Module 1

Pharmaceutical Botany

Botany  Offspring with features that are well-

adapted to the environment reproduce
● The scientific study of plants; more.
○ also called plant biology
● At first, interest in plants was practical. Origin of Plants
○ centered around the production
of food, fibers, fuel and medicine ● Life on Earth began about 3.5 billion years
● Eventually, an intellectual interest arose. ago with prokaryotes (bacteria and
○ led to plant study becoming a archaeans)
science.
■ Science involves the ● Photosynthesis arose 2.8 billion years ago
observation, recording, in a cyanobacterium
organization, and
classification of Diversity of Plant
information.
Over 297,000 plant species exist today; wide diversity
Scientific Method
of adaptation is important. For any aspect of the
 Describes the procedures of developing environment, many types of adaptation are possible.
and testing hypotheses.
 Hypothesis – tentative, unproven − There is no single, perfect adaptation.
explanation of an observation. − There are alternative adaptations.
 Experiment – test to determine if a − There are ways of coping with different
hypothesis is correct. environments and the multitude of factors
 Must be repeatable within them.
 Variables - Aspects of the experiment that
can be changed or held constant
 Good experiments consist of two
parts:
 Variable changed
 Variable held constant = Control

 Data – results from the experiment

 Principle – useful generalization derived
from experimental data
 Theory – grouping of related principles

Steps in doing SCIENTIFIC METHOD

1. Recognize a problem – or an unanswered

question
2. Develop a hypothesis – to explain the
problem
3. Design and perform an experiment – to test
the hypothesis
4. Analyse and interpret the data – to reach a
conclusion
5. Share new knowledge – with the scientific
community

Origin and Evolution

 Organisms were originally simple and

increased in complexity through evolution
by natural selection.

Natural Selection

 Organism reproduce and have non-identical

offspring whose features pass to more
offspring.
 Module 2
Fields of Botany

Plant Anatomy Genetics

● Plant anatomy, which is concerned chiefly ● the science of heredity, was founded by the
with the internal structure of plants, was Austrian monk Gregor Mendel (1822–
established through the efforts of several 1884), who performed classic experiments
scientific pioneers. with pea plants.

● Early plant anatomists of note included ● Today, various branches of genetics

Marcello Malpighi (1628–1694) of Italy, who include plant breeding, which has greatly
discovered various tissues in stems and improved yields and quality of crop plants,
roots, and genetic engineering.

● and Nehemiah Grew (1628–1711) of ● Genetic engineering includes the transfer of

England, who described the structure of genes from one organism to another and
wood more precisely than any of his has already improved the pest, frost, and
predecessors disease resistance, of some crop plants.

● Today, a knowledge of plant anatomy is ● Although some aspects of genetic

used to help us find clues to the past, as engineering are controversial, it holds
well as for many practical purposes. potential for continued development of
better agricultural, medicinal, and other
● For example, the related discipline of useful plants. Future control of human,
dendrochronology deals with determining animal, and plant diseases is also
past climates by examining the width and anticipated
other features of tree rings.
Plant Cell Biology
Plant Physiology
● (previously called cytology), the science of
 Plant physiology, which is concerned with cell structure and function, received a boost
plant function, was established by J. B. van from the discovery of how cells multiply and
Helmont (1577–1644), a Flemish physician how their various components perform and
and chemist, who was the first to integrate a variety of functions, including
demonstrate that plants do not have the that of sexual reproduction.
same nutritional needs as animals.
● The mid-20th-century development of
Plant Taxonomy electron microscopes further spurred cell
research and led to vast new insights into
 Plant taxonomy involves describing,
cells and new forms of cell research that
naming, and classifying organisms continues to the present
 It is the science of developing methods for
grouping organisms. Economic botany and ethnobotany
 Plant taxonomy is the oldest branch of plant
study, begun in antiquity,  focus on practical uses of plants and plant
 but Linnaeus did more for the field than any products, had their origin in antiquity as
other person in history. humans discovered, used, and eventually
 Thousands of plant names in use today are cultivated plants for food, fiber, medicines,
those originally recorded in Linnaeus’s book and other purposes
Species Plantarum, published in 1753.

Plant Ecology

● The allied field of plant ecology, which is

the study of the interaction of plants with
one another and with their environment

Plant Morphology

● The study of the form and structure of

plants was developed during the 19th
century, and during the 20th century, much
of our basic knowledge about the form and
life cycles of plants was incorporated into
the plant sciences as we know them today
 Module 3
Cell Discovery

Cell Discovery

● Discovery of cells is tightly connected with

the development of microscopy. In 1665,
Robert Hooke looked at cork under a
microscope and saw multiple chambers
which he called “cells”.

● In 1838, Schleidern and Schwann stated

that all plants and animals are composed of
cells and that cell is the most basic unit of
life.

