in information on trauma-informed practices will continue to increase across education

as teachers and other education professionals seek resources for responding to traumatic events
that affect children of all ages. Studies show that 25% of children under the age of 16 have
experienced trauma in their lives. Children bring their lives with them to school, and schools and
teachers are learning to adapt classroom management strategies, instructional supports, and
school climate to support children who have experienced trauma to help them build their
resilience over time.

Educators will need to adopt more inclusive practices in education—practices designed to enable
a child with a disability to be involved in, and make progress in, the general education
curriculum. Inclusive education is not a new concept, but educators continue to progress in their
knowledge about effective ways to support students with a wide range of needs in the least
restrictive environment possible.

There will be a continued focus on student achievement and its connection to school/teacher
evaluation systems. States have designed and redesigned systems that look closely at teacher
evaluation through the lens of student achievement on various assessments (some local, some
state, some national). There are many thoughts on the validity of assessments as linked to teacher
or school evaluation, and this is a conversation that will continue for a long time!
Career pathways for teachers that build on exemplary classroom practice will be highlighted;
e.g., mentoring skills, teacher leadership roles. Teaching is often considered a “flat career”
because there are few steps forward in the profession outside of leaving the classroom for
administrative positions. Because not all teachers are interested in those types of roles, teaching
has slowly embraced some positions that are informal (like new teacher mentoring in some
places) or formal (TOSAs—teachers on special assignment, instructional coaches) that create a
new space for additional professional growth and development. These roles honor the capacities
of teachers while building on their expertise to support curriculum, instruction, and new teacher
growth in schools.

The existing teacher shortage—especially in special education, math, and science, and in schools
serving students of color, low-income students, and English Learners—will continue through
2018 and will increase, based in part on the predicted increase in the school-going population in
the upcoming decade. Additionally, as the baby boomers move towards retirement, the need for
teachers will continue to grow. While this is not a new problem, the challenges are present across
the nation and will likely have to be tackled on multiple fronts at once to result in true change.

BLOOMS TAXONOMY POSTERS LEARNING THEORIES FOR TEACHERS

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 GUIDELINE FOR THE TEACHER ON HOW TO USE BLOOMS
TAXONOMY IN SETTING QUESTIONS FOR THE LEARNERS.

EDUCATIONAL TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE

Technical assistance may involve multiple contacts and interactions over an extended period of
time. TA is a form of consulting, and can be contrasted with training, where contact is designed
to teach, present or guide individuals in order to impart knowledge, skills and competencies.
Technical assistance (TA) is the process of providing targeted support to an organization with a
development need or problem (Compassion Capital Fund [CCF] National Resource Center,
2010). The Assistive Technology Act does not include a formal definition of technical assistance
(TA), one of the required state leadership activities. However, the AT Act does refer to potential
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recipients of such assistance to include “representatives of State and local educational agencies,
other State and local agencies, early intervention programs, adult service programs, hospitals and
other health care facilities, institutions of higher education, and businesses.” Generally, the
purpose of technical assistance is to improve the capacity of the beneficiary organization, as
evidenced by increased efficiency, increased effectiveness, and/or increased funding (CCF,
2010).

Distinguishing Technical Assistance from Training

Technical assistance is focused on providing extensive assistance to state or local agencies or
other entities (rather than to individuals) and generally involves problem solving to achieve a
mutually agreed upon goal. Technical assistance may involve multiple contacts and interactions
over an extended period of time. TA is a form of consulting, and can be contrasted with training,
where contact is designed to teach, present or guide individuals in order to impart knowledge,
skills and competencies. Although training on a topic may involve a series of classes or sessions,
the goal of the activity is different from that of TA. In some cases, training may be a component
of TA, a part of the process to improve the beneficiary organization’s performance or resolve
problems it is experiencing.

Distinguishing Technical Assistance from Individual

Assistance
Technical assistance is generally focused on assistance to agencies and organizations to achieve
a mutually agreed upon goal. Assisting individual consumers with the use of a particular AT
device or troubleshooting problems with devices should be reported under Public Awareness as
Information and Assistance.

Technical Assistance and Transition

Technical assistance to assist entities responsible for students with disabilities who receive
transition services under IDEA and adults with disabilities maintaining or transitioning to
community living may satisfy part or all of the requirement in Section 4(e)(3)(A), e.g. spending
5% of the money allocated for State Leadership on transition technical assistance activities

A GUIDE TO THE EDUCATION SYSTEM IN THE UNITED STATES

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 GUIDE
TO THE EDUCATION SYSTEM
IN THE UNITED STATES
BY

ANTONELLA CORSI-BUNKER

162
AMERICAN EDUCATION SYSTEM: AN OVERVIEW
General Information

The American education system is unlike that in many other countries. Though the U.S. Federal
government contributes almost 10% to the national education budget, education is primarily the
responsibility of state and local government.

For example, in Minnesota, almost 80 percent of public education funds come from state
sources. About 17 percent comes from local sources, while less than 5 percent comes from the
Federal government.

Every State has its own department of education and laws regulating finance, the hiring of
school personnel, student attendance, and curriculum.

States also determine the number of years of compulsory education: in most states, education is
compulsory from five or six to sixteen; but in some states teens have to stay on in school until
age 18.

So, every state has great control over what is taught in its schools and over the requirements that
a student must meet, and it is also responsible for the funding of schooling.

In most States, the public education system is further divided into local school districts, which
are managed by a school board, representing the local community. School districts can be
small, covering just a small town or rural county, or enormous, covering a whole large city;
according to their local policy, they are responsible for coordinating education policies, planning
for changing educational needs in the community, and often even establishing programs and
curricula. They will also delegate a varying amount of freedom or independence to each
individual school within their sector (with some exceptions, such as general rules concerning
health and safety).

Public schools have also relied heavily on local property taxes to meet the vast majority of
school expenses. American schools have thus tended to reflect the educational values and
financial capabilities of the communities in which they are located.

Therefore, there is huge variation among schools regarding courses, subjects, and other activities
– it always depends on where the school is located. Still, there are some common points, as e.g.

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the division of the education system into three levels: elementary/primary education, secondary
education, and postsecondary/higher education (college or university).

Formal schooling lasts 12 years, until around age 18. Compulsory schooling, though, ends by
age 16 in most states; the remaining states require students to attend school until they are 17 or
18. All children in the United States have access to free public schools. Private schools
(religious and non-sectarian) are available, but students must pay tuition to attend them.

Many states and communities provide schools or special classes for children with special
educational needs, including those with emotional and behavioral problems, moderate and
severe learning difficulties, communication problems, partial hearing or physical disabilities.
There are also private schools catering for gifted and talented children, and most public schools
have gifted and talented programs.

In the following description of the U.S. education structure, we will focus on early childhood,
primary and secondary education systems.

How Age is counted in the United States

In the United States, a person's age is counted starting from physical birth (rather than, as in
some cultures for example, from conception).

Newborns start at zero, and each passing of a 12 months period from the original date of birth
adds one year to the person's age. So, for example, if a child was born on February 9th, 2000,
the same child would be: 1 year old on February 9th, 2001; two years old on February 9th, 2002;
and so forth.

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Education System Structure
Age Newborn to 5 years: Early Childhood Education

Day Care is one form of early childhood education. Day Care refers to early childhood settings
that focus their goal on substitute care for children while their parents are absent (i.e.: working
or in school). They could involve academic training, or they could involve solely socializing
activities. Day Care is not required and is not free; in fact, depending on the setting, it could be
quite expensive. Day Care programs usually offer daily programs, for up to 12 hours. Meals,
depending on the school, may be provided by the family or by the school. Transportation to and
from the program is generally the responsibility of parents. Some private day care programs
might offer private transportation, but these are the exception rather than the rule. Parents’
degrees of use of Day Care services vary greatly across families, depending on their specific
situation (i.e.: parents’ schedule, availability of funding, etc.).

Pre-School (also called Pre-K or PK or Pre-Kindergarten) refers to the first formal academic
classroom-based learning environment that a child customarily attends in the United States. It
begins around the age of three in order to prepare for the more didactic and academically
intensive kindergarten, the traditional "first" class that school children participate in.

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 AGE

4 Pre-Kindergarten

Pre-Schools differentiate themselves by equally focusing on harvesting a child's (1) social

development, (2) physical development, (3) emotional development, and (4) cognitive
development. They commonly follow a set of organization-created teaching standards in
shaping curriculum and instructional activities/goals.

Some pre-school programs have adopted specialized methods of teaching, such as

Montessori, Waldorf, High Reach Learning, High Scope, The Creative Curriculum, Reggio
Emilia approach, Bank Street and various other Western pedagogies which contribute to the
foundation of education.

Pre-School is not required. On the other hand, it acts as a way to prepare children to better
succeed in a kindergarten. Pre-School programs usually offer two- or three-hour sessions per
day, a few days per week. Children learn the alphabet, colors, and other elementary basics.

Pre-School programs are not free: they have to be financed by the family. Meals, depending on
the school, may be provided by the family or by the school. Transportation to and from the
program is generally the responsibility of parents (although some pre-school programs might
make busing available to families for a fee; these programs are the exception, rather than the
rule).

To learn more about Day Care and Pre-School Programs, and to access additional resources
available to you, visit the Day Care and Pre-School Education section.

Age 5 years to 18 years: K-12

U.S. educators frequently use the terms K-12 education to refer to all primary and secondary
education, from Kindergarten prior to the first year (or 1st grade) of formal schooling, through
secondary graduation (12th Grade).

