2 The cell as the basic unit

of life

Lab-grown meat

Meat from a laboratory Think about…

1 Cells are too small to be seen
This piece of meat was not produced on a farm. It was grown in a
with the naked eye. What tool
laboratory. Scientists selected some cells from a cow muscle tissue
can we use to view them when
and put them into a nutrient solution. The cells divided, producing
selecting them?
new cells. Eventually, a piece of meat was formed.
2 To produce new cells, what
materials have to be supplied?
Watch more
(Answers on p. 36)

Acknowledgements and Important Notice:

All questions from the HKDSE, HKCEE and HKALE are reproduced by permission of the HKEAA.
Unauthorized use of the aforementioned questions in this electronic version is prohibited.
I Cells and Molecules of Life

2.1 Chemicals of life

Look at the food label of milk powder shown in Fig 2.1. It tells you
how much carbohydrates*, fats and proteins* the milk powder contains.
But have you ever thought that these chemicals are also the chemical
constituents* of your body?

Fig 2.1 Food label of milk powder

There are many different organisms on earth, but their chemical

constituents are similar. The chemical constituents of organisms can
be divided into two groups: inorganic* and organic*. Fig 2.2 shows
the main inorganic and organic constituents of organisms and their
proportions by weight in the human body.

Inorganic constituents Organic constituents

carbohydrates
water

lipids*

proteins

inorganic ions*

nucleic acids*

Fig 2.2 The main inorganic and organic constituents of organisms and their proportions
by weight in the human body

carbohydrate 碳水化合物 chemical constituent 化學成分 inorganic ion 無機離子 inorganic 無機的 lipid 脂質
nucleic acid 核酸 organic 有機的 protein 蛋白質
2– 2
 2 The cell as the basic unit of life

A Inorganic chemical constituents

of organisms
Water and inorganic ions are the two main inorganic chemical
constituents of organisms.

1 Water
Organisms consist mostly of water. Water makes up about 60% of our
body weight, and even more in organisms like jellyfish (about 98%).
Some functions of water in organisms are shown below.

1 As a reactant
Water is a reactant* in some chemical reactions.
2 As a medium for chemical reactions
e.g. In plants, food is produced from water and
carbon dioxide in photosynthesis. Water can dissolve many substances.
Water in cells provides an aqueous
light
carbon dioxide + water food + oxygen medium for chemical reactions to take
chlorophyll place.

3 As a medium of transport 4 As a cooling agent*

Many substances are transported in Water removes heat when it evaporates
organisms by water. from the body of the organisms.
e.g. In plants, inorganic ions dissolve e.g. Humans produce more sweat when
in water and are carried from the body temperature is high. Evaporation of
roots to other parts. sweat helps cool down the body.

5 Provides support
6 As a component of lubricant*
Water gives shape and provides support
to organisms. Water is the major component of
many lubricating fluids in organisms.
e.g. When plant cells are full of water,
These fluids reduce friction* during
they become turgid* and press against
movement.
one another. This gives support to
seedlings so that they can stand upright. e.g. Pleural fluid around human lungs
reduces friction during breathing.

pleural fluid*

turgid cells press against

one another
seedling stands upright

Fig 2.3 Functions of water in organisms

cooling agent 冷卻劑 friction 摩擦 lubricant 潤滑劑 pleural fluid 胸膜液 reactant 反應物 turgid 膨脹

2– 3
I Cells and Molecules of Life

2 Inorganic ions
Inorganic ions are also called Various inorganic ions are present in organisms. The table below shows
minerals* in biology. some of their functions in animals and plants.

Inorganic ion Function in animals Function in plants

Nitrate* – • A source of nitrogen*

for the synthesis of
proteins

Cross-link Magnesium* • Activates some • A component of

The role of enzymes in enzymes*, which regulate chlorophyll*
chemical reactions will be chemical reactions in the • Activates some
discussed in Ch 4.
body enzymes

Iron* • A component of • Activates some

haemoglobin*, an enzymes
oxygen-carrying molecule
in red blood cells
• Activates some enzymes

Calcium* • A component of bones • Helps strengthen cell

and teeth walls*
• Needed for processes like
blood clotting, muscle
contraction and sending
messages in the nervous
system*