● In 1858, Virchow stated that all cells arise

by reproduction from previous cells. These
three statements became the base of the
cell theory. Without the contribution of these
mentioned above, we would never have
studied cells and its significance to our daily
life

Cell Structure Transport of material

● All organisms are composed of cells. ● Vesicles—membrane “bubbles” that can

● Plant cells consist of a box-like cell wall carry materials with the cytoplasm
surrounding a mass of protoplasm.
● Exocytosis and endocytosis
● The protoplasm contains organelles, such
as Permeability
− Nuclei ● all biological membranes are selectively
permeable.
− Mitochondria
● Allows for compartmentalization
● Cells are the physical framework within
which a plant’s metabolism occurs. ○ Dynamic—constantly changing in
● Water and salts are absorbed from soil by response to age and environment
root cells. They are transported throughout
the plant by cells of the vascular tissues. Membrane Permeability
● The energy of sunlight is used in leaf cells
to convert carbon dioxide and water to ● Membranes are more permeable to
carbohydrates. hydrophobic substances than anything
● Plant reproduction is also based on cells carrying an electric charge. •
and cell biology.
● Movement of charged substances is
Membranes assisted by large intrinsic proteins that span
the membrane.
● Membranes perform many important tasks
in cell metabolism. ○ Facilitated diffusion

− They regulate the passage of molecules into and ● • Molecular pumps bind to a molecule on
out of cells and organelles. one side of the membrane, change shape,
and release the molecule on the other side
− They divide the cell into numerous compartments,
each with its own specialized function. ○ requires energy.

− They act as surfaces that hold enzymes. ■ Active transport

● Biological membranes are composed of

proteins and a phospholipid bilayer.
− Intrinsic proteins are at least partially
immersed in the lipid bilayer.
− Extrinsic proteins are located outside the
membrane.
 ● The concentration of solute in the solution
can be equal to the concentration of solute
in cells. In this situation, the cell is in
an isotonic solution (iso = equal or the
same as normal). The amount of water
entering the cell is the same as the amount
leaving the cell.

Osmosis

● Osmosis is a specific type of diffusion

● it is the passage of water from a region of

● The concentration of solute in the solution
high water concentration through a semi-
can be less than the concentration of
permeable membrane to a region of low
solute in the cells. This cell is in
water concentration. Water moves in or out
a hypotonic solution (hypo = less than
of a cell until its concentration is the same
normal). The net flow of water will be into
on both sides of the plasma membrane
the cell.
● Semi-permeable membranes are very thin ●
layers of material that allow some things to
pass through them but prevent other things
from passing through.

● Cell membranes are an example of semi-

permeable membranes. Cell membranes
allow small molecules such as oxygen,
water carbon dioxide, and oxygen to pass
through but do not allow larger molecules
like glucose, sucrose, proteins, and starch
to enter the cell directly.

● The concentration of solute in the solution

can be greater than the concentration of
solute in the cells. This cells described as
being in a hypertonic solution (hyper =
greater than normal). The net flow or water
will be out of the cell.

● Water and many other substances cannot

simply diffuse across a membrane.
Hydrophilic molecules, charged ions, and
relatively large molecules such
as glucose all need help with diffusion.

● The help comes from special proteins in the

membrane known as transport proteins.
● Diffusion with the help of transport proteins
is called facilitated diffusion. There are
several types of transport proteins,
including channel proteins and carrier
proteins

● Channel proteins form pores, or tiny holes,

in the membrane. This allows water
molecules and small ions to pass through
the membrane without coming into contact
with the hydrophobic tails of the lipid
molecules in the interior of the membrane.

● Carrier proteins bind with specific ions or

molecules, and in doing so, they change
shape. As carrier proteins change shape,
they carry the ions or molecules across the
membrane.
 ● bacteria, archaea, and cyanobacteria (blue-
green algae)

Module 4
Cell Types
Basic Cell Types
Eukaryote
● All cells are either prokaryotic or eukaryotic.
● Eukaryotic cells have a nucleus enclosed
● Prokaryotic cells are structurally more within the nuclear membrane and form
simple than eukaryotic cells. large and complex organisms. Protozoa,
fungi, plants, and animals all have
○ They are found in domains
eukaryotic cells. They are classified under
Bacteria and Archaea.
the kingdom Eukaryota.
● Eukaryotic cells contain a membrane-
● They can maintain different environments in
bound nucleus and organelles.
a single cell that allows them to carry out
○ They are found in plants, various metabolic reactions. This helps
animals, fungi, and protists. them grow many times larger than the
prokaryotic cells.

Characteristics of Eukaryotes

1. Eukaryotic cells have the nucleus enclosed

within the nuclear membrane.

2. The cell has mitochondria.

3. Flagella and cilia are the locomotory organs

in a eukaryotic cell.

4. A cell wall is the outermost layer of the

eukaryotic cells.

5. The cells divide by a process called mitosis.

6. The eukaryotic cells contain a cytoskeletal

structure.

7. The nucleus contains a single, linear DNA,

which carries all the genetic information.

