Hydrology

[8-1]
Evaporation

Mohammad N. Almasri

Hydrology Fall 2007 [8-1] Evaporation

Mohammad N. Almasri, PhD

An-Najah National University

General Definitions
Evaporation is the process by which water is
transferred [from the land and water masses of the
earth] to the atmosphere after the conversion to
vapor
In order for evaporation to take place, a specific
quantity of heat energy must be absorbed to break
the hydrogen bonds between water molecules at the
surface and those in the body
Evaporation to occur needs: Break bonds with water
surface (latent heat) + Transporting this escaping
water to the atmosphere
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Hydrology Fall 2007 [8-1] Evaporation

Mohammad N. Almasri, PhD

An-Najah National University

 The molecules at
the surface are
attracted to those
in the body of the
liquid by hydrogen
bonds

Ta

esat (Ts)

Consider dry air

with temperature of
Ta lies above water
surface with a
temperature of Ts

ea esat (Ta)

Physics of Evaporation

Ts

The number of escaping molecules increases with

increasing Ts
The rate of evaporation is the rate at which molecules

move from the saturated surface layer into the air

Some of the
above
molecules have
sufficient energy to
This rate is proportional to the difference between the
sever the bonds
vapor pressure of the surface layer (es) and the vapor
and enter the air
pressure of the overlaying air (e )
a

Hydrology Fall 2007 [8-1] Evaporation

Mohammad N. Almasri, PhD

An-Najah National University

General Definitions
Transpiration is the process by which soil moisture
taken up by vegetation is eventually evaporated as
it exits at plant pores (stoma)
Evapotranspiration: Since it is practically difficult to
differentiate between evaporation from the ground
surface and transpiration from vegetation, the two
processes are combined together and referred to as
evapotranspiration

Hydrology Fall 2007 [8-1] Evaporation

Mohammad N. Almasri, PhD

An-Najah National University

General Definitions
Potential Evapotranspiration: the evapotranspiration
that would occur from a well vegetated surface
when moisture supply is not limiting (if there was
sufficient availability of water with no deficiency)
Actual Evapotranspiration: the evapotranspiration
that occurs under actual existing conditions of soil,
ground cover, and water availability conditions.
Typically, the actual evapotranspiration is taken as
the reference-crop evapotranspiration multiplied by
a crop coefficient

Hydrology Fall 2007 [8-1] Evaporation

Mohammad N. Almasri, PhD

An-Najah National University

General Definitions
Reference Crop Evapotranspiration: the rate of
evapotranspiration from an area planted with a
specific (reference) crop, where water availability is
not a limiting factor
Reference crop evapotranspiration is used as a
measure of evapotranspiration from a standard
vegetated surface
Grass and alfalfa are the most commonly used
reference crops in hydrologic practices
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Hydrology Fall 2007 [8-1] Evaporation

Mohammad N. Almasri, PhD

An-Najah National University

Factors Affecting Evaporation

Solar Radiation

Solar radiation
Since evaporation is the conversion of water into
water vapor, this conversion requires an energy
input (known as the latent heat of vaporization)
The process is most active under the direct radiation
of the sun
Clouds reduce the energy input and so slow up the
process of evaporation

Hydrology Fall 2007 [8-1] Evaporation

Mohammad N. Almasri, PhD

An-Najah National University

Factors Affecting Evaporation

Wind

Wind
When the water vaporizes into the atmosphere, the
boundary layer between the water surface and air
becomes saturated and a vapor barrier is created
This layer (barrier) must be removed and continually
replaced by drier air if evaporation to proceed
This process depends on wind and is thus function
of wind speed

Hydrology Fall 2007 [8-1] Evaporation

Mohammad N. Almasri, PhD

An-Najah National University

Factors Affecting Evaporation

Relative Humidity

Relative Humidity
Relative humidity is the ratio of the actual amount of
water vapor present in the air compared to the
maximum amount of water vapor that would be present
if the air was saturated at a particular temperature. It is
usually expressed in percentage and equals the actual
vapor pressure of air to its saturation vapor pressure
As the airs humidity rises, its ability to absorb more
water vapor decreases and the rate of evaporation slows
To facilitate evaporation, incoming air should be drier
than the air that is displaced
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Hydrology Fall 2007 [8-1] Evaporation

Mohammad N. Almasri, PhD

An-Najah National University

Factors Affecting Evaporation

Temperature

Temperature
When the air and ground temperatures are high,
evaporation will proceed more rapidly than if they
are low
This is because heat energy is more readily available
In addition, the capacity of air to absorb more water
vapor increases as its temperature rises because of
the decrease in the relative humidity

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Hydrology Fall 2007 [8-1] Evaporation

Mohammad N. Almasri, PhD

An-Najah National University

Methods for Estimating Evaporation

Water budget approach
Energy budget method
Mass transfer methods
The use of pans

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Hydrology Fall 2007 [8-1] Evaporation

Mohammad N. Almasri, PhD

An-Najah National University

Methods for Estimating Evaporation

Water Budget Approach

This method depends on drawing up a balance of all

the water entering and leaving a particular lake,
pool, or basin
The water budget equation can be written generally
as:
Es = P + R1 R2 + Rg Ts I Ss
where Es: evaporation, P: precipitation, R1 and R2
are surface inflow and outflow, Rg: pumping, Ts:
transpiration (can be considered zero), I: infiltration,
and Ss: change in surface water storage
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Hydrology Fall 2007 [8-1] Evaporation

Mohammad N. Almasri, PhD

An-Najah National University

Methods for Estimating Evaporation

Energy Budget Method

The energy budget method is an application of the

continuity equation written in terms of energy
The energy budget equation for a lake may be
written as:

Q 0 = Q s Q r + Q a Q ar + Q v Q bs Q e Q h Q w

13

E=

Qs Q r + Q a Q ar Q bs Q 0 + Q v
[L(1 + B) + c p (Te Tb )]

B=

Qh
P (T0 Ta )
= 0.61
Qe
1000 (e0 ea )

Hydrology Fall 2007 [8-1] Evaporation

Qw =

Mohammad N. Almasri, PhD

c p Q e (Te Tb )]
L
An-Najah National University

Methods for Estimating Evaporation

Energy Budget Method

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Hydrology Fall 2007 [8-1] Evaporation

Mohammad N. Almasri, PhD

An-Najah National University

Methods for Estimating Evaporation

Energy Budget Method

The energy budget method is not common as the

input values of energy components cannot be
readily obtained for a watershed
As such, a simplified formula can instead be used:

E=

1
(R n H s G )
L v w

where E is evaporation, Lv is latent heat of

vaporization of water, Rn is net radiation energy to
water, Hs is the sensible heat to air from water, and
G is heat loss to the ground from water
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Hydrology Fall 2007 [8-1] Evaporation

Mohammad N. Almasri, PhD

An-Najah National University

Methods for Estimating Evaporation

Energy Budget Method

If both Hs and G are set to zero, then an

evaporation rate (Er) can be calculated as the rate
at which all the incoming net radiation is absorbed
by evaporation:

Er =

Rn
L v w

Latent heat of vaporization can be computed using

the following equation:

L V = 2.501 106 2370 T

where Lv is latent heat in joules (J) per kilogram and
T is temperature of the air (C)
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Hydrology Fall 2007 [8-1] Evaporation

Mohammad N. Almasri, PhD

An-Najah National University

Methods for Estimating Evaporation

Energy Budget Method Example

Calculate by the energy balance method the

evaporation rate from an open water surface, if the
net radiation is 200 W/m2 and the air temperature
is 25 C, assuming no sensible heat or ground heat
flux
Latent heat at 25 C = Lv = 2,500 - 2.3625 =
2,441 kJ/kg. Water density w = 997 kg/m3, and
substitution in the equation gives:

Er =

Rn
L v w

Er = 200 / (2,441 103 997) = 8.22 10-8 m/s

= 7.1 mm/day
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Hydrology Fall 2007 [8-1] Evaporation

Mohammad N. Almasri, PhD

An-Najah National University

Methods for Estimating Evaporation

Mass Transfer Method

Mass transfer equations are based on the concepts

of transfer of water vapor from the evaporating
surface to the atmosphere
A commonly used mass transfer equation is Meyer
equation:

W
E = C(e0 ea )1 +
10

where E is evaporation (in/day), e0 and ea are the

saturation vapor pressure at the water surface
temperature and the vapor pressure of air (in of
Hg), W is the wind speed (mph) measured above 25
ft above the water surface, and C is a coefficient
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Hydrology Fall 2007 [8-1] Evaporation

Mohammad N. Almasri, PhD

An-Najah National University

Methods for Estimating Evaporation

Mass Transfer Method

Another mass transfer equation is that of Dunne:

100 R h
E = (0.013 + 0.00016 u 2 )ea

100
where E is evaporation (cm/day), ea is the vapor
pressure of the air (mb), u2 is the wind velocity
(km/day) measured at 2 m above the water surface,
and Rh is the relative humidity given in percent

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Hydrology Fall 2007 [8-1] Evaporation

Mohammad N. Almasri, PhD

An-Najah National University

Methods for Estimating Evaporation

Mass Transfer Method Example

Using the Meyer and Dunne equations, find the daily

evaporation rate for a lake given that the mean value for
air temperature was 87 F, the mean value for water
temperature was 63 F, the average wind speed was 10
mph, and the relative humidity was 20%
Use the following equation to find the saturation vapor

pressure where T in C and e0 in mb:

esat (T ) = e 0 = 6.11 e

17.3T

T + 237.3

First of all, at water temperature (63 F), we find that the

saturation vapor pressure e0 = 0.58 in. Hg. For the air at 87
F, the saturation vapor pressure = 1.29 in. Hg thus ea =
Rhe0 = 0.21.29 = 0.26 in. Hg or 8.75 mb (1 in. Hg
equals 33.86388 mb) C = 5 (F 32)
9
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Hydrology Fall 2007 [8-1] Evaporation

Mohammad N. Almasri, PhD

An-Najah National University

10

Methods for Estimating Evaporation

Mass Transfer Method

Use Meyer equation with C = 0.36:

W
E = C(e0 ea )1 +
10
E = 0.36 (0.58 0.26) (1 + 10/10) = 0.23 in/day
Use Dunne equation after converting wind speed to
metric units, we obtain:
100 R h
E = (0.013 + 0.00016 u 2 )e a

100
E = [0.013 + 0.00016386] 8.75 [(100
20)/100] = 0.527 cm/day = 0.21 in/day
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Hydrology Fall 2007 [8-1] Evaporation

Mohammad N. Almasri, PhD

An-Najah National University

Methods for Estimating Evaporation

The Use of Evaporation Pans

The most widely used method of finding reservoir or

lake evaporation is by means of evaporation pans
An evaporation pan differs from a lake in having less
heat-storage capacity, in lacking surface or groundwater inputs or outputs, and, in having sides
exposed to the air and sun. These differences make
evaporation from pans higher than the actual values
Relations developed between actual evaporation
(lake evaporation for instance) and Class A pan
evaporation indicate that it is essentially 0.7 (pan
coefficient)
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Hydrology Fall 2007 [8-1] Evaporation

Mohammad N. Almasri, PhD

An-Najah National University

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