One of the following four patterns usually prevails in the community:

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 • Elementary school (K-5), middle school (6-8), high school (9-12);

18

17
High School

16 4 Years

15
AGE

Middle School
14
3 Years
13

12 Elementary S chool

11 5 Years

K inder gart en
10

PATTERN (5 + 3 +4)

Or

• Elementary school (K-6), junior high school (7-9), senior high school (9-
12);

18
Senior High
17
3 Years
16
Junior High
15
3 Years
AGE

14

13 Elementary School

12

11

Kindergarten
10

PATTERN (6 + 3 +3)

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Or

• Elementary school (K-8), high school (9-12).

18

17
High School

16 4 Year s

15
AGE

14
Elementary School
13
8 Years

12

11

Kindergarten
10

PATTERN (8 +4)

Or

• Elementary school (K-6), and junior and high school combined (7-12).

18

17
Junior and Senior High
combined
16

6 Years
15
AGE

14

13 Elementary school

12

11

Kindergarten
10

PATTERN (6 + 6)

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U.S. children enter formal schooling around age 5. The first pattern (see above) is the most
common one. Elementary students are typically in one classroom with the same teacher most of
the day.

After elementary school, students proceed to junior high school (also called middle school),
where they usually move from class to class each period, with a new teacher and a new mixture
of students in every class. Students can select from a wide range of academic classes and
elective classes.

During both Elementary and Middle School (or Junior High), children generally stay in the
classroom an average of 6.5 to 7 hours. Families have the option to select before and after
school programs < School-Age Child Care >, which are generally made available through the
school. However, these programs are not free: the family will have to finance their cost. If the
programs are in a location different from the school grounds, transportation from and to school
will be provided by the school.

In High School, students in their first year are called freshman, in their second year sophomore,
in their third year junior, and in their last and fourth year senior.

There is an even greater variety of subjects than before. Students generally stay in the classroom
an average of 7.5 hours and must earn a certain number of credits (which they get for a
successfully completed course) in order to graduate and be awarded with a High School
Diploma – there is no final examination like in many other countries.

The number and combination of classes necessary depend on the school district and on the kind
of diploma desired. The following two links are examples of different high school graduation
requirements:

Edina Graduation Requirements

South St. Paul Graduation Requirements

Only with a high school diploma students can enroll in postsecondary education. It is important
to know that colleges and universities sometimes require certain high school credits or tests (e.g.
SAT) for admission, and students must plan their high school career with those requirements in
mind.

During their high school years, students are given "grades" for all their courses, and these are
recorded. At the end of 12th Grade, the pupil's grades are averaged out to provide a "GPA" or
Grade Point Average, which will often be used as a selection criterion when they apply to
college or university. Students in 12th Grade also take "SAT's", Scholastic Aptitude Tests, or

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“ACTs”, American College Tests. These are the second principal tests used as criteria for
admission to college or university; but they are not exams in the same way as their European or
Japanese equivalents (French baccalauréat, German Abitur, English "A" levels), and are
generally less demanding.

The SAT Reasoning Test is a standardized test for college admissions in the United States. The
SAT is owned, published, and developed by the College Board, a non-profit organization in the
United States. The College Board claims that the SAT can determine whether or not a person is
ready for college. The current SAT Reasoning Test takes three hours and forty-five minutes.
Since the SAT's introduction in 1901, its name and scoring has changed several times. In 2005,
the test was renamed as "SAT Reasoning Test" with possible scores from 600 to 2400
combining test results from three 800-point sections (math, critical reading, and writing), along
with other subsections scored separately. The test consists almost entirely of multiple choice
questions, with the exception of the essay writing section.

The ACT test is another standardized test for college admission in the United States. The ACT
test assesses high school students' general educational development and their ability to complete
college-level work. It consists of a multiple-choice section covering four skill areas (English,
mathematics, reading, and science), and a Writing Test, which is optional, measuring skill in
planning and writing a short essay.

Generally, colleges require one or the other test for college admission.

For Additional Information about K-12 Schooling you can visit the Elementary and Secondary
Education section.

Separation of State and Religion

The US constitution requires the separation of state and religion and forbids religious
observance in public schools, but in some schools children are still expected to participate in the
ritual morning pledge of allegiance to the American flag in many schools (although the words
‘under God’ are optional).

Parental Involvement
An aspect of the US education system is the high degree of parental involvement. ‘Parent
power’ isn’t only accepted, but is welcomed and encouraged through local Parent Teacher
Associations (PTAs) attached to every school. PTAs meet regularly and concern themselves
with many aspects of a school’s affairs including the curriculum, facilities, school hours and
after-school activities and programs. Parents are encouraged to attend meetings and show an
interest in the school and their children’s education (it’s also a good way for newcomers to make

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friends). Schools organize parent days, ‘back to school’ nights and parent-teacher conferences,
where parents can meet teachers and examine their child’s school timetable.

Individual Responsibility
Individual responsibility has an important place in the American value system. This value is
taught to children from a young age. For example, beginning from kindergarten, each year
students are given a handbook that outlines the details of the school’s policies and procedures,
and the consequences for violating them. The handbook includes policies on Hazing, Personal
Possessions, and Harassment, and is designed to help parents and students understand the
district’s guidelines for acceptable behavior in all of these areas. BOTH parents and students are
expected to read it and sign a form attesting they are aware of their rights and responsibilities.
Many teachers also ask students to sign a handout detailing policies and procedures to follow in
their classes.
The following is a Map of the U.S. Education System combining all patterns at the primary and
secondary education level and including post-secondary education system.

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Chart Adapted from U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics

THE ROLE OF FEDERAL GOVERNMENT IN EDUCATION (USA)

Speculation abounds on new priorities and the fate of current programs and policies in the U.S.
Department of Education under the direction of Betsy DeVos, Donald Trump’s nominee for
education secretary. One thing is certain, there will be changes in the offing under the new
administration, which is as averse to government regulation as it is inclined toward free market
forces, which, in education, includes for-profit charter schools and vouchers.

Noting that much of what has been written on education policy involves where the federal
government should stay out of education governance, the Brookings Institution sought to initiate

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a public conversation on what the federal government can and should do. The result is Memos to
the President  on the Future of Education Policy, a series of 12 articles written by education
leaders and policymakers with diverse perspectives that are intended to make “an affirmative
case for an important but limited federal role” in education policy.

The preface to the series, A principled federal role in PreK-12 education, explores the history
and evolution of federal policy around public education in the period soon after the
Revolutionary War. The authors begin in 1791 with ratification of the Tenth Amendment,
which gave states jurisdiction over all powers not reserved for the federal government in the U.S.
Constitution, including education, and continues to current programs aimed at providing equal
access to quality education for all students regardless of race, income, gender, ethnicity,
language, and immigration status.

The civil rights movement has been a major force in periods of heightened federal involvement.
The U.S. Supreme Court ushered in this era with its 1954 Brown v. Board of Education ruling. A
decade later, driven by President Lyndon B. Johnson’s bold vision for a “Great
Society,” Congress approved two unprecedented pieces of legislation: The Civil Rights Act of
1964, followed in 1965 by the first Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA).

A SUPPORTING ROLE
The fundamental question in this and the other papers is what can the federal government do to
encourage and support states and districts in their work to improve learning for all students? The
authors derived a common set of four proactive principles, which recommend that the federal
government should:

1. ensure that no student is denied the right to equal educational opportunity based on race,
ethnicity, gender, disability, or other protected status;
2. provide compensatory funding to facilitate access to educational opportunity for high-
need students, including, but not limited to, students living in poverty and students with
disabilities;
3. support education research and development, and the gathering and dissemination of
information about the scope and quality of the nation’s education system, to inform
policy and practice at the state and local levels; and
4. in a manner consistent with both its unique advantages and limited capacity, support the
development and conditions to promote continuous improvement of state and local
education systems.
The overall message here is that the federal government has the responsibility to insure the right
to a free and high quality education for all K-12 students by protecting their civil rights and by
providing resources for the most in need, using public data and high quality research, and by
providing support and infrastructure for schools, districts, and states to help them continuously
improve in their work.

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THAT’LL DO IT
The paper does not recommend a huge increase in funding for education. Given the discord over
federal involvement in public education, it may seem like Capitol Hill has a controlling interest
in school financing. Yet, the federal share of total school funding is a sliver – about 10 percent of
the more than $600 billion spent annually on public elementary and secondary schools. The bulk
of that is designated for equal access to education through two pieces of legislation: Title I, part
of President Johnson’s 1965 Elementary and Secondary Education Act, provides funds to
schools to provide additional resources and academic services for poor students; and
the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), enacted in 1975 to support special
education.

It wasn’t until a quarter century later, when President George W. Bush signed the reauthorization
of ESEA, known as the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, that the federal government would
assert itself so deeply in local education policy. President Obama’s policies continued to support
this. In reaction, many states objected to what they viewed as onerous accountability demands in
the law and, in December 2015, Congress reduced the federal reach into education with passage
of the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA), the most recent incarnation of ESEA.