Organelles

● An organelle is a subcellular structure that

has one or more specific jobs to perform in
the cell
Prokaryotes
Organelles without membrane
● Prokaryotes are single-celled organisms
● The Cell wall, Ribosomes, and
belonging to the domains Bacteria and
Cytoskeleton are non-membrane-bound cell
Archaea.
organelles. They are present both in the
● Prokaryotic cells are much smaller than prokaryotic cell and the eukaryotic cell.
eukaryotic cells, have no nucleus, and lack
Single membrane-bound organelles
organelles.
● Vacuole, Lysosome, Golgi Apparatus,
● All prokaryotic cells are encased by a cell
Endoplasmic Reticulum are single
wall. Many also have a capsule or slime
membrane-bound organelles present only
layer made of polysaccharide.
in a eukaryotic cell.
Double membrane-bound organelles ● It is the largest organelle, which functions
as the control centre of the cellular activities
● Nucleus, mitochondria and chloroplast are and is the storehouse of the cell’s DNA.
double membrane-bound organelles
present only in a eukaryotic cell. ○ By structure, the nucleus is dark,
round, surrounded by a nuclear
membrane. It is a porous
membrane (like cell membrane)
Cell Membrane and forms a wall between
cytoplasm and nucleus.
● It is a selectively permeable membrane of
the cells, which is composed of a lipid ● Within the nucleus, there are tiny spherical
bilayer and proteins. bodies called nucleolus. It also carries an
essential structure called chromosomes
● The plasma membrane is present both in
plant and animal cells. ● The primary function of the nucleus is to
monitor cellular activities including
● It functions as the selectively permeable
metabolism and growth by making use of
membrane, by permitting the entry of
DNA’s genetic information.
selective materials in and out of the cell
according to the requirement. ● Nucleoli in the nucleus are responsible for
the synthesis of protein and RNA.
● In an animal cell, the cell membrane
functions by providing shape and protects ●
the inner contents of the cell.

● Based on the structure of the plasma

membrane, it is regarded as the fluid
mosaic model.

● According to the fluid mosaic model, the

plasma membranes are subcellular
structures, made of a lipid bilayer in which
the protein molecules are embedded.

Cytoplasm

● The cytoplasm is present both in plant and Chromosome

animal cells.
● Chromosomes are thin and thread-like
● They are jelly-like substances, found structures which carry another important
between the cell membrane and nucleus. structure called a gene.

● They are mainly composed of water, ○ Genes are a hereditary unit in

organic and inorganic compounds. organisms i.e., it helps in the
inheritance of traits from one
● The cytoplasm is one of the essential generation (parents) to another
components of the cell, where all the cell (offspring). Hence, the nucleus
organelles are embedded. controls the characters and
functions of cells in our body.
Nucleus
Endoplasmic Reticulum
● The nucleus is a double-membraned
organelle found in all eukaryotic cells. ● The Endoplasmic Reticulum is a network of
membranous canals filled with fluid. They
 are the transport system of the cell, ● It is a double membrane-bound, sausage-
involved in transporting materials shaped organelle, found in almost all
throughout the cell. eukaryotic cells.

● There are two types: ● The double membranes divide its lumen
into two distinct aqueous compartments.
1. Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum – They are
composed of cisternae, tubules, and ● The inner compartment is called a ‘matrix’
vesicles, which are found throughout the which is folded into cristae whereas the
cell and are involved in protein outer membrane forms a continuous
manufacture. boundary with the cytoplasm.

2. Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum – They are ● They usually vary in their size and are
the storage organelle, associated with the found either round or oval in shape.
production of lipids, steroids, and also
responsible for detoxifying the cell. ● Mitochondria are the sites of aerobic
respiration in the cell, produces energy in
the form of ATP and helps in the
transformation of the molecules.

Golgi Apparatus

● is also termed as Golgi Complex.

● It is a membrane-bound organelle, which is

mainly composed of a series of flattened,
stacked pouches called cisternae.

● This cell organelle is primarily responsible

Ribosome for transporting, modifying, and packaging
proteins and lipids to targeted destinations.
● Ribosomes are non-membrane-bound and
important cytoplasmic organelles found in ● Golgi Apparatus is found within the
close association with the endoplasmic cytoplasm of a cell and is present in both
reticulum. plant and animal cells.
● Ribosomes are found in the form of tiny
particles in a large number of cells and are
mainly composed of 2/3rd of RNA and 1/3rd
of protein.

● They are named as the 70s (found in

prokaryotes) or 80s (found in eukaryotes)

○ The letter S refers to the density

and the size, known as
Svedberg’s Unit. Both 70S and
80S ribosomes are composed of
two subunits.

● Ribosomes are either encompassed within Carbohydrates

the endoplasmic reticulum or are freely
● Carbohydrates (or sugars) were originally
traced in the cell’s cytoplasm.
believed to be “hydrates of carbon,”
● Ribosomal RNA and Ribosomal proteins because they have the general formula
are the two components that together Cx(H2O)y.
constitute ribosomes. ● “optically active polyhydroxy aldehydes or
ketones or the compounds which produce
● The primary function of the ribosomes units of such type on hydrolysis”.
includes protein synthesis in all living cells
that ensure the survival of the cell.

Mitochondria Association of Cells

● Mitochondria are called the powerhouses of ● Cells of multicellular organisms interact and
the cell as they produce energy-rich must communicate.
molecules for the cell.
○ Interacting cells sense that they
● The mitochondrial genome is inherited are part of a larger organism and
maternally in several organisms. identify how they should
differentiate.
 ○ This requires extensive walls by thickening and inclusion of lignin, a
intercellular communication. complex polymer.

● Cells can secrete messenger compounds. ● During secondary wall formation, cellulose
microfibrils become embedded in lignin,
● Plant cells cannot communicate via direct much like steel rods are embedded in
physical contact. concrete to form prestressed concrete

○ In plants the cell wall and middle Plastids

lamella are a barrier.
● The plastid is a membrane-bound organelle
○ Plasmodesmata allow direct found in the cells of plants, algae, and
communication some other eukaryotic organisms.