Cross-link Phosphate* • A component of bones • A component of

Phospholipids and nucleic and teeth phospholipids and
acids will be introduced in nucleic acids
• A component of
Part B of this section.
phospholipids* (which
make up cell membranes*)
and nucleic acids* (e.g.
DNA*)

Visit the following website and learn more about the importance of water for life. Discuss
with your classmates whether life can exist without water.
https://science.howstuffworks.com/environmental/earth/geophysics/water-vital-to-
life.htm

calcium 鈣 cell membrane 細胞膜 cell wall 細胞壁 chlorophyll 葉綠素 DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) 脫氧核糖核酸
enzyme 酶 haemoglobin 血紅蛋白 iron 鐵 magnesium 鎂 mineral 礦物質 nervous system 神經系統 nitrate 硝酸鹽
2– 4 nitrogen 氮 nucleic acid 核酸 phosphate 磷酸鹽 phospholipid 磷脂
 2 The cell as the basic unit of life

B Organic chemical constituents of organisms

Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids are the major
Organic substances refer organic chemical constituents of organisms. Thus they are often called
to complex molecules biomolecules*. They all contain the element carbon.
containing the element
carbon.

1 Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates contain the elements carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.
Glucose*, starch*, glycogen* and cellulose* are four common
carbohydrates found in organisms.

• Glucose is the main energy source for cells. It is directly broken

down in respiration to release energy for chemical reactions in cells
and various activities of organisms.

• Starch acts as an energy reserve* in plants and glycogen acts as an

energy reserve in animals (Fig 2.4 and 2.5). They are broken down
to glucose to provide energy when needed.

• Cellulose is a major component of plant cell walls.

starch grain glycogen granule

photomicrograph of potato cells (×180) electron micrograph of a liver cell (×10 000)
Fig 2.4 Starch stored as starch grains in potatoes Fig 2.5 Glycogen stored as glycogen granules in
(starch grains are stained so that they the human liver
appear orange)

2 Lipids
Lipids also contain the elements carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, but with
a higher hydrogen-to-oxygen ratio. Triglycerides* and phospholipids
are two common lipids found in organisms.

• Triglycerides (fats and oil) act as an energy reserve in organisms.

They also have the following functions in animals:

a Fats stored in adipose tissues* under the skin act as an insulator

to reduce heat loss from the body.

b Fats stored in adipose tissues around the internal organs act as a

shock absorber, which protects the internal organs.

• Phospholipids are a major component of cell membranes.

adipose tissue 脂肪組織 biomolecule 生物分子 cellulose 纖維素 energy reserve 能量儲備 glucose 葡萄糖 glycogen 糖原
starch 澱粉 triglyceride 甘油三酯
2– 5
I Cells and Molecules of Life

3 Proteins
Cross-link Proteins contain the elements carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen.
The structures and functions Some also contain sulphur. Some functions of proteins in organisms are
of carbohydrates, lipids and
proteins will be discussed in shown below.
detail in Ch 5.
• Some proteins make up body tissues. Hair, muscles and skin are
mainly made up of proteins (Fig 2.6).

hair

skin

muscle

Fig 2.6 Hair, muscles and skin are mainly made up of proteins

• Some proteins act as enzymes. They regulate chemical reactions

in organisms. For example, enzymes are involved in regulating certain
reactions in respiration.

• Some proteins act as hormones*. They help regulate body

processes in organisms. For example, growth hormone* regulates
growth.

Pathogens are viruses* • Some proteins act as antibodies*. They help protect the body
or organisms that cause against pathogens*.
diseases.
• Some proteins are involved in the transport of substances,
e.g. haemoglobin is an oxygen-carrying protein in red blood cells.

4 Nucleic acids
Cross-link Nucleic acids contain the elements carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen
The structures and functions and phosphorus. There are two types of nucleic acids, deoxyribonucleic
of nucleic acids will be
discussed in detail in Bk 4, acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid* (RNA).
Ch 25 and Ch 26.
• DNA is the genetic material* in organisms. It carries genetic
information* which controls activities of cells and determines the
features of organisms.

• RNA is involved in the synthesis of proteins.

antibody 抗體 genetic information 遺傳信息 genetic material 遺傳物質 growth hormone 生長激素 hormone 激素
pathogen 病原體 virus 病毒 ribonucleic acid 核糖核酸
2– 6
 2 The cell as the basic unit of life

1 What are the inorganic chemical constituents of organisms?

The inorganic chemical constituents include water and inorganic
ions (e.g. nitrate, magnesium, iron, calcium and phosphate).
2 What are the organic chemical constituents of organisms? What are
their functions?