Understanding the limits of the federal role in education is as important as acknowledging its
beneficial actions. “The federal government is poorly positioned to dictate the details of state and
local efforts to improve their schools,” write the authors. They also point out that strict
accountability regulations based solely on test scores did little to improve student achievement
and may have had the unintended consequence of inducing “educators to focus on compliance
over student success.”
Twitter

When it comes to matters of policy, the public tends to look to the federal government to lead the
way, but the local governments actually determine educational policy. Early in our nation's
history, lawmakers passed the 10th Amendment to the Constitution which is the basis for making
education a function of the states. Each school district is administered and financed by the
community along with that district's state government. School districts with higher
socioeconomic levels tend to give more resources to their schools. Standards and quality of
education consequently vary widely from state to state, town to town, and even district to district.
However, federal and state government can still play some role in education policy, as this article
explains.

Federal Authority

As stated above, the federal government has historically played a minor role in education, and in
fact, the federal government did not issue any educational policy until the 1960s. The National
Science Foundation published a report studying which educational techniques were effective that
the Johnson administration used in its "Great Society" program. Federal involvement in
education has only increased since then.

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The federal laws with the most impact on education concern:

 Equal access to education

 Safeguarding students' constitutional rights
 Safeguarding teachers' constitutional rights.

Education is not exactly a constitutional right, like free speech and assembly, but it is an
important enough interest to warrant constitutional protection. Students are therefore protected
against discrimination based on race, gender, religion, or disability, or ethnicity through the 14th
Amendment.

Every Student Succeeds Act

The federal government also influences education by allocating funding only to those school
districts that follow certain federal guidelines. Roughly three percent of the federal budget is
spent on education as of 2017 - a small proportion, of course, but in many years this amounts to
billions of dollars. Most of this money goes toward assistance programs for children with
disabilities. The rest of the money is distributed to school districts under the Every Student
Succeeds Act(ESSA).

The federal government plays a role in evaluating each school district by administering
the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NEAP), also known as the Nation's Report
Card. Finally, federal agencies such as the National Science Foundation and the Department of
Education publish recommended teaching strategies and materials. States and local governments
are free to adopt or ignore these recommendations as they see fit, although no funding will be
awarded if the school district adopts these recommended practices.

State Authority

The states are the entities primarily responsible for the maintenance and operation of public
schools. The states are also heavily involved in the establishment, selection, and regulation of
curriculum, teaching methods, and instructional materials in their schools. Consequently, each
state has different standards and policies which may impact the quality of education offered.

Each state's constitution requires it to provide a school system where children may receive an
education. Many state constitutions also contain express provisions for creating educational
curricula. Some state constitutions even empower state authorities to select textbooks and
educational materials. Besides constitutional authority, state governments also have authority to
legislate in this area, or they can authorize officials to establish, select, and regulate curriculum.

State legislatures have also set mandatory requirements for students to graduate. In cases where
state rules and regulations for courses do exist, they must be followed. Local school districts
may, however, offer courses and activities in the instructional program beyond those required by
state statute. Other states delegate more of their authority. They usually prescribe a model
curriculum framework, allowing local authorities to develop their own curricula based on the
general state goals.

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Additional Resources

 US Department of Education
 School Curriculum Basics
 Competency Testing

Structure of U.S. Education

The structure of U.S. education includes 12 years of regular schooling, preceded by a year or two
of pre-school education, and followed by a four-stage higher education degree system (associate,
bachelor's, master's, doctorate) plus various non-degree certificates and diplomas. In addition,
there are special education services, adult basic and continuing education, leisure learning
programs, and continuing professional education and training programs. Completion of each
level or stage is a prerequisite for access to the next, and a variety of assessment and evaluation
tools are used to determine learning needs, academic achievement standards, and eligibility to
proceed to higher levels of education.

Progressing Through the System

Pre-School Preparation 
The majority of U.S. children now begin their educations prior to entering regular school, and
most states now require enrollment in pre-school programs and provide such programs. Pre-
school programs generally occur in the year preceding school entry and sometimes the previous
year as well, or around ages 3-5. The first year of pre-school education is often called pre-
kindergarten or nursery school, while the second year is often called kindergarten or preschool.
Just under one million children currently enroll in the first year of pre-school education each
year, and some 3.4 million enroll in the second.

School Entry 
U.S. children enter formal schooling around age 6 (some enter at 5 and others at age 7 depending
on the relationship of their birthdate to the school calendar). Over 3.7 million children enter the
first grade of school each year.

Duration of School 
Formal schooling lasts 12 years, until around age 18 (once again, depending on the age at entry).
Each of the school years is called a grade, so that 12th grade corresponds to the 12th year, etc.
Nearly 48 million students are enrolled in primary and secondary education in the United States
across all grade levels.

Stages/Levels of School 
Infant development, pre-school, and frequently the first or second year of formal schooling are
collectively termed Early Childhood Education in the United States, and this age range is
considered a professional and research specialization for educators. Formal primary education is
called Elementary Education and ranges from first grade through grade 4, 5, or 6, depending on
state and district regulations. The upper level of primary education is often organized separately

176
into a unit called Middle School, which begins at grade 4, 5, or 6 and ends at grade 6, 7, or 8.
Likewise, the lower grades of secondary education (years 7, 8, or 9 depending on state and
district regulations) are sometimes organized separately into what is called Junior High School.
Regular (including upper) secondary education is called High School, beginning in grade 8, 9, or
10 and ending at grade 12, again depending on state and district regulations.

Compulsory Schooling 
Compulsory schooling ends by law at age 16 in 30 states, at age 17 in nine states, and at age 18
in 11 states plus the District of Columbia. Students may drop out of school if they have reached
the age set in their state's law for the end of compulsory schooling, but dropouts are not
considered to have completed school and no certificate or award is issued at this stage. The U.S.
dropout rate is just over 11 percent of secondary-level students age 16 and older.

School Leaving 
Two basic school leaving certificates are awarded for completing school, the High School
Diploma, awarded to graduates of secondary school, and the GED (General Educational
Development) Certificate, awarded to adults who left school but then complete a special
supervised study and examination program. High School Diplomas represent a variety of
different curricula and standards. Some 2.8 million students are awarded some form of High
School Diploma each year, while around 500 thousand adults successfully complete GED
programs. The secondary school completion rate is 92.6 percent of those who enroll at the
secondary level, while the GED pass rate is 62 percent of those attempting the program.

Some private schools and school districts award certificates at the primary level to students who
complete Elementary School or Middle School, although this practice is not uniform across the
country.

Special Education
At the school levels, around 6 million students receive some form of special needs instruction
and support for diagnosed disabilities that may affect learning. Special education students are
frequently required to stay in compulsory school longer than regular students, usually until age
20 or 21. In addition, some 2.4 million school-age students are enrolled in special programs for
the gifted and talented. Students who complete Individual Education Plan (IEP) programs in
special education also receive certificates (if the program is not equivalent to secondary
graduation) or diplomas (generally equivalent to secondary graduation).

Postsecondary Enrollment 
Over 60 percent of graduating secondary students enroll in some form of postsecondary
education each year, or approximately 1.8 million students. Twenty per cent enroll on a part-time
basis, and 43 percent enroll in associate degree and short programs as compared with bachelor's
degree programs.

First Degree Attainment 

Recent data show that over 500,000 students earn associate degrees each year, nearly 150,000
earn short non-degree certificates and diplomas, and nearly 1.2 million students earn bachelor's
degrees. Of the students who initially enroll in short programs and associate degree programs,

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over 38 percent finish and receive some award, including 6 percent who gain admission to
bachelor's degree programs and graduate, but 48 percent drop out. Of the students who initially
enroll in bachelor's degree programs around half, or 53 percent, earn a bachelor's degree while 24
percent drop out and the remainder remain on the rolls without completing a degree or switch to
another type of program. Since increasing numbers of students temporarily stop their studies and
later re-enroll, it is impossible to report precise continuous flow data.

Advanced Degree Attainment 

Students do not necessarily continue their studies immediately upon earning a bachelor's degree.
Many start careers and later undertake a part-time graduate program or quit working to re-enter
university. Some 1.2 million students of all ages enroll in first-professional and advanced degree
programs each year, and over 78,500 first-professional, 430,000 master's, and 45,900 doctoral
degrees are awarded. The mean registered time (time spent enrolled as a student) from receipt of
a bachelor's degree to earning a research doctorate is 7.3 years, which varies by subject. Of U.S.
citizens and residents aged 25-40, approximately 1.4 percent have earned first-professional
degrees, 5.4 percent have earned master's degrees, and one percent have earned research
doctorates.