Plasmodesmata ● They are considered to be intracellular

endosymbiotic cyanobacteria.
● Plasmodesmata are small channels that
connect adjacent cells. ● Examples include chloroplasts (used for
photosynthesis), chromoplasts (used for
○ The plasma membrane passes pigment synthesis and storage), and
through them and creates a leucoplasts (non-pigmented plastids that
contiguous membrane from cell can sometimes differentiate)
to cell.
Chloroplast
○ A small stream of the cystol and
a section of the ER also pass ● The liquid portion of the chloroplast is a
through the plasmodesmata. colorless fluid matrix called stroma, which
contains enzymes involved in
○ These occur singly or in clusters photosynthesis
called primary pit fields.
Vacuole
● Plasmodesmata connect protoplasts to
create the symplast. ● The vacuole evidently received its name
because of a belief that it was just an empty
● Many cells do not about each other tightly, space; hence its name has the same Latin
so there is intercellular space between. root as the word vacuum (from vacuus—
meaning “empty”).
● All intercellular space and cell walls
together are called the apoplast. ● Vacuoles, however, are filled with a watery
fluid called cell sap, which is slightly to
● The symplast and apoplast together make
moderately acidic. Cell sap, which helps to
up the entire plant.
maintain pressures within the cell
Cell Size
Cytoskeleton
● Cells of higher plants generally vary in
● The cytoskeleton is involved in movement
length between 10 and 100 micrometers
within a cell and in a cell’s architecture. It is
Cell Wall an intricate network constructed mainly of
two kinds of fibers—microtubules and
● The first cell structure discovered by Robert microfilaments.
Hooke in 1665 was the cell wall
Microtubules
● The main structural component of cell walls
is cellulose, which is composed of 100 to ● Microtubules control the addition of
15,000 glucose monomers in long chains, cellulose to the cell wall. They are also
and is the most abundant polymer on earth involved in cell division, movement of
cytoplasmic organelles, controlling the
● In addition to cellulose, cell walls typically movement of vesicles containing cell-wall
contain a matrix of hemicellulose (a gluelike components assembled by dictyosomes,
substance that holds cellulose fibrils and movement of the tiny whip like flagella
together), pectin (the organic material that and cilia possessed by some cells
gives stiffness to fruit jellies), and
glycoproteins ● Microtubules are unbranched, thin, hollow,
tubelike structures that resemble tiny
● A middle lamella, which consists of a layer straws. They are composed of proteins
of pectin, is first produced when new cell called tubulins and are of varying lengths,
walls are formed. most being between 15 and 25 nanometers
in diameter. They are most commonly
● Secondary walls, which are produced inside found just inside the plasma membrane
the primary walls, are derived from primary
 ● Microtubules are unbranched, thin, hollow, other substances directly involved in mitosis
tubelike structures that resemble tiny are produced. Coiling and condensation of
straws. They are composed of proteins chromosomes also begin during G2.
called tubulins and are of varying lengths,
most being between 15 and 25 nanometers
in diameter. They are most commonly
found just inside the plasma membrane

Module 5
Cellular Reproduction

The Cell Cycle

 When cells divide, they go through an

orderly series of events known as the cell
cycle. This cycle is usually divided into
interphase and mitosis, mitosis itself being
subdivided into four phases

● This animal cell has also made a copy of

its centrosome, an organelle that will play
a key role in orchestrating mitosis, so there
are two centrosomes. (Plant cells generally
don’t have centrosomes with centrioles, but
have a different type of microtubule
organizing center that plays a similar role.)

Mitosis
Interphase
● All organisms begin life as a single cell.
 Living cells that are not dividing are said to This cell usually divides almost
be in interphase, a period during which immediately, producing two new cells.
chromosomes are not visible with light These two cells, in turn, divide, with each of
microscopes. them producing two more cells. This
 For many years, immature cells were process is called mitosis.
considered to be “resting” when they were
not actually dividing, but we know now that ● It ensures that the two new cells (daughter
three consecutive periods of intense activity cells) resulting from a cell undergoing
take place during interphase. mitosis each have precisely equal amounts
 These intervals are designated as gap (or of DNA and certain other substances
growth) 1, synthesis, and gap (or growth) 2 duplicated during interphase
periods, usually referred to as G1, S, and
● refers to the division of the nucleus alone,
G2, respectively.
but with a few exceptions seen in algae and
G1 fungi