Organic chemical
Functions
constituent

Carbohydrates
• Glucose • The main energy source for cells
• Starch • An energy reserve in plants
• Glycogen • An energy reserve in animals
• Cellulose • A major component of plant cell walls

Lipids
• Triglycerides • An energy reserve in organisms
(fats and oil) • Fats stored in adipose tissues reduce heat
loss and protect internal organs in animals
• Phospholipids • A major component of cell membranes

Proteins
• Structural proteins • Make up body tissues
• Enzymes • Regulate chemical reactions
• Hormones • Help regulate body processes
• Antibodies • Help protect the body against pathogens
• Haemoglobin • Carries oxygen

Nucleic acids
• Deoxyribonucleic • Carries genetic information
acid (DNA)
• Ribonucleic acid • Involved in the synthesis of proteins
(RNA)

Level 1 Level 2
1 Which of the following about inorganic 2 Which of the following are the functions of
ions in organisms is correct? carbohydrates in organisms?
A Magnesium is a component of teeth. (1) Makes up cell walls
B Nitrate is a source of nitrogen for the (2) Provides energy
synthesis of proteins. (3) Regulates chemical reactions
C Calcium is a component of chlorophyll. A (1) and (2) only B (1) and (3) only
D Iron is a component of bones. p. 4 C (2) and (3) only D (1), (2) and (3)
p. 5

2– 7
I Cells and Molecules of Life

2.2 Discovery and early studies

of cells
Watch this animation to Cells are the basic unit of life. All organisms are made up of cells.
get some idea of how big
Some organisms (e.g. Amoeba) are made up of one cell only, while others
a cell is.
(e.g. plants and animals) are made up of more than one cell (Fig 2.7
http://learn.genetics.utah.
edu/content/cells/scale and 2.8).

Most cells are very small. They cannot be seen with the naked eye. How
were they discovered?

animal cells plant cells

(×280) (×140)

(×60)

Fig 2.7 Amoeba is made up of one cell Fig 2.8 Plants and animals are made up
only of more than one cell

A Discovery of cells
In 1590, lens makers Hans Janssen and his son invented the first
microscope. This quickly led to the discovery of cells. In 1665, English
scientist Robert Hooke (1635–1703) used a microscope designed by
himself to examine a thin slice of cork*, a tissue of bark*. He observed
that cork seemed to be made up of many small irregular boxes. He
called these boxes ‘cells’ (Fig 2.9).

Fig 2.9 Robert Hooke’s drawing of cork ‘cells’

bark 樹皮 cork 木栓

2– 8
 2 The cell as the basic unit of life

Although the boxes Robert Hooke observed were actually the cell walls
of dead cork cells, his study raised the interest of other scientists in the
microscopic examination of different materials.

B The Cell Theory

As microscopes were improved and more materials were observed,
scientists noticed that there was a basic structural pattern in organisms.
Matthias Schleiden discovered that plant parts are made up of cells and
Theodor Schwann discovered that animal parts are made up of cells
(Fig 2.10 and 2.11).

Fig 2.10 Matthias Schleiden (1804–81) Fig 2.11 Theodor Schwann (1810–82)

Based on the above findings and the work of other scientists, Schwann
proposed the Cell Theory* in 1839. This theory became one of the
foundations of biology. The Cell Theory (with subsequent modifications
by other scientists) states that:

• all organisms are made up of one or more cells.

• the cell is the basic unit of life; it is the smallest unit that shows all
Visit the following
website and learn more the characteristics of life.
about the contribution
of the development • all cells come from pre-existing cells.
of microscopes to the
understanding of cells. Apart from the discovery of cells and the formulation* of the Cell
https://bitesizebio. Theory, some other major events in cell biology since the 1500s are
com/166/history-of-cell-
shown in the timeline on p. 10. All these were made possible by the
biology
improvement of microscopes, which allowed more details of cells to
be observed. From the timeline, we can see that scientific knowledge
advances with improvement in technology.