Article excerpted from the U.S. Network for Education Information

State and Local role in Education Funding

According to the US department of Education, the Federal Government contributes about 8% to
funding US public schools. To fund the remaining balance per student in the public education
System, state and local governments are mandated to allocate money towards education.[4] The
state allocates a percentage of its revenue, from sales and income tax, to use towards education.
The funds that are set aside for education are determined by the State constitutions, Propositions,
and the incoming Government officials. According to the National Conference of state
Legislatures, States provide structure, equality, fiscal accountability, stability and support to the
public education systems per state. Each state varies the level of support that the schools receive
with the implementation of legislation.[5]
The Local government allocates education funding from the revenue generated by property tax
and other fundraising efforts. Local officials have the ability to influence the rate of change of
property taxes that are used to fund local expenditures, including education.[6]
Due to the varied levels of income throughout states and within local communities, education
funding suffers from inequalities where some communities have excessive funding and others
are lacking important resources to support students. According to the research on Equity and
Adequacy in School Funding, “much of the current litigation and legislative activity in education
funding seeks to assure “adequacy”, that is, a sufficient level of funding to deliver an adequate
education to every student in the state.”[7]
Finding a Solution to Education Inequality
Because income and tax revenue varies so widely from state to state, the current school funding
model has led to a huge disparity in the funding that schools in different parts of a single state
receive. Primarily, schools in affluent areas receive more funding as compared to those located in
low-income areas. Overall, this model presents a challenge to schools situated in low-income

178
areas because performance measures can be tied to this funding approach. Low-income areas
have comparatively lower property and income taxes hence affecting the funding of the schools.
Poor school performance in low-income areas has a direct causal relationship with the low
income and property taxes hence the need for a change in the approach to funding. A solution to
the identified problem is to distribute wealth evenly to allow better funding models for public
schools. Derisma (2013) claimed that “using state taxes to fund public education has the
potential to create funding insecurities. To begin, state tax revenues are largely generated from
income and sales taxes. Income and sales tax revenue are not stable sources and have the
propensity to drop in times of recession” (p. 122).[8] The claim shows that funding insecurities in
low-income areas are likely to inconvenience those living in those areas and children in school
face the same issue. Instead of condemning children from low-income areas to this life, it is
logical to uplift them through providing more equitable funding to them. Since the poor
academic performance in low-income areas has been linked to low funding, it is crucial to
consider consolidating school districts to even out the effects of the disparities. This
consolidation can also be accompanied by the spreading of funds among schools to avoid the
disparities where one school may receive less than half the funding that other schools receive.
Also, we can institute transparency for the annual district wide budgeting by releasing digital
dashboards annually, which will illustrate budget allocations and strategic priorities. With this
kids will receive the proper funds for educational experiences and ensure that money will trickle
where it should be. Also, this will build trust within our school districts. Lastly, holding the
board accountable by fixing what's wrong so kids can get what they deserve. By implementing
these proposals, the foundations of better academic performance in low-income areas can be set.

References[edit]
1. ^ "6 Reasons for Getting Your High School Diploma - WAHM.com".  www.wahm.com.
Retrieved 2016-02-26.
2. ^ Walters, Pamela (2001). "Educational access and the state: Historical continuities and
discontinuities in racial inequality in american education. Sociology of Education". Sociology of
Education, Vol. 74. JSTOR 2673252.
3. ^ Kozol, Jonathan (2005).  The Shame of the Nation. New York: Crown Publishing
Group. ISBN 9781400052455.
4. ^ "Federal Role in Education".  www2.ed.gov. 2017-05-25. Retrieved  2017-08-07.
5. ^ Legislatures, National Conference of State. "State Role in Education
Finance".  www.ncsl.org. Retrieved  2017-08-07.
6. ^ "Finance ~ How Do We Fund Our Schools? : Where We Stand". www.pbs.org.
Retrieved 2017-08-07.
7. ^ Augenblick, John G.; Myers, John L.; Anderson, Amy Berk (1997). "Equity and Adequacy in
School Funding". The Future of Children.  7 (3): 63–
78.  doi:10.2307/1602446.  JSTOR  1602446.  PMID  10892466.
8. ^ Derisma, Magda (2013). "Opposing Views: The Divide in Public Education Funding–
Property Tax Revenue". Children’s Legal Rights Journal. 34 (1): 122.

179
 America’s school funding is more
progressive than many assume
How states and the federal government offset the effects of local
inequality.

IN 1647, the Massachusetts Bay Colony passed a law mandating the

establishment of publicly funded schools. Puritans were worried that
otherwise children would fail to learn the Bible and become susceptible
to the wiles of “that old deluder, Satan”. To pay for the schools, the
colony levied a tax on local dwellings.

Although the aims of public schooling have changed since the 17th
century, the critical role of property taxation in funding education has
endured. The share of school funding that comes from local taxes such
as levies on property is twice as high in America as in the rest of the
OECD club of mostly rich countries. It is an approach with many critics,
who argue that children who need the most help in school in fact
receive the least, since they live in areas with cheap housing and
correspondingly small tax takes. Arne Duncan, Barack Obama’s first
education secretary, once said that the use of property taxes was the
main cause of the country’s “inequitable school funding”.

It is true that public education is no engine of social mobility. Of young

Americans whose parents did not finish high school, only 5% get a

180
degree, compared with nearly 20% in the OECD as a whole. But the way
schools are funded is not as egregious as widely believed, according to
recent data. In all but three states, poor pupils on average receive equal
or greater funding than their richer peers.

There are two reasons why a reliance on property taxes does not
automatically lead to horribly regressive allocations of money. First, in
many districts (including, for example, Boston), poor children live close
to a lot of valuable commercial property, which is also taxed.

Second, states and the federal government have increased how much
they contribute towards school funding, offsetting the regressive effects
of local taxation. In 1920, 83% of public-school funding came from local
sources, according to data from the National Centre for Education
Statistics. The latest numbers show that local collections are no longer
the largest source of money—they contribute 45% of the haul, slightly
less than state funds. Federal programmes account for a further 9%.

The rise of other funding sources is a fairly recent development.

Though the Supreme Court ruled in 1973 that unequal funding of
schools as a result of property taxes was not unconstitutional, a
subsequent wave of court cases led to more egalitarian spending. From
1990 to 2012, funding for the bottom fifth of school districts (measured
by household income) increased by 50%, bringing them roughly in line
with high-income districts.

Studies that look only at the spending by different school districts

neglect the full picture. For example, if New Jersey’s schools were
funded entirely locally, poor children would on average receive just
$0.66 for every dollar spent on educating the better-off, the biggest gap
in any state. But taking account of state funding, poor children receive
$1.06 for every dollar going to richer peers. That figure rises to $1.08
once federal top-ups are included, suggesting that New Jersey is in fact
among the most progressive states (see chart).

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Nor do individual districts allocate their funding in an uneven way.
According to a recent paper by Simon Ejdemyr and Kenneth Shores
that examined districts across the country, poor and minority pupils
receive 1% or 2% more in funding than better-off and white ones.
Affluent districts and those with lots of rich and poor people living
close together were the most progressive when doling out dollars.
Although there are still many examples of neighbouring districts with
widely different funding settlements, on average poorer children do not
lose out as much as many critics allege.

More worrying is that some states spend vastly more on public

education than others do. Children in Vermont receive 2.8 times the
funds of those in Utah, even after adjusting for differences in the costs
of running a school. After the Great Recession pinched states’ budgets,
many dramatically decreased their education spending. In Oklahoma,
state general funds, the main source of spending on primary and
secondary education, have plummeted 28% per head since 2008. Fully
19% of districts have four-day weeks, and another 9% are considering

182
moving to one as well. States like Texas, Kentucky and Alabama have
also seen large cuts.

Education researchers once hotly debated whether additional funding

would boost performance for low-income or minority pupils. But recent
studies comparing the outcomes for pupils after increases in financing
targeted on poor districts have found impressive effects. A study
published in 2016 found that 10% in additional spending increased the
future earnings of pupils by 7% and reduced their likelihood of ending
up in poverty. Increased spending of $1,000 per pupil in Michigan was
linked to a rise in university enrolment. 

All this suggests that higher spending for the poorest children could
make a big difference, not least because richer parents are quite willing
to produce funds for trips, tutors and test preparation outside the
classroom. Yet schools are relying on federal programs like Title I,
which provides additional cash to poor districts, simply to achieve
parity, when these funds were meant as a top-up.

School funding in America may not be as regressive as many of its

critics contest, but the model still lags behind that of other rich
countries. Through its “pupil premium”, England, for example, does a
much better job of directing resources to children who need extra help.
America still has many lessons to learn.

Characteristics of U.S. Education

A. Education as a Conserving Force

1. The avowed function of schools is to teach the attitudes, values, roles,

information, and training necessary for the maintenance of society.
2. There is an explicit or implicit assumption in U.S. schools that the American
way is the only right way.
3. School texts rarely discuss internal struggles or the racist history of the U.S.

B. Mass Education

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1. People in the U.S. have a basic faith in education.
2. A democratic society requires an educated citizenry so that individuals can
participate in the decisions of public policy.
3. As a result of the goal of mass education, an increasing proportion of people
have received an education throughout U.S. history.

C. Local Control of Education

1. The majority of money and control for education comes from local
communities.
2. There is a general fear of centralization of education.
3. Local school boards believe they know best the special needs of their children.
4. There are several problems within having a system of local boards:
a. Local tax monies that finance schools are dependent on local tax bases that
vary by class.
b. People who are dissatisfied with high taxes will vote down taxes to help
schools.
c. Typically local school boards do not represent all segments of their
community.
d. School boards may be controlled by the religious views of the majority.
e. There is a lack of curriculum standardization across the nation’s 15,367 school
districts.
1) This leads to a wide variation in the preparation of students.
2) There is also a wide variation of requirements when a child moves from one
school district to another. On average, people move once every five years.
f. Vouchers are also a problem because they set up an educational “free market”
that creates competition for students.

D. Competitive Nature of U.S. Education

1. Schools in a highly competitive society are likely to be highly competitive

themselves.
2. Throughout different aspects of school, such as academics, clubs, and sports,
students learns two lessons:
a. Your classmates are enemies because if they succeed, it is at your expense.
b. You had better not fail. Fear of failure becomes a greater motivator than
intellectual curiosity or love of knowledge.