 is relatively lengthy and begins immediately ● In flowering plants, conifers, and other
after a nucleus has divided. higher plants, mitosis occurs in specific
regions, or tissues, called meristems
 During this period, the cell increases in
size. Also, ribosomes, RNA, and  Meristems are found in the root
substances that either inhibit or stimulate and stem tips and also in a thin,
the S period that follows are produced. perforated, and branching
cylinder of tissue called the
S Phase
vascular cambium
 During the S period, the unique process of
● When mitosis occurs, the number of
DNA replication (duplication) takes place
chromosomes in the nucleus, whether small
G2 or large, makes no difference in the way the
process takes place.
● In the G2 period, mitochondria and other
organelles divide, and microtubules and ● The daughter cells that result from mitosis
each have exactly the same number of
 chromosomes and distribution of DNA as surface of each centromere;
the parent cell. spindle fibers become attached to
the kinetochore.
● Mitosis is a continuous process, which may
take as little as 5 minutes or as long as
several hours from start to finish. Typically,  Late Prophase
however, it takes from 30 minutes to 2 or 3  In late prophase (sometimes also
hours. called prometaphase), the mitotic
spindle begins to capture and
● Mitosis is initiated with the appearance of a
organize the chromosomes.
ringlike preprophase band of microtubules
 The chromosomes become even
just beneath the plasma membrane
more condensed, so they are
Prophase very compact.
 The nuclear envelope breaks
● the chromosomes become shorter and down, releasing the
thicker, and their two-stranded nature chromosomes.
becomes apparent; the nuclear envelope  The mitotic spindle grows more,
fragments, and the nucleolus disintegrates. and some of the microtubules
start to “capture” chromosomes.
● The beginning of prophase is marked by 
the appearance of the chromosomes as
faint threads in the nucleus.

● These chromosomes gradually coil or fold

into thicker and shorter structures, and
soon, two strands, or chromatids, can be
distinguished for each chromosome.

 Early Prophase
 In early prophase, the cell starts
to break down some structures
Metaphase
and build others up, setting the
stage for division of the ● In metaphase, the spindle has captured all
chromosomes. the chromosomes and lined them up at the
 The chromosomes start to middle of the cell, ready to divide.
condense (making them easier to
pull apart later on). ● All the chromosomes align at the
 The mitotic spindle begins to metaphase plate (not a physical structure,
form. The spindle is a structure just a term for the plane where the
made of microtubules, strong chromosomes line up).
fibers that are part of the cell’s
“skeleton.” Its job is to organize ● At this stage, the two kinetochores of each
the chromosomes and move chromosome should be attached to
them around during mitosis. The microtubules from opposite spindle poles.
spindle grows between the
centrosomes as they move apart.
 The nucleolus (or nucleoli,
plural), a part of the nucleus
where ribosomes are made,
disappears. This is a sign that the
nucleus is getting ready to break
down
 The chromatids are themselves
independently coiled and are
identical to each other.
 The coils appear to tighten and
condensed until the
chromosomes have become ● Before proceeding to anaphase, the cell will
relatively short thick, and rodlike, check to make sure that all the
with areas called centromeres chromosomes are at the metaphase plate
holding each pair of chromatids with their kinetochores correctly attached to
together microtubules.
 The centromere is located at a
constriction on the chromosome. ● This is called the spindle checkpoint and
 A kinetochore, which is a dense helps ensure that the sister chromatids will
region composed of a protein split evenly between the two daughter cells
complex, is located on the outer when they separate in the next step. If a
 chromosome is not properly aligned or
attached, the cell will halt division until the
problem is fixed.

Anaphase

● In anaphase, the sister chromatids separate Cytokinesis

from each other and are pulled towards
opposite ends of the cell. ● Cytokinesis, the division of the cytoplasm
to form two new cells, overlaps with the
● The protein “glue” that holds the sister final stages of mitosis. It may start in either
chromatids together is broken down, anaphase or telophase, depending on the
allowing them to separate. Each is now its cell, and finishes shortly after telophase.
own chromosome. The chromosomes of
each pair are pulled towards opposite ends ● In animal cells, cytokinesis is contractile,
of the cell. pinching the cell in two like a coin purse
with a drawstring. The “drawstring” is a
● Microtubules not attached to chromosomes band of filaments made of a protein called
elongate and push apart, separating the actin, and the pinch crease is known as
poles and making the cell longer. the cleavage furrow.

● Plant cells can’t be divided like this because

they have a cell wall and are too stiff.
Instead, a structure called the cell
plate forms down the middle of the cell,
splitting it into two daughter cells separated
by a new wall.

● All of these processes are driven by motor

proteins, molecular machines that can
“walk” along microtubule tracks and carry a
cargo. In mitosis, motor proteins carry
chromosomes or other microtubules as they
walk.

Telophase Early G1

● In telophase, the cell is nearly done ● When cytokinesis finishes, we end up with
dividing, and it starts to re-establish its two new cells, each with a complete set of
normal structures as cytokinesis (division of chromosomes identical to those of the
the cell contents) takes place. mother cell. The daughter cells can now
begin their own cellular “lives,” and –
● The mitotic spindle is broken down into its depending on what they decide to be when
building blocks. they grow up – may undergo mitosis
themselves, repeating the cycle.
● Two new nuclei form, one for each set of
chromosomes. Nuclear membranes and
nucleoli reappear.

● The chromosomes begin to decondense

and return to their “stringy” form.
 13. Draw Tube: The tube that holds the eyepiece and
can be pulled up or down to adjust the focus
length.
14. Diaphragm: Knob used to adjust the amount of
light that reaches the specimen or slide from the
base illumination.