Cell Theory 細胞學說 formulation 構想

2– 9
I Cells and Molecules of Life

Some major events in cell biology and the development of microscopes

Major events in cell biology Development of microscopes

1590
The first light microscope
Lens makers Hans Janssen and his son
made the first microscope.

magnification*:
3–9 times

1665 Discovery of cells

Robert Hooke observed many small irregular
boxes in a slice of cork using microscope of
his own design. He called them ‘cells’.
Robert Hooke’s microscope
magnification: ~50 times

1674 First observation of living cells under a

microscope
Antoni van Leeuwenhoek observed
microorganisms* in pond water with his Leeuwenhoek’s microscope
simple single-lens microscope. magnification: ~200 times

1831 Discovery of the nucleus

Robert Brown discovered nuclei* in cells of
an orchid* leaf.

1839 Formulation of the Cell Theory

Theodor Schwann proposed the Cell
Theory.

1886 Discovery of mitochondria The first modern light microscope

Scientists discovered mitochondria* in Light microscopes
human muscle cells. Mitochondria are of design similar to those
structures with a diameter of about one we use in schools today
tenth of that of nuclei. were made.

a light microscope used

nowadays
magnification: 1600 times

1933 The first electron

microscope
The first electron
microscope* was made.
1950 Discovery of ribosomes
Using an electron microscope, scientists an electron microscope
discovered ribosomes* in cells. Ribosomes used nowadays
are small granules about a hundred times magnification:
smaller than mitochondria. ~12 000 times

electron microscope 電子顯微鏡 magnification 放大率 microorganism 微生物 mitochondrion 線粒體 nucleus 細胞核
orchid 蘭 ribosome 核糖體
2– 10
 2 The cell as the basic unit of life

Which of the following aspects of nature of science is/are demonstrated

in the discovery of cells and the development of the Cell Theory? Put a ‘✓’
in the correct box.
a Scientific knowledge is based on and/or derived from observations
of the natural world.
b Science is affected by the technology and the types of equipment
available at the time.
c Scientists build on the work of other scientists.

1 How did the development of microscopes contribute to our

understanding of cells?
The development of microscopes led to the discovery of cells
and the formulation of the Cell Theory.
With improved microscopes, more details of the cells were
observed.
2 What is the Cell Theory?
The Cell Theory states that:
all organisms are made up of one or more cells.
the cell is the basic unit of life.
all cells come from pre-existing cells.

Level 1 Level 2
1 Which of the following is stated in the Cell 2 CE Bio 2006 II Q39
Theory?
Sir Robert Hooke is the first scientist who
A All organisms have similar chemical used the light microscope to observe cells.
constituents. His study led to
B Cells vary in size and shape. A the discovery of virus.
C All cells contain DNA as their genetic B the formulation of the Cell Theory.
material.
C the discovery of bacteria as a
D All cells come from pre-existing cells. disease-causing agent.
p. 9
D the discovery of the fine structure of
cell organelles. p. 9, 10

2– 11
I Cells and Molecules of Life

2.3 Microscopes: tools for

studying cells
A Types of microscopes
Nowadays, many different types of microscopes are available for
observing cells. Light microscopes and electron microscopes are
two types of commonly used microscopes. The table below shows their
differences.

Electron microscopes
Light microscopes Transmission electron Scanning electron
microscopes* (TEM) microscopes* (SEM)

Working Light passes through a Electron beams* pass Electron beams scan over
principle specimen or a thin slide of through a very thin slide of a the surface of a specimen
it to form an image. specimen to form an image. to form an image.

Maximum 1600 times 1 500 000 times 200 000 times

magnification

Appearance Coloured image Black and white Black and white

of the image two-dimensional image three-dimensional image
produced showing the internal showing the external
structures of the specimen structures of the specimen
Most electron
micrographs in guard cell
this book are in
colour because
‘false colour’ is
added to them
using computer
software.
(×160) (×2000) (×2800)

Advantages • Living specimens can • Magnifications and resolution* of the images

be observed. produced are higher, so more details can be seen.
• Specimens can be
prepared easily.

electron beam 電子束 resolution 分辨率 scanning electron microscope 掃描電子顯微鏡

transmission electron microscope 透射電子顯微鏡
2– 12
 2 The cell as the basic unit of life

Resolution of images

One of the advantages of electron microscopes over light microscopes

is that they can produce images with higher resolution. Fig 2.12 shows
images of the same type of cells with the same magnification produced
using a light microscope and an electron microscope. We can see that
the image produced using an electron microscope, which has a higher
resolution, is clearer and shows more details.

light microscope electron microscope

(×750) (×750)

Fig 2.12 Images of the same type of cells produced using different microscopes

Due to advances in technology, microscopes have become more

(×3 000 000)
and more powerful. Nowadays, some microscopes have such a high
Fig 2.13 Protein molecules resolution that they allow observation of individual molecules in cells
seen under a
super-resolution (Fig 2.13). Using these microscopes, scientists can now study biological
microscope* (red) structures and processes at a molecular level.