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E. “Sifting and Sorting” Functions of Schools

1. School performance sorts out those who will occupy the higher and lower
rungs in the occupational-prestige ladder.
2. Sorting is done with respect to two criteria: a child’s ability and her/his social
class background.
3. “Tracking” is the placing of students in curricula consistent with expectations
for occupations

F. Preoccupation with Order and Control

1. Schools are organized around constraints of individual freedom.

2. The clock regiments the school day.
3. Some schools demand conformity in dress codes.
4. Teachers are rated on how quiet and orderly their classrooms are.
5. Some profound paradoxes are created based on order and control in education
a. Formal education encourages creativity but curbs creative individuals
b. Formal education encourages the open mind but teaches dogma.
c. Formal education talks of meeting individual needs but encourages
conformity.
d. Formal education wants students to reach their potential, but fosters
competition that causes some students to be labeled as failures.
e. Formal education is based on a meritocracy but systematically benefits certain
groups of people regardless of their talent.

G. Hidden Curriculum

1. Non-academic values, norms, beliefs, and attitudes.

2. Teaches children discipline, order, cooperativeness, and conformity.
3. Skills thought necessary to assist students to fit into modern bureaucratic
society.
4. Children learning “their place” in the larger work-a-day world.

EVALUATION AND ASSESSMENT

Evaluation and assessment may be used to mean the same thing or are used interchangeably.

Evaluation refers to assessment of value: the act of considering or examining something in

order to judge its value, quality, importance, extent, or condition.

185
What is assessment for learning?

Assessment for learning is best described as a process by which assessment information is used
by teachers to adjust their teaching strategies, and by students to adjust their learning strategies.

Assessment, teaching, and learning are inextricably or inseparably linked, as each informs the
others.

Assessment is a powerful process that can either optimize or inhibit learning, depending on how
it’s applied.

For teachers;

Assessment for learning helps teachers gather information to:

 Plan and modify teaching and learning programs for individual students, groups of
students, and the class as a whole.
 Pinpoint students’ strengths so that both teachers and students can build on them.
 Identify students’ learning needs in a clear and constructive way so they can be addressed
 Involve parents, families, and whānau or extended family in their children's learning.

For students;

Assessment for learning provides students with information and guidance so that they can plan
and manage the next steps in their learning.

Assessment for learning uses information to lead from what has been learned to what needs to be
learned next.

Describing assessment for learning

Assessment for learning should use a range of approaches. These may include:

 Day-to-day activities, such as learning conversations.

 A simple mental note taken by the teacher during observation.
 Student self and peer assessments.

186
  A detailed analysis of a student’s work.
 Assessment tools, which may be written items, structured interview questions, or items
teachers make up themselves.

What matters most is not so much the form of the assessment, but how the information gathered
is used to improve teaching and learning.

Purposes of assessment
Teaching and learning;

The primary purpose of assessment is to improve students’ learning and teachers’ teaching as
both respond to the information it provides.

Assessment for learning is an ongoing process that arises out of the interaction between teaching
and learning.

What makes assessment for learning effective is how well the information is used.

System improvement;
Assessment can do more than simply diagnose and identify students’ learning needs;

It can be used to assist improvements across the education system in a cycle of continuous
improvement:

 Students and teachers can use the information gained from assessment to determine their
next teaching and learning steps.
 Parents, families and whanau (extended families) can be kept informed of next plans for
teaching and learning and the progress being made, so they can play an active role in
their children’s learning.
 School leaders can use the information for school-wide planning, to support their teachers
and determine professional development needs.
 Communities and Boards of Trustees can use assessment information to assist their
governance role and their decisions about staffing and resourcing.
 The Education Review Office can use assessment information to inform their advice for
school improvement.
 The Ministry of Education can use assessment information to undertake policy review
and development at a national level, so that government funding and policy intervention
is targeted appropriately to support improved student outcomes.

Principles of assessment for learning

187
Above all, assessment for learning must be underpinned by the utmost confidence that every
student can improve.

It should be driven by the concept of ako, meaning "to teach and to learn".

Assessment for learning should enable reciprocal learning where teachers and students share and
value each other’s sense-making processes.

Knowledge of the learner is vital to ensure assessment is appropriate and fit for purpose.

Learning to learn
Good assessment should focus less on “do they have the right or wrong answer?” and more on
making students’ thinking visible to both teacher and student. It should help develop
understanding of the strategies and patterns students have constructed in order to make sense of
the world.

The assessment for learning process can unlock the approaches used by students and help them
to become more aware of not only what they are learning, but how they are learning it. This
empowers students to take control of their own learning, by developing their skills of self-
regulation.

Students can then discuss their developing understanding with their teachers, peers, parents,
families and whānau. Independent learners like this have the ability to seek out and gain new
skills, new knowledge and new understanding, according to their own needs and learning goals.

Building students’ assessment capability

When students actively participate in assessing their learning by interpreting their performance,
they are better placed to recognize important moments of personal learning. This helps them to
identify their own strengths and needs, and discover how to make ‘Where to next?’ decisions.

Students should be educated in ways that build their assessment capabilities, so they can take
increasing control of their own learning and, through this process, become more effective and
independent learners.

Students make progress when they develop the ability to monitor their own work. To do this
well, they need to understand:

 What high quality work looks like (examining examples and models of quality work
helps develop this)
 What criteria define quality work (participation in the development of learning goals and
assessment criteria helps develop this)
 How to compare and evaluate their own work against such criteria (peer and self-
assessment help develop this).

188
Assessment;

-Capable students can also provide better information to teachers

- Better student feedback gives teachers a clearer picture of students’ learning needs and enables
more personalized development of next teaching and learning steps.

PROGRESSION
This is the process of developing or moving gradually towards a more advanced state.

EDUCATION SYSTEM OF ENGLAND AND THE SCANDINAVIAN COUNTRIES

The Scandinavian countries include; Norway, Sweden, and Denmark.

They have small populations compared with other countries and their
educational systems, therefore, tend not to be so diversified as our own.

The relationship between what we call secondary and further education is

much closer than in England and indeed at times can scarcely be
distinguished. Any appreciation of further education, therefore, requires an
understanding of the educational system as a whole.

The Scandinavian countries moreover work in fairly close contact and there
are close parallels between their educational systems.

Reforms, however, are at present taking place over a number of years and it
is convenient to deal initially with Denmark.

Why Sweden pays a monthly salary to high school students!

steem master (59) in news •  2 years ago

Colleges and universities around the world offer scholarships and benefits to students every
month or every semester, but Sweden has a very special grant for high school students!

According to Swedish law, the state is obliged to pay a monthly stipend of high school students
of 1050 SEK ($ 570). The only condition is that it is 16 years old and all classes are attended by
high school. Local students do not have to register for this grant, but foreign school students
must do so.

189
If the student is in boarding school or his family needs a larger grant, he or she will receive
another amount, which is either an additional subsidy or an internal grant. The additional benefit
is between 285 - 855 Swedish kroner ($ 41 - 123) ) and the internal tuition is between Rs. 1190 -
2350 ($ 172- $ 340) .

Students continue to receive a monthly salary from the age of 16 to the age of
20. This idea is designed to encourage students to study, motivate their activity,
and create a sense of responsibility.

In addition, school education in Sweden is free, free meals are provided to all students, students
receive laptop computers in the first year of secondary school, books and pamphlets are
distributed free of charge, and students cannot pay anything unless they vandalize Their objects.
The free education is not limited to schools, and academic studies are also free. Did you like
Sweden's way of motivating its students? Do you think it is feasible?

Sources:
http://www.factswt.com/did-you-know-that-sweden-pays-high-school-students-187-per-month-
to/
https://www.reddit.com/r/todayilearned/comments/2e4850/til_that_sweden_pays_high_school_st
udents_187_per/

THE EDUCATION SYSTEM IN SWEDEN

Education in Sweden is mandatory for all children between age 6 and age 16.

[2] The school year in Sweden runs from mid/late August to early/mid - June.

The Christmas holiday from mid-December to early January divides the Swedish school
year into two terms. Homeschooling is closely supervised by the government and very
limited.[3]
From the age of one, children can be admitted to pre-school (förskola). Pre-schools help
provide an environment that stimulates children's development and learning and enable
parents to combine parenthood with work or studies.

190
[4] Duringthe year before children start compulsory school, all children are offered a
place in a pre-school class (förskoleklass), which combines the pedagogical methods of
the pre-school with those of compulsory school.

But from a new law, taking place autumn 2018, all children are required to begin in a
pre-school class at the age of 6.[5] Immersion methods amongst children aged four to
seven is highly emphasized in compulsory school.[6][7] Ages 6/7 and 15/16, children
attend compulsory comprehensive school (grundskola), divided in three stages.

The vast majority of schools in Sweden are municipally run, but there are also
autonomous and publicly funded schools, known as "independent schools". The
education in independent schools has many objectives in common with the municipal
school, but it can have an orientation that differs from that of the municipal schools. [8]
[9] A handful of boarding schools, known as "private schools", are funded by privately paid
tuition.