Magnifying Parts

1. Eyepiece or Ocular: The part that is looked

through at the top of the compound microscope.
Eyepieces typically have a magnification between
5x & 30x.
2. Objectives:
a) Scanner Objective: Low-magnification objective
(4x or 5x) used for quickly scanning a specimen to
LA 1 locate areas of interest.
Identification, Manipulation and Magnification using a
Compound Microscope

b) Low Power Objective: Medium-magnification

objective (10x) used for general observation,
providing a larger, more detailed view of the
specimen.
c) High Power Objective: High-magnification
objective (40x or 50x) used for detailed
examination of small structures within the
specimen.
d) Oil Immersion Objective: Specialized high-
magnification objective (100x) used with
immersion oil to achieve extremely high
magnification and improve image clarity when
observing very small and detailed structures.

Illuminating Parts

Mechanical Parts 1. Mirror: Reflects light into the base of the

microscope. Earlier microscopes used mirrors that
1. Base: Bottom base of the microscope that houses reflected light into the base of the microscope
the illumination & supports the compound instead of halogen bulbs as their source of
microscope. illumination.
2. Arm: Supports the microscope head and attaches 2. Condenser: optical component that concentrates
it to the base. and controls the illumination, improving the
3. Stage or Platform: The platform upon which the brightness, contrast, and resolution of the
specimen or slide are placed. The height of the observed specimen.
mechanical stage is adjustable on most
compound microscopes.
4. Pillar: The vertical support structure that connects
the base to the microscope head, providing  When should the high power objective be used?
stability and height adjustment. The low power objevtive?
5. Inclination Joint: The adjustable joint that allows
the microscope head to be tilted or inclined for The high-power objective should be used when
comfortable viewing. you require detailed examination of fine structures or small
6. Stage clips: Clips on the stage that hold the slide objects within your specimen, as it provides a higher level of
in place on the mechanical stage. magnification (typically 40x or 50x). It's best suited for tasks
7. Substage: The component beneath the stage or that demand precision and when you need to observe
platform that includes important parts such as the intricate details. On the other hand, the low-power objective
condenser and iris diaphragm. (usually 10x) is used initially to locate and orient the specimen
8. Body Tube: The cylindrical tube that connects the due to its wider field of view, making it ideal for getting an
eyepiece to the revolving nosepiece and houses overview and finding the region of interest. It's particularly
the objective lenses. useful for finding and centering your specimen before
9. Course Adjustment: The larger, outer knob on switching to higher magnification objectives.
the focusing mechanism located on the body tube.
It is used for initial, r  In finding an objective in the field, why should not
10. ough focusing by moving the objective lenses be the HPO be used?
closer to or farther away from the specimen.
11. Fine Adjustment: The vertical support structure The high-power objective (HPO) should not be
that connects the base to the microscope head, used for locating an objective in the field because it has a
providing stability and height adjustment. narrow field of view and limited depth of focus, making it
12. Revolving Nosepiece: Holds the objective lenses difficult to quickly locate objects or specimens. Instead, the
& attaches them to the microscope head. This low-power objective (LPO) with its wider field of view and
part rotates to change which objective lens is greater depth of focus is better suited for this initial task,
active.
allowing for easier navigation and specimen identification  Symbiosis is a biological interaction where two
before switching to higher magnification objectives. different species live together in close physical
proximity, often for an extended period.
 Explain why the view of e is inverted?  In plant associations, this can refer to mutually
beneficial relationships, such as mycorrhizal
The inverted view in microscopes occurs because associations, where fungi help plants absorb
of the way light rays interact with the lenses within the nutrients in exchange for carbohydrates
microscope. As light passes through the objective and
eyepiece lenses, it is refracted, causing an inverted image to II. Mutualism:
be formed on the intermediate image plane. This inverted  Mutualism is a type of symbiosis in which both
image is then corrected by the eyepiece, presenting a right- species involved benefit from the interaction.
side-up view to the observer's eyes.  In plant associations, examples include pollination
by insects, where plants receive pollination
services, and pollinators obtain nectar or pollen as
food.

III. Commensalism:
 Commensalism is a type of symbiosis in which
one species benefits from the association, while
LA 2 the other is neither significantly harmed nor
helped.
The Different Abiotic Factors in Plant Ecology and
Plant Association in an Ecosystem

Different Abiotic Factors in Plant Ecology and its Significance

1. Temperature:
Temperature affects plant growth,
 In plant associations, an example could be
development, and metabolism. It influences the
epiphytic plants that grow on trees. The epiphytes
rate of photosynthesis, respiration, and the
benefit from the support of the tree, while the tree
availability of water to plants.
is generally unaffected.
2. Water:
IV. Parasitism:
Adequate water is essential for plant
survival, as it is a vital component for  Parasitism is a type of symbiosis in which one
photosynthesis and nutrient absorption. Water species (the parasite) benefits at the expense of
availability influences plant distribution and the the other (the host).
types of plants that can thrive in a particular  In plant associations, parasitic plants like
ecosystem. mistletoe attach to and derive nutrients from their
host plants, potentially harming them.
3. Sunlight:
Sunlight is necessary for V. Predation:
photosynthesis, the process by which plants  Predation is an interaction in which one organism
convert light energy into chemical energy. It (the predator) consumes another organism (the
determines the amount of energy available for prey).
plant growth and influences the orientation and  In plant associations, herbivores that feed on
structure of plants. plants represent predation. These herbivores can
include insects, mammals, or other organisms that
4. Wind: consume plant tissues.
Wind can influence plant morphology,
as plants may develop adaptations to withstand VI. Competition:
strong winds. It aids in the dispersal of seeds and  Competition occurs when two or more species vie
pollen, impacting plant reproduction. for limited resources in the same habitat.
 In plant associations, this can involve competing
5. Soil: for sunlight, water, nutrients, and space.
Soil properties, such as nutrient Competition can influence which plant species
content, pH, and texture, affect plant growth and dominate in a particular ecosystem.
nutrient uptake. Soil moisture levels determine the
availability of water to plants. Different Example of Terrestrial and Aquatic
Biomes.
6. Disturbances:
Disturbances, such as fires, floods,  Example of Terrestrial Biomes
and human activities, shape plant communities by
creating opportunities for some species to thrive. 1. Tropical Forests:
They can also disrupt established ecosystems
and impact plant diversity Description: Lush and dense forests found near the equator
with high rainfall and temperatures year-round.