What can you observe under a light microscope and an electron microscope?

height of width of width of width of thickness diameter width of a diameter width of diameter
a 5-year- a hand a finger an ant of a human of an mitochondrion of a a DNA of an
old child hair animal ribosome molecule atom
cell or a
plant cell
1m 0.1 m 0.01 m 1 mm 0.1 mm 0.01 mm 1 μm 0.1 μm 0.01 μm 1 nm 0.1 nm
(0.001 m) (0.001 mm) (0.001 μm)
naked eye
light microscope
electron microscope

Fig 2.14 Size range of objects that can be seen with the naked eye, under a light microscope and under an electron
microscope

super-resolution microscope 超高解析度顯微鏡

2– 13
I Cells and Molecules of Life

DSE B Light microscopes

14(IA)Q3, 15(IA)Q1,
16(IA)Q12
1 Different parts of a light microscope
The light microscopes used in the school laboratory are compound
microscopes*. They use two sets of lenses, an eyepiece and an
objective, to produce magnified images. Fig 2.15 shows the different
parts of a compound microscope and their functions.

1 Eyepiece*
• It is a magnifying lens
which our eyes look
through. 8 Arm
• Eyepieces with different • We hold it when
magnifications are often carrying the microscope
available. 5x 10x 16x from place to place.

2 Body tube* 9 Coarse adjustment

knob*
• It holds the eyepiece and
the objectives*. • We turn it to raise or
lower the stage to get
a rough focus*.
3 Nosepiece* (Some microscopes
focus by moving the
• We can rotate it to choose
body tube instead.)
the objective required.
• Turning it causes a
larger movement of
the stage*.
4 Objective
• It is a magnifying lens 10 Fine adjustment knob*
pointing to the specimen.
• We turn it to raise or
• Objectives with different lower the stage (or the
magnifications are held on body tube) to get a
the nosepiece. sharp focus.
• Turning it causes a
smaller movement of
the stage.
• We often use it when
the specimen is in
rough focus.

5 Condenser*
11 Stage
• It is a lens that focuses
light onto the specimen. • We clip the slide here
for observation.

6 Diaphragm* • It can be raised or

lowered to focus.
• We can adjust it to control
the amount of light shone
onto the specimen.

7 Light source 12 Base

• It provides light for viewing the • It supports the whole
specimen. (Some microscopes have Fig 2.15 Light microscope microscope.
a mirror for reflecting light from an
external light source instead.)

body tube 鏡筒 coarse adjustment knob 粗調節器 compound microscope 複式顯微鏡 condenser 聚光器 diaphragm 光欄
eyepiece 目鏡 fine adjustment knob 微調節器 focus 聚焦 nosepiece 物鏡轉換器 objective 物鏡 stage 載物台
2– 14
 2 The cell as the basic unit of life

2 How a light microscope works

When we observe a specimen under a light microscope, light from the
light source penetrates the specimen and enters the objective. It then
passes through the eyepiece and enters our eye, so that we can see an
image.

The image observed is inverted. For example, if you observe the letter ‘p’
under the microscope, the image becomes ‘d’.

Observation with a light microscope

2.1
Procedure Practical 2.1

A Observation at low-power magnification

1 Place a microscope on the bench.

2 Insert a low-power eyepiece (e.g. 5X) into the body tube. Select a
low-power objective (e.g. 4X) by rotating the nosepiece.

3 Turn on the light source. Look through the eyepiece. Adjust the
diaphragm until the light is sufficient.

4 Clip a prepared slide of onion epidermal cells* onto the stage. Make sure
the specimen is directly over the hole of the stage.