In 2008, statistics showed that of all Swedes aged 25–64, 15% have completed only
compulsory education (as the highest level of attainment), 46% only upper secondary
education, 14% only post-secondary education of less than three years, and 22% post-
secondary education of three years or more. Women are more educated than men
(26% of women vs. 19% of men have post-secondary education of three years or
more).[10] 

The level of education is highest among those aged 25–34, and it decreases with age.
[11] Both upper secondary school and university studies are financed by taxes. Some
Swedes start working immediately after secondary school. Along with several other
European countries, the government used to subsidize tuition of non-EU/EEA students
pursuing a degree at Swedish institutions, but in 2010 they started charging non-
EU/EEA students 80,000–100,000 SEK per year. [12] Swedish fifteen year old pupils
have the 22nd highest average score in the PISA assessments, being neither
significantly higher nor lower than the OECD average. [13]

In 2014, the National Agency for Education published guidelines to staff on how to act

during incidents of armed violence.[14][15] In the 2012-2017 period, the number of reports
of violence in schools increased 129% and reports of threats increased with 46% in the
same period according to the Swedish Work Environment Authority.[16]
Förskola (literally "preschool"), colloquially daghem or dagis, is the kindergarten.
Grundskola is the 1-9 grade primary school, In 2005, year 1-6 of primary school was classified
as ISCED level 1 and year 7-10 as ISCED level 2.[23] Individuals at this or lower level of
education are in Sweden classed as having low education (sv: lågutbildade) by Statistics
Sweden.[24]
Gymnasieskola (literally "gymnasium school") is the three-year secondary school. In 2005, the
secondary school was classified as ISCEDlevel 3.[23]
Högskola is a tertiary school (formally translated to university college, less formally
to university) and universitet (always translated to university) is a tertiary school
with postgraduate education. In 2005, the tertiary school was classified as ISCED level 5 and

191
above.[23]Individuals with 3 years or more tertiary level education are classed as having high
education (sv: högutbildade) by Statistics Sweden.[24]
Historical terms include småskola ("small school") and folkskola ("people's school") for primary
school and läroverk ("learning institute") for secondary school. Formerly, högskola usually
meant a one-faculty school – usually professionally oriented – while universitet contained many
faculties.
Choice
Students in Swedish primary schools have very limited choice regarding their curriculum.
Students cannot usually make any decisions about their education until the fall term of the sixth
grade, where students can choose a foreign language (most often Spanish, French, German, and
sometimes other languages such as Russian, or extra English or Swedish) and which handicraft
course the student wants to take, where carpentry or sewing is offered. A similar situation applies
to most other subjects. This is the result of a concerted effort to streamline curricula, in the hope
that this will favor students from families with lower levels of educational
attainment.] Critics[who?] claim it has lowered results significantly among talented students
without raising them within other groups.
All students between 12–15 years old take mathematics, English, Swedish, a foreign language,
"Naturorientering" science (physics, chemistry, biology, and technology), "Samhällsorientering"
social science (social studies, history, religion, geography), physical education, art, music,
carpentry or sewing, and a course in home economics. In many schools the course "Elevens Val"
("The Student's Choice") is offered, which can include, for instance, drama, an extra foreign
language, or help in different subjects.

The Swedish School Plan[25][26] also highly encourages an individualistic education in which

each student has their specific needs met. The students are also encouraged not only to
participate in student councils but also to actually form the education they desire together with
their teachers, choosing which books to read and how to balance practice with theory depending
on which the individual student finds most enjoyable to learn from.[27]
Homeschooling
Homeschooling is largely nonexistent and heavily regulated.[3]
Primary and secondary school
The educational system in Sweden is based on a nine-year primary school, or "Grundskola", with
mandatory attendance.[28] Following this comes an elective three-year secondary school, or
"Gymnasieskola", which is divided in two instances where you either prepare for higher
education or receive vocational education. The preparatory instance allows for specialization in
either natural sciences or social sciences.

Grading
Pupils do not start receiving official grades until the 6th grade. But from year 1-5 , students do
receive written reviews instead of getting letter grades. The written reviews includes the
knowledge that the student have and also the knowledge that is required for the specific subject.
The written reviews describes the lowest acceptable level of knowledge that a student have in
year 3, and states the level that a student need for grades A,C and E in grade 6-9.[29] 

192
Three grades were until recently used in elementary school: Pass (godkänd (G)), Pass with
distinction (Väl godkänd (VG)), and Pass with special distinction (Mycket väl godkänd (MVG)).
[28] The grades were usually referred to by their abbreviation. Note that a failing grade did not
exist as a formal grade. If the student failed to pass a course, this was reported as ***, referring
to a footnote explaining that the pupil "lacks foundation for a grade". Many people, however,
considered 'failed' (Icke godkänd (IG)) to be an actual grade and often referred to *** as such.

Compared to course grades, failed tests were often actually marked with IG. This was, however,
dependent on the preferences of the teacher and did not make any difference.
However, from the autumn of 2011, a new grading scale has been introduced into the Swedish
school system: A, B, C, D, and E as passing grades and F as failing.[30] B and D work as filling
grades, for when a student hasn't reached all objectives for C or A but has reached most of them.
[31] If the student can't be graded, e.g. extensive truancy, the student will receive a dash instead of
an F. If a student is on the verge of receiving an F in a certain subject/course, the teacher
responsible for that subject will notify the student and the student's parents. If a student is given
an F, they will receive a written review of how to improve themselves.

The pupil's total score, which is used for application to gymnasium, the secondary schools, is
calculated by taking the pupil's subjects and numerically adding them together, with E = 10, D =
12.5, C = 15, B = 17.5, and A = 20, yielding a maximum possible score of 340. It is normal for a
pupil to have 17 grades, as most study a third language – traditionally German or French, but in
recent years Spanish has become the most widely studied.[32] If a pupil doesn't study a foreign
language he or she instead studies extra Swedish and English. He or she will then only receive 16
grades and cannot reach a higher score than 320.

The sixteen subjects used to calculate the total must include the three core subjects – English,
Swedish, and Mathematics. If the pupil fails any of the core subjects, she or he lacks
qualification to attend secondary school. However, the student can still attend the secondary
school individual program (individuellt program (IV)), either to gain competence in the core
subjects and start a secondary school program or to complete the individual program and satisfy
the requirements for a student degree (see below).

Secondary school
Secondary school, called gymnasieskola, lasts for three years (however, some students study for
four or more years for various reasons) and is formally elective, although most attend it, and
there are very few prospects for those who do not attend. Secondary school is divided into so
called "programs", i.e. different types of choices of educational focus. The two most common
"programs" are "social science" (samhällsvetenskap) and "natural sciences" (naturvetenskap).
The "programs" are further divided into orientations. There are currently seventeen different
"national programs" (centrally defined program curricula) with between two and four centrally
defined orientations. In addition, there are local programs and orientations, but most schools use
the national programs. From the autumn term of 2011, there became eighteen national programs,
six college preparatory programs, and twelve vocational programs.]
The programs are divided into two general categories: preparatory and vocational. All programs
give basic qualification to attend university, but preparatory programs typically satisfy more of

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the various special qualifications that are required to attend some university courses and
programs.
Just over half of upper secondary students follow one of the thirteen vocationally oriented
programs. These programs must include at least fifteen weeks of workplace training over the
three-year program.[33]

The courses that a student takes depending on program and orientation can be divided into four
levels: core subjects, program-specific subjects, orientation subjects, and individually selected
courses. Core courses are courses that everyone, regardless of program, must study to satisfy the
requirements for a student degree. Program-specific courses are the additional courses that a
student is required to take to fulfill the program requirements. If a student for some reason does
not fulfill the requirements, for example, by electing to replace a program-specific course with
another course, the student is considered to have attended a specially designed program, which
has no bearing except for what's printed on the school leaving certificate. Orientation subjects are
the courses that a student elects to take by selecting an orientation. Normally these courses take
place in the second and third year, although in a few cases the courses start earlier. Finally,
individually selected courses are courses that the student freely selects for herself/himself in the
second and third year; specific slots have been set aside in the curriculum and the schedule for
these]

In all programs in the upper secondary school, all students are required to do a diploma project.
The diploma project is a project where the students are required to demonstrate everything they
have learned during their 3 years in school. This project have two grading options, which is
receiving an E (pass) or F (not pass). The diploma project is not included in the students merit
value that is used towards further education.[34]

Eligibility
In 2012, 12% of pupils who left primary education did not qualify to proceed to secondary
education. In the autumn of 2017, 17.5% of pupils did not qualify to secondary education. The
group not mastering primary education are predominantly boys and pupils with foreign origin.[35]

Admittance
To attend secondary school, the prospective student applies to attend a certain program at a
certain school, competing for entrance based upon his/her elementary school grades. In a few
cases, such as the arts program (Estetiska programmet (ES)) at certain schools, the student
applies for both the program and the orientation. Some programs, generally the arts program and
certain local programs/orientations, have some form of entrance exam in addition to the
elementary school grades.
International schools
As of January 2015, the International Schools Consultancy (ISC)[36] listed Sweden as having 107
international schools.[37] ISC defines an 'international school' in the following terms, "ISC
includes an international school if the school delivers a curriculum to any combination of pre-
school, primary or secondary students, wholly or partly in English outside an English-speaking
country, or if a school in a country where English is one of the official languages, offers an

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English-medium curriculum other than the country’s national curriculum and is international in
its orientation."[37] This definition is used by publications including The Economist.[38]
Independent schools
Prior to the 1990s, there were only a handful of private schools in Sweden, mostly tuition-
funded boarding schools, whereof Sigtunaskolanand Lundsbergs skola are the most well known.
A major education reform in 1992 allowed privately run schools offering primary or secondary
education to receive public funding for each student, at a level similar to what public schools
receive. These are called "independent schools" (friskolor), and in 2008 there were around 900 of
them.[39]

The "independent schools", similar to charter schools in the United States or academies in the
United Kingdom, are funded with public money (skolpeng) from the local municipality, based on
the number of pupils they have enrolled, in the same way Swedish public schools are.