Features: Exceptional biodiversity, abundant plant and animal

Different Abiotic Factors in Plant Ecology species, high productivity, and a complex canopy structure.

I. Symbiosis: 2. Savannas:
Description: Grasslands with scattered trees, typically found 4. Oceans:
in tropical and subtropical regions.
Description: Vast saltwater bodies covering about 71% of
Features: Dominated by grasses, occasional droughts, large Earth's surface.
herbivores, and a mix of herbivores and predators.
Features: Divided into zones (e.g., pelagic, benthic) with
3. Grasslands: varying temperatures and depths, host diverse marine life
from tiny plankton to large whales.
Description: Areas dominated by grasses, often with seasonal
rainfall variations. 5. Estuaries and Salt Marshes:

Features: Rich soil, adapted grassland species, grazing Description: Transitional areas where freshwater rivers meet
herbivores, and fire-adapted vegetation. the salty ocean, resulting in brackish water.

4. Deserts: Features: Highly productive ecosystems, vital for juvenile fish

and bird species, serve as nurseries and provide protection
Description: Arid regions with extremely low precipitation and from storms.
temperature variations.

Features: Sparse vegetation, extreme temperature

fluctuations, specialized desert-adapted plants and animals.

5. Chaparral:

Description: Shrubby, temperate biome characterized by hot,  What do you think is the most important abiotic
dry summers and mild, wet winters. factors you observed during your visit?

Features: Drought-resistant plants like shrubs and small During my visit, I found that temperature and
trees, frequent wildfires, and adaptations for fire recovery. water availability were the most important abiotic factors.
Temperature influenced the types of plants and animals
6. Temperate Deciduous Forests: present, while water availability played a crucial role in
shaping the overall ecosystem and supporting diverse life
Description: Forests with deciduous trees that lose their forms.
leaves in winter, found in temperate regions.
 How lichen was considered a definitive example
Features: Seasonal changes, diverse tree species, and a of mutualism?
variety of wildlife.
Lichen is considered a definitive example of
7. Coniferous Forests: mutualism because it is a symbiotic association between a
fungus and an alga or cyanobacterium where both partners
Description: Forests dominated by evergreen coniferous trees benefit. The algal component performs photosynthesis,
like pines and spruces, often in colder climates. producing nutrients for the fungus, while the fungal
component provides a protected environment and anchorage
Features: Needle-like leaves, cold-adapted animals, and
for the algae.
ecosystems well-suited to snow and ice.
 How does the commensalism relationship of a
8. Tundra:
rainforest tree and epiphytes work?
Description: Treeless, cold biome with a short growing
In the commensalism relationship between
season, often found in polar regions.
rainforest trees and epiphytes, the trees provide physical
support and access to light for the epiphytes, which grow
Features: Permafrost (permanently frozen soil), low plant
harmlessly on the tree's branches. The epiphytes benefit from
diversity, hardy vegetation, and migratory bird species.
the tree's structure while not significantly affecting the tree's
health or fitness, making it a one-sided, neutral interaction.
 Example of Aquatic Biomes

1. Lakes and Ponds:  Is mistletoe parasitic seed plants? Why?

Description: Standing freshwater bodies surrounded by land. Yes, mistletoe is considered a parasitic seed
plant. Mistletoe plants attach to the branches or trunks of host
Features: Vary in size, can be oligotrophic (nutrient-poor) or trees and shrubs, penetrating their host's vascular system to
eutrophic (nutrient-rich), support diverse aquatic life including extract water, minerals, and nutrients. This reliance on a host
fish and aquatic plants. for essential resources qualifies mistletoe as a parasitic plant.

2. Freshwater Wetlands:  What is adaptation? Can a plant to any temporary

environment in case of emergency? Support your
Description: Areas of land periodically saturated with water, answer and give an example.
supporting unique plant species.
Adaptation refers to the process by which
Features: Include marshes, swamps, and bogs, important for organisms evolve traits that enhance their ability to survive
water filtration, flood control, and habitat for waterfowl. and reproduce in a specific environment. While plants can
exhibit various adaptive mechanisms to thrive in specific
3. Streams and Rivers: conditions, their ability to adapt rapidly to entirely new,
temporary environments is limited due to their relatively slow
Description: Flowing bodies of freshwater that can vary in size rate of evolution. For example, some desert plants like cacti
from small streams to large rivers. have adaptations, such as water storage tissues and reduced
leaves, that enable them to thrive in arid environments.
Features: Water flow can vary from fast to slow, support However, these adaptations are the result of long-term
diverse aquatic life, and provide water resources for humans.
evolutionary processes and may not allow rapid survival in 3. A plant cell secretes protein. Trace the protein’s
drastically different, temporary environments. production, packaging and release from the cell.