5 Follow the steps below to focus on the specimen.

a Watch the stage from the side. Raise the stage (or lower the body
tube) by turning the coarse adjustment knob until the objective is Never raise the stage
at a position closest to the slide. (or lower the body
b Look through the eyepiece again. Lower the stage (or raise the body tube) with the coarse
adjustment knob
tube) slowly by turning the coarse adjustment knob until the image
when you are looking
of the specimen is roughly in focus. through the eyepiece.
c Turn the fine adjustment knob to get a sharp focus.

raise the lower the adjust

stage stage the
focus
cont.

onion epidermal cell 洋葱表皮細胞

2– 15
I Cells and Molecules of Life

B Observation at high-power magnification

1 Carry out the steps in Part A so that the specimen is in focus at Always start with low-
low-power magnification. power magnification
because the wider
2 Search the field and select a part of the specimen to observe in detail. field of view allows
the specimen to be
Move that part to the centre of the field of view.
located more easily.
3 Select a high-power objective (e.g. 40X) by rotating the nosepiece.

4 The specimen should be in rough focus now. Turn the fine

adjustment knob to get a sharp focus.

• Watch the stage from the side when rotating the nosepiece to prevent the
adjust
objective from touching the slide. the
• Do not use the coarse adjustment knob when using a high-power objective. focus

5 Adjust the diaphragm to brighten the view if necessary.

6 If you cannot get a clear image, follow the steps below:

a Keep watching the stage from the side. Raise the stage (or lower the body
tube) by turning the coarse adjustment knob until the objective nearly
touches the slide.
b Look through the eyepiece. Focus the image by turning the fine
adjustment knob. Adjust the diaphragm to brighten the view if necessary.

7 Compare the observations at low-power and high-power magnifications.

Results and discussion

Low-power magnification High-power magnification
e.g. ×100 e.g. ×400

Area of specimen observed Larger Smaller

(More cells are observed) (Fewer cells are observed)

Details of specimen observed Less More

Brightness of image Brighter Dimmer

2– 16
 2 The cell as the basic unit of life

3 Magnification of a light microscope

Magnification represents how many times an image is larger than the
object. The total magnification* of a light microscope depends on the
objective and the eyepiece used. It can be calculated by

Total magnification magnification of magnification of

= ×
of a microscope eyepiece objective

For example, if a 10X eyepiece and a 40X objective are used, the total
magnification of the microscope is 400X.

On a photomicrograph or a biological drawing, magnification is often

indicated. We can find out the actual size of the object shown using the
magnification given. Skill builder below shows how this can be done.

Skill builder Skill practice

Calculating the actual size of an object

To calculate the actual size of an object shown in a photomicrograph or a biological drawing, we can
use the equation shown below.

size of the image

Magnification =
size of the object

For example, to calculate the actual size of the white blood cell shown X
on the right in Fig 2.16, we can do the steps as follows: (×400)

Fig 2.16 A white blood cell

Steps Workings
1 Measure the length of the cell in the Length of the cell in the photomicrograph (X) = 0.6 cm
photomicrograph using a ruler.
Magnification = 400
2 Find out the magnification of the size of the image
Magnification =
photomicrograph. size of the object

3 Substitute these values into the equation. 0.6 cm

400 =
size of the object
4 Give the answer using a suitable unit. 0.6 cm
size of the object =
400
size of the object = 0.0015 cm
= 15 μm

total magnification 總放大率

2– 17
I Cells and Molecules of Life

Skill builder Skill practice

The electron micrographs show two structures found in cells, X and Y. Calculate their actual lengths.
length of X length of Y

(×12 000) (×50 000) (4 marks)

Q7 (p. 39)

1 What are the types of microscopes commonly used today? What are
the differences in the magnifications and resolution of their images?
Light microscopes and electron microscopes are commonly
used today.
Compared to light microscopes, electron microscopes can produce
images with higher magnifications and resolution.
2 What are the differences between observations at low-power
magnification and high-power magnification under a microscope?

Low-power High-power
magnification magnification

Area of specimen Larger (more cells Smaller (fewer cells

observed are observed) are observed)

Details of specimen Less More

observed

Brightness of image Brighter Dimmer

3 How can we calculate the total magnification of a compound

microscope?

Total magnification of magnification of magnification of

= ×
a microscope eyepiece objective

2– 18
 2 The cell as the basic unit of life

Level 1
Questions 1 and 2: A student is going to observe a cell using a light
microscope under high-power magnification. State whether the following
statements about the procedure are true or false.
1 She should start with a high-power objective. p. 16

2 She should turn the coarse adjustment knob to focus when using a
high-power objective. p. 16

3 Some steps in observing a specimen using a light microscope under

low-power magnification are shown below. Arrange them into the
correct sequence.
(1) Turn the course adjustment knob to lower the stage.
(2) Turn the course adjustment knob to raise the stage.
(3) Turn the fine adjustment knob.
(4) Rotate the nosepiece to select a low-power objective.
(5) Clip the slide on the stage.