Consequently, they are not allowed to discriminate or require admission examinations, nor are
they allowed to charge the students any additional fees. They are, however, allowed to accept
private donations. Regional economic differences directly affect how much money each
municipality can provide per pupil, by as much as SEK 50,000 (around US$7,700 or £4,700).[40]

Anyone can start an independent for-profit school, or a chain of such schools, in Sweden. Many
of them offer an alternate pedagogy (such as Montessori), or a foreign/international, religious or
special needs (such as hearing-impaired) profile. There are also several secondary schools with
an elite sports profile. Internationella Engelska Skolan and Kunskapsskolan are the two largest
"independent school" chains. In 2008, more than 10% of Swedish pupils were enrolled in
"independent schools".[41]

Opinions
The "independent school" system has divided public opinion in Sweden. During the 2010
election neither political block suggested abandoning the program. A poll conducted in 2011 by
Synovate found that Swedes who want to ban companies from operating schools for profit
outnumbered those that don't. The Swedish model has been put forward as a possible model for
similar solutions in both the United Kingdom[41][42] and the United States, where Per Unckel,
County Governor of Stockholm and former Conservative Minister of Education, in 2009
summarised the advantages of the Swedish system in an opinion piece produced by
the Libertarian think tank Pacific Research Institute: "Education is so important that you can’t
just leave it to one producer. Because we know from monopoly systems that they do not fulfill
all wishes".[43]

In February 2013, The Guardian published an article by a former political advisor to the Swedish

Ministry of Education, Karin Svanborg-Sjövall, on the independent school system in Sweden -
"Sweden proves that private profit improves services and influences policy - Even education
unions came on board when private provision was introduced into Swedish schools",[44] citing
the paper on average educational performance made by research institute under the Swedish
Ministry of Employment, IFAU, which found "that an increase in the share of independent-
school students improves average performance at the end of compulsory school as well as long-

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run educational outcomes".[45]However, in June 2015, another article by the education
correspondent from The Guardian quoted then Education Minister, Gustav Fridolin, as saying
that the system was "a political failure" and stated that standards in learning had dropped
dramatically over the years and were in a state of "crisis".[46]

Tertiary education
Post-secondary Education
KY2
Qualified Vocational Education
KY1
KomVux PS
S3
Secondary School (Vocational)
S2
Ages 16–19
S1
Completing secondary school on a vocational program with full classes on a three-year
curriculum does provide a basic qualification for further studies. However many times tertiary
education is required before being admitted at university or university college. Post-secondary
education is provided by Municipal "KomVux" schools (short for KOMmunal VUXenutbildning,
lit. "Municipal Adult Education"), and independent boarding schools named Folkhögskolor (or
People's High Schools in English).

Instead of opting for higher education, a student from a vocational program in secondary school
is able to apply for what is called Qualified Vocational Education or "Kvalificerad
Yrkesutbildning" (KY). Training programs such as these are popular. This form combines
education and practical experience from business or industry in the chosen field. The level of
education is essentially post-secondary but can also contain courses that meet the requirements
of tertiary education.

For post-secondary education, the KomVux and the Qualified Vocational Education in some
ways correspond to what is offered by community colleges in the United States.

Higher education
See also: List of universities in Sweden
After gymnasieskola, students can apply to a university in order to receive a tertiary education.
General academic degrees are offered by public universities and university colleges that tend to
attract students on a regional basis. Besides general academic degrees, the higher education
system in Sweden also provides a number of professional and vocational degrees in fields such
as engineering, law and medicine.

As of autumn semester 2011, higher education is free of charge only for Swedish, EU/EEA, and
Swiss citizens.[47][48]

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 On 1 July 2007, a new higher education system came into effect in Sweden.[19][20] Higher
education became divided into three levels: basic level (grundnivå), advanced level (avancerad
nivå), and doctoral level (forskarnivå). The new changes also included removing several
professional / vocational degrees (yrkesexamina) as well as redefining other pre-existing degrees.

Basic level ( first level )

To be admitted to a programme at the basic level, a student must complete an education at
the gymnasieskola level or its equivalent. The degrees that can be obtained at the basic level are:
 University Diploma ( university degree ), 2 years, 120 higher education credits
( university credits )
 Degree of Bachelor (kandidatexamen), 3 years, 180 higher education credits

Advanced level ( advanced level )

To be admitted to a programme at the advanced level, a student must have obtained a 3-year
Swedish degree at the basic level or a corresponding degree from another country or some
corresponding qualification. The degrees that can be obtained at the advanced level are:

 Degree of Master (One year) (magisterexamen), 1 year, 60 higher education credits

 Degree of Master (Two years) (masterexamen), 2 years, 120 higher education credits

Both degrees require completing a thesis.

The Degree of Master (Two years), masterexam, is a new degree that is intended to be closely
linked to continuing education at the graduate level.

Doctoral level (third level )

To be admitted to a program at the doctoral level, a student must have obtained a Swedish degree
at the advanced level or completed at least 4 years of full-time study with at least one year at the
advanced level or a corresponding degree from another country or equivalent knowledge. The
degrees that can be obtained at the doctoral level are:

 Degree of Licentiate (licentiatexamen), 2 years, 120 higher education credits

 Degree of Doctor (PhD, doktorsexamen), 4 years, 240 higher education credits

Postgraduate academic titles are docent (associate professor) and professor (professor). Each

department has an administrative officer, the prefekt, who often is a docent.

Grading
See also: Academic grading in Sweden and Bologna process § Sweden
Three sets of grades exist in Swedish universities and university colleges. Some universities have
introduced a seven-grade scale (A-F, Fx), that similar to the ECTS scale, but with a criterion-
referenced grading instead of relative grading. The most common scale is a three-grade scale that
consists of U (Underkänd in Swedish, fail), G (Godkänd, pass) and VG (Väl godkänd, pass with
distinction). In this set VG is the highest. The other grade set consists of (U, 3, 4, 5) where 5 is
the highest. This grade set is normally given in courses within technical professional degrees.

197
 Finally there are some courses, within two systems of grading, in which you can only get G
(pass) or U (fail).
Language requirements
Before being accepted to a higher education program in Sweden, all applicants must demonstrate
a minimum proficiency in Swedish and English.[49] For international applicants, the Test in
Swedish for University Studies (TISUS) is used to test Swedish language proficiency
and TOEFL or the Cambridge First Certificate in English exam may be used for English.[50]

Student aid
Swedish students receives help from the Swedish National Board of Student Aid (CSN) while
studying. CSN is a Swedish Government authority that is sending out financial aid for studies.
This includes loans and grants for students that is studying in Sweden or abroad in another
country.[51]

Student democracy
Main article: Student democracy
Legislation
Swedish legislation about student democracy is made by:

 the Higher Education Act (issued by the Parliament)

 the Higher Education Ordinance (issued by the government and frequently revised)

Such legal basis form regulations for all Swedish public universities. They principally state that:
 the state provides institutions for higher education
 higher education should be based on research
 higher education institutions should cooperate with the surrounding local communities
 quality efforts on all things are a joint matter for staff and students
 students should take an active part in the work, with further development of the education
 there must be student representatives in all drafting and decision-making bodies

Complaints about the implementation of legislation on student democracy can be sent to

the Swedish Higher Education Authority(Universitetskanslerämbetet) . Even if there is no fine,
universities usually follow the agency's decisions.

Core issues
The main issues about student democracy in Sweden are:

 Granting a low threshold in entering universities, by:

 no fees, for Swedish, EU/EEA, and Swiss citizens
 simple rules of admission (no entrance test)

198
 Widening participation, introducing new groups into higher educations (ethnic minorities,
low-income citizens); it is worthy noting that affirmative actions are not allowed by Swedish
legislation, as a form of positive discrimination.
 Securing gender equality for staff, students and perspectives of education
 Strengthening the international perspective in all education, in order to help in creating
understanding of the international society

The Equal Treatment Act

In 2001, the Act for Equal Treatment of Students in Higher Education was issued, stating that:

 Equal treatment should be granted regardless of sex, ethnic origin, religion, sexual

orientation, and/or disabilities.
 Harassment (from staff or students) and discrimination are to be prevented.
 An annual plan has to be issued by each university to actively promote equal treatment.
 Weak spots are to be found in cooperation with students.
 In case of reported harassment or discrimination (based on the student's feelings), there's
an obligation to investigate and take measures.

History of education in Sweden

Primary school
In 1842, the Swedish parliament introduced a four-year primary school for children in Sweden,
"Folkskola". In 1858 grade 1 and 2 became "Småskola" and children started school at the age of
seven. In 1882 two grades were added to "folkskola", grade 5 and 6. Some "folkskola" also had
grade 7 and 8, called "Fortsättningsskola". Schooling in Sweden became mandatory for 7 years
in the 1930s and for 8 years in the 1950s. Since 1972, Swedish children have 9 mandatory years
in school - from August the year the child turns 7 to June the year the child turns 16. Parents in
some cases also have the option of delaying starting school until age 8 if deemed to be in the
child's best interest.
In the autumn term of 1949, some Swedish school districts introduced an experiment with a nine-
year school called enhetsskola. The enhetsskola had three stages. The first 3 years
were lågstadium (lower stage), the next three years were mellanstadium (middle stage) and the
last three years were högstadium (upper stage). In those school
districts, småskola became lågstadium, folkskola became mellanstadium and realskola became h
ögstadium. On 26 May 1950 the Swedish parliament decided to introduce the enhetsskola in
Sweden. In 1958 the enhetsskola became försöksskola, which in 1962 changed name
to grundskola. By 1972, the grundskola had been introduced in all parts in Sweden, replacing
the folkskola and högre allmänna läroverket. From the autumn term of 1994, the official division
in three different stages was abolished. In the early 1990s, Sweden also
introduced förskoleklass for the children aged 6, a one-year-long grade which first was
called årskurs 0 (Grade 0) or 6-årsgrupp (group for the six-year-olds). Förskoleklass, which
officially became the name from the 1998-1999 school year, is not mandatory.