In a plant cell, protein secretion typically

starts in the rough endoplasmic reticulum (ER), where
ribosomes synthesize proteins. The proteins are then
modified, packaged, and transported to the Golgi
apparatus, which further processes and sorts them.
Finally, the Golgi apparatus releases the proteins
through vesicles that fuse with the plasma membrane,
allowing the proteins to be secreted outside the cell.

4. Describe or give the function/s of each parts of a

plant cell.

 Protoplasm: The entire living substance of

the cell.
 Cell Wall: Provides structural support and
protection.
 Plasma Membrane: Controls the entry and
exit of substances.
 Cytoplasm: Houses organelles and cellular
structures.

LA 3
Preparation of the Different Fresh Specimen and
Identification of Plant Cells

A. Types of Fresh Specimen Preparation

 Mitochondria: Produce energy (ATP)
1. Describe the advantage and disadvantage of fresh through cellular respiration.
specimen and permanent slides?  Golgi Bodies: Modify, process, and
package proteins.
The advantage of using fresh specimens in
 Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum: Involved in
biological studies lies in their ability to offer
protein synthesis and processing.
immediate, real-time observations of living organisms
 Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum:
or tissues, preserving their natural behaviors and
Synthesizes lipids and detoxifies.
characteristics. This is particularly valuable for
 Ribosomes: Synthesize proteins.
studying dynamic processes and interactions.
However, the disadvantage is that fresh specimens  Microbodies: Contain enzymes for various
can deteriorate rapidly, limiting the time available for metabolic reactions.
observation and making long-term storage  Plastids: Involved in photosynthesis and
impractical. In contrast, permanent slides, while storage of pigments and starch.
lacking the dynamic nature of fresh specimens,  Microtubules: Provide structural support
provide a stable and enduring record suitable for and assist in cell division.
reference and archival purposes.  Microfilaments: Involved in cell movement
and shape maintenance.
B. The Plant Cells  Vacuoles: Store water, nutrients, and waste
products.
1. How do Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic cells differ?  Nucleus: Contains genetic material and
Give an example of each kind of cell controls cell activities.
 Nucleolus: Synthesizes ribosomal RNA.
Prokaryotic cells lack a true nucleus and
membrane-bound organelles, while eukaryotic cells 5. Compare plant cell from animal cell. Make an
have a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles. An illustration for each and label properly.
example of a prokaryotic cell is a bacterial cell, and an
example of a eukaryotic cell is a plant cell. Plant cells differ from animal cells in that
they have cell walls, chloroplasts, and large central
2. How are mitochondria and chloroplast alike? How vacuoles. Animal cells lack these structures and have
are they different? a more flexible cell membrane.
Mitochondria and chloroplasts are alike in
that they both have double membranes and are
involved in energy-related processes. However, they
differ in their functions: mitochondria are responsible
for cellular respiration and ATP production, while
chloroplasts are involved in photosynthesis,
converting light energy into chemical energy.
 1. What is Diffusion? What are the factors affecting
diffusion rate?

Diffusion is the passive movement of

molecules from an area of higher concentration to an
area of lower concentration. Factors affecting
diffusion rate include the concentration gradient (the
steeper the gradient, the faster the diffusion),
temperature (higher temperatures increase molecular
kinetic energy and thus diffusion rate), molecular size
(smaller molecules diffuse more quickly), and the
presence of a membrane (cell membranes can restrict
the passage of certain molecules).

2. Which potato lost the greater percentage weight?

Why?

The potato with a higher salt concentration

lost the greater percentage of weight due to the
process of osmosis. Water moved out of the potato
cells into the surrounding solution with the higher salt
concentration, causing the potato to lose water and
weight as a result of osmotic pressure.

LA 4
The Effect of Osmosis and
Diffusion in Plant Cells

A. Effect of Osmosis

1. What is Osmosis? Discuss the factors that may

affect osmosis Percentage = Total weight loss after soaking x 100%
Weight before soaking
Eosin is added to the root hair of an onion
to make the cell's contents visible and to stain the cell
membrane. This staining process is possible because
eosin is a dye that can bind to cellular components,
allowing for better visualization of structures during
microscopy.

2. What is the purpose of adding eosin on the root

hair of onion? Why it is made possible?

Eosin is added to the root hair of an onion

to make the cell's contents visible and to stain the cell
membrane. This staining process is possible because
eosin is a dye that can bind to cellular components,
allowing for better visualization of structures during
microscopy.

3. Discuss the importance of osmosis in reaching the

endodermis via symplast and apoplast pathway?

Osmosis plays a crucial role in plant

physiology by aiding in the transport of water and
nutrients through plant roots. The symplast pathway
involves the movement of water and solutes through
the living cell cytoplasm via plasmodesmata, while the
apoplast pathway involves the movement of water
and solutes through the non-living cell walls. Both
pathways are important for efficient water and nutrient
uptake by plant roots and help in reaching the
endodermis, which acts as a selective barrier,
controlling which substances enter the vascular tissue
of the plant.

B. Effect of Diffusion