_____ _____ _____ _____ _____ p. 15, 16

Level 2

4 A student is observing a tissue under a light microscope. Which of

the following combinations of eyepiece and objective allows him to
see the largest number of cells in the field of view?
A 10X eyepiece and 10X objective
B 10X eyepiece and 40X objective
C 15X eyepiece and 4X objective
D 15X eyepiece and 40X objective p. 17

5 DSE Bio 2015 IA Q1

Which of the following parts of
the microscope should be
adjusted to obtain a clear and
sharp image when you switch 4
from low-magnification to
high-magnification observation? 1
A 1 and 4 only 3
2
B 2 and 3 only
C 1, 3 and 4 only
D 2, 3 and 4 only p. 16

2– 19
I Cells and Molecules of Life

DSE
14(IA)Q5, 17(IB)Q4
2.4 Structure of cells
A Animal cells and plant cells
Watch this to prepare for
your class and answer the There are hundreds of different types of cells in organisms. Fig 2.17
questions.
shows some cells in humans and plants. They vary in shape and size.
Are there any similarities between them?
Video Questions

neurone* in the guard cell* in the

brain (×400) leaf (×200)

cardiac muscle cell* palisade mesophyll

in the heart (×100) cell* in the leaf
(×100)

white blood cell in cortex cell* in the

the blood (×400) root (×200)

Fig 2.17 Different cells in humans and plants

Plant cells and animal cells generally share the same basic structure.
The major part of both of them is a jelly-like fluid called cytoplasm*.
The cytoplasm is bounded by a cell membrane. Various organelles*
3D model 2.1
(e.g. nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum*, mitochondria, vacuoles*,
ribosomes and chloroplasts*) are held in the cytoplasm (Fig 2.18 on the
3D model 2.2 next page).

cardiac muscle cell 心肌細胞 chloroplast 葉綠體 cortex cell 皮層細胞 cytoplasm 細胞質 endoplasmic reticulum 內質網
guard cell 保衞細胞 neurone 神經元 organelle 細胞器 palisade mesophyll cell 柵狀葉肉細胞 vacuole 液泡
2– 20
 2 The cell as the basic unit of life

Animal cell

cell membrane

cytoplasm

nucleus

rough
endoplasmic
reticulum*

smooth
endoplasmic
reticulum*

mitochondrion
(plural: mitochondria)
(×5000)
vacuole
ribosome

Plant cell

cell wall

chloroplast

large central
vacuole

cell membrane

cytoplasm

nucleus

rough
endoplasmic
reticulum

smooth
endoplasmic
reticulum

mitochondrion (×4000)

ribosome

Key: structures that can be found in plant cells but not in animal cells

Fig 2.18 Drawings (left) and electron micrographs (right) of an animal cell and a plant cell

Plant cells are generally larger than animal cells and have a more
regular shape. They have a cell wall while animal cells do not. Some
plant cells also have a large central vacuole and chloroplasts.

rough endoplasmic reticulum 粗糙內質網 smooth endoplasmic reticulum 光滑內質網

2– 21
I Cells and Molecules of Life

We will take a closer look at each of the sub-cellular structures* and see
what functions they have.

1 Nucleus
Some cells (e.g. muscle cells • Most cells have one nucleus (Fig 2.19).
and some human liver cells)
have more than one nucleus.
Mature human red blood
cells have no nucleus.

nucleus

cytoplasm

(×400)

Fig 2.19 Plant cells with a nucleus under a light microscope

• It is a spherical structure bounded by a double membrane called

the nuclear membrane* (Fig 2.20). There are pores in the nuclear
membrane, which allow the exchange of materials between the
nucleus and the cytoplasm.

• It contains DNA, the genetic material of the cell. DNA carries

genetic information, which controls the activities of the cell.

a b
nuclear
membrane
nuclear pore

DNA
Nucleolus is involved in the
making of ribosomes.

nucleolus*
(×5000)

Fig 2.20 (a) Drawing and (b) electron micrograph of a nucleus

2 Cytoplasm
• It is a jelly-like fluid consisting of mainly water and proteins.

• It holds many organelles (e.g. nucleus and mitochondria).