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Secondary school

Class of 15- and 16-year-olds celebrates a successfully completed Realexamen in a Stockholm suburb in 1965.

After three years in "folkskola", children who enjoyed school and had good grades could choose
to switch to a secondary school called "Högre allmänna läroverket". Högre allmänna
läroverket was not free, so most students came from well-off families. However, some children
with good grades got free education at "högre allmänna läroverket" because their parents could
not afford to pay for it. In 1905, "högre allmänna läroverket" was divided into a lower level, 6-
year school called "realskola" and a higher level, 4-year school called "gymnasium". In
1971, fackskola merged with gymnasium and vocational school to become "upper secondary
school" .

Student financial aid (Sweden)

Student financial aid in Sweden consists of grants and loans administered by the Swedish
National Board of Student Aid, a Swedish government agency.[1] Students living with their
parents often only take the student grant, while other students tend to take both the
student grant and the student loan. The loans and grants are normally approved for a
maximum of twelve semesters, or 240 weeks. In 2016, weekly student aid for a full-time
student was as follows:[2]

Amount
in kronor

Gran
704
t

Loan 1,772

Total 2,476

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 In 2018 the interest rates for tuition fees were low at 0.13, with the average debt equivalent to
$21,000, even though students borrow only for living expenses, as Swedish universities charge
no tuition fees[3].
No income tax is paid on student grants and student loans.
Students must meet basic requirements to receive financial aid.[4]
 Must meet the age requirements. May receive student aid until the year that they turn 56,
but the right to take out a loan will be limited from the year that they turn 47. For upper
secondary education, there is also a minimum age of 20.
 Must be attending a school or course that qualifies them for student aid.
 Must be studying at least half-time.
 Must study for at least three weeks.

In Sweden, application and tuition fees apply for students who are not citizens of the EU, the
EEA, a Nordic country or Switzerland and who apply for or enroll on studies at the bachelor’s or
master’s level.[5]
References
1. ^ "Financial aid for studies". Regeringskansliet (in Swedish). 22 April 2015.
Retrieved 3 February 2016.
2. ^ "What is student aid?". Centrala studiestödsnämnden. Archived from the
original on 9 April 2016. Retrieved 3 February 2016.
3. ^ Chingos, Matthew; Dynarski, Susan (2018-04-02). "An International Final
Four: Which Country Handles Student Debt Best?". The New York Times.  ISSN 0362-4331.
Retrieved 2019-01-22.
4. ^ "What qualifies you to receive financial aid for studies?". Centrala
studiestödsnämnden. Archived from the original  on 9 April 2016. Retrieved 3 February 2016.
5. ^ "Fees and costs". Study in Sweden. Retrieved 3 February 2016.

National Agency for Education (Sweden)

The Swedish National Agency for Education (Swedish: Statens skolverk, commonly known as
Skolverket) is a Government agency in Sweden that oversees the Swedish public school system
for children and adults.
Formed in 1991, The Swedish National Agency for Education is included in the Ministry of
Education and Research along with the Swedish Schools Inspectorate and the National Agency
for Special Needs and Schools. This agency provides services for students and educators such
as Development and Service Training, National Certification for Teachers, and a Reference
Center for Vocational Education.[1] The national agency for education prepares not only the
knowledge requirements for schools, but also regulations, general recommendations and
national tests. This agency is responsible for official statistics in the area of education. They
Conduct national follow-ups and evaluations for Sweden. The Agency manages the participation
in international educational.

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LEVELS OF EDUCATION PROVIDED

The levels of education provided in Sweden is Pre-School, Grade schools, and higher education.
Age and Disability does not affect student’s ability to attend any of these levels of education.

THE GRADING SYSTEM

The Swedish National Agency for Education controls the grading systems that are implemented
through their schools. Currently the Swedish Grading scale is A, B,C, D, E. F and (-)[2] Also see
academic grading in Sweden. The Education Act is to Ensure the fair and just treatment of
students in Sweden.[3] The act enforces that education standards always for the best pedagogy on
the effort of prime educational standards . The system was last changed in 2011 due to the
Education act 2010:800[4] which came into affect July 1, 2011 which addresses the mistreatment
of students in schools and bullying.

Teaching Certifications
The National Agency for Education requires their educators to be certified to teach in their
country based on their regulations. In order to be a Preschool, or grade school teacher than there
are requirements for the certification. These requirements is a qualifying diploma; however to
teach a candidate from a foreign country must have a proficiency in the Swedish language. There
are some positions that do not requires certifications, like a vocational studies teacher, teach in
English (however doesn't cover language teaching), and Mother tongue teachers. The Agency
requires educators to be fully equipped in educating all students despite disability or age. The
Agency is responsible for the Teachers Disciplinary Board.[5]

Classrooms and Pedagogy

Students educational and physical well being comes first. The three main topics on recent polls
according to the European Agency for Special Needs and Inclusive Education is Raising
achievements for students, education for large numbers of immigrant children and young citizens
in Sweden, and lastly to offer teachers the skills to manage and teach students with special needs
and disabilities.[6] 

Vocational Learning opportunities are provided for students optimal use. By the use of
Vocational Learning Students will experience the work force through education before
graduating. VET is the vocational education and training system.[7] 

The VET incorporates parts of a comprehensive model of education. This model stresses active
citizenship, work life orientation, and includes the preparation for future studies. Sweden's VET
system is publicly run and financed.

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There are many rapidly growing programs through the VET system that include: the growth of
unemployment, changing skill requirements, new intercultural context, lifelong learning, and
deskilling and upgrading.

The new developments in the work and society form a new implementation policy for Sweden's
youth. Another known project to prepare student is the Glass Project. Beginning in the second
half of the 1960's the glass project opened the door to a new classroom and pedagogy.[8] 

The glass project expanded on curricular ideas, which enabled school activities to focus around
technology. This created a meaningful experience for students and was seen as a language of
schooling.

Another aspect of the Glass Project includes a utopian logic of educational reform due to the
high criticism of the old school pedagogy.

Entrepreneurial learning is prevalent in Preschools.[9] This allows the students to learn various

skills at a young age that will allow them to be well developed adults later in their lives. Some of
these skill include flexibility, adaption, creativity, risk taking or expanding the comfort zone,
critical thinking and self-resilience.[10]

SWIDISH SCHOOL INSPECTORATE

The Swedish Schools Inspectorate (Swedish: Statens Skolinspektion), commonly known as
the School Inspectorate (Swedish: Skolinspektionen), is a Swedish government
agency headed by a director general appointed by the government.[1]

The primary aim of the Swedish Schools Inspectorate is to contribute to school

improvement and development. The overall goal is a school system where all children
have equal rights to a good education and knowledge in a secure environment.

The agency has two types of assignments.

One of them is to conduct regular supervisory audits, and the other one is to;

Conduct quality control. Regular supervision is conducted in every school by three-year

intervals, while quality control is conducted randomly or at the request of someone,
often parents.[2]

The agency has the opportunity to decide on complaints, orders or injunctions with a

penalty to get school boards to implement necessary measures.

As a last resort, the authority may withdraw the authorization for independent schools,

adopt measures on the municipal local principal's expense, or to close a school.
Several other missions, such as auditing of grants for schools and reviews of test
results, is also conducted by the agency.

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The agency was formed on 1 October 2008[3] on the initiative of Minister for EducationJan
Björklund but is a separate agency from the Ministry of Education.

Swedish National Union of Students

The Swedish National Union of Students (Swedish: Sveriges Förenade Studentkårer, SFS), is
an umbrella organisation of students' unions at higher education facilities in Sweden. The
organisation was founded in 1921.[1] It has around 47 affiliated students' unions, gathering
around 270,000 students (2012).[2]

The large number of organised students can in part be explained by the fact that membership in
the official local students' union was mandatory for students at universities and university
colleges in Sweden until 2010.[3] The requirement has a long history back to the precursor to
Swedish students' unions, the students' nations where membership became mandatory in 1667.

The local students' union is, however, free to decide whether to join the National Union of
Students or not. Although a majority of the students' unions are members, some have opted to
stay out, including several organising business, law and medicine students. Occasionally,
affiliated unions choose to leave the organisation, but sometimes rejoin at a later date, a pattern
followed by both the Stockholm University Students' Union and the Uppsala Student Union.

The organisation works to represent the interest of its members on a national level, towards the
Government, the Swedish Parliament, the political parties and the government agencies
concerned with higher education. The organisation is also active on the international arena,
particularly within the European Students' Union, ESU.
At the annual national conference representatives from the member students' unions meet to
decide on the policy framework of the organisation and to elect a national board. The board has
15 members, including the President and two or three Vice Presidents. The President and the
Vice Presidents work full-time at the head office in Stockholm during their term.
Several former student politicians in Sweden have moved on to high-level national party politics.
Among them are Olof Palme (President 1953), and Fredrik Reinfeldt (Board member 1989/90[4])

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205