• It is the site for many chemical reactions.

• It allows the movement and transport of materials inside the cell.

nuclear membrane 核膜 nucleolus 核仁 sub-cellular structure 亞細胞構造

2– 22
 2 The cell as the basic unit of life

3 Cell membrane
Cross-link • It is a thin and flexible membrane mainly made up of phospholipids
The structure and functions and proteins.
of the cell membrane will be
discussed in detail in Ch 3. • It encloses the cell and separates the cell contents from the outside
environment.

• It is differentially permeable*, i.e. it only allows certain substances

to pass through.

• It controls the movement of substances into and out of the cell.

4 Cell wall cell wall

• It is present in all plant cells but

not in animal cells.

• It is a thick, rigid outermost layer

mainly made up of cellulose.

• It is fully permeable, i.e. it allows

water and all dissolved substances
to pass through. (×400)

Fig 2.21 Photomicrograph of plant

• It protects, supports and gives cells, showing the cell wall
shape to the plant cell.

a b

cell membrane
cell wall

cell wall of
adjacent cell

(×4000)

Fig 2.22 (a) Drawing and (b) electron micrograph of cell wall and cell membrane

Visit the following website to watch a video of an Amoeba eating a microorganism. You
can see how flexible the cell membrane is!
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mv6Ehv06mXY

differentially permeable 差異透性的

2– 23
I Cells and Molecules of Life

5 Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

• It is a network of interconnected membrane-bounded sacs.

• It is continuous with the outer nuclear membrane and extends

throughout the cytoplasm.

• There are two types of ER, rough ER and smooth ER.

Rough ER Smooth ER

drawing of a section of rough ER drawing of a section of smooth ER

ribosome

electron micrograph of rough ER electron micrograph of smooth ER

ribosome
o
u
g
rh (×20 000) E
R (×20 000)

With ribosomes attached No ribosomes attached

Cross-link A site for the synthesis of proteins A site for the synthesis of lipids
The details of protein
synthesis will be discussed in Abundant in cells that produce a Abundant in cells that produce a
Bk 4, Ch 26. large amount of proteins, e.g. large amount of lipids, e.g.
• saliva-secreting cells which • the cells in testes that secrete
produce the enzymes in saliva male sex hormones which are
• pancreatic cells which secrete lipids
enzymes for digestion
• pancreatic cells which secrete
hormones for regulating blood
glucose level

6 Ribosome
• It is a small particle not surrounded by a membrane.

• Some ribosomes are attached to rough ER, while others are lying free
in the cytoplasm.

• It is involved in the synthesis of proteins.

2– 24
 2 The cell as the basic unit of life

7 Mitochondrion
• It is bounded by a double membrane. The inner membrane is
highly folded (Fig 2.23).

• It is the main site of respiration. It converts chemical energy in food

into energy that the cell can use.

• The number of mitochondria in a cell is related to the energy

requirement of the cell. Generally, more mitochondria are present in
cells that use a lot of energy. For example,

Cell with a large number of

Energy is required for…
mitochondria

Enzyme-secreting cell Synthesis of enzymes

Cross-link Liver cell High level of metabolic activities

The functions of the liver will
be discussed in Ch 6. Epithelial cell* in the inner wall of the Absorption of nutrients
small intestine

Muscle cell Contraction

Root hair cell Absorption of minerals

a
double membrane b

infolding of inner
membrane

(×37 000)

Fig 2.23 (a) Drawing and (b) electron micrograph of a mitochondrion

Appearance of mitochondria in electron micrographs

Mitochondria often appear in various shapes and sizes mitochondrion
in electron micrographs. This is because mitochondria 1 1
may be spherical, rod-shaped, or even branched. The 2 2
position of the section obtained for microscopic 3 3
examination also determines the appearance of the
mitochondria (Fig 2.24). Fig 2.24 The appearance of a mitochondrion in
different positions of sectioning

epithelial cell 上皮細胞

2– 25
I Cells and Molecules of Life

8 Chloroplast
Plant cells such as the • It is present in green plant cells,
epidermal cells of onion and e.g. palisade mesophyll cells and
root hair cells do not have chloroplast
chloroplasts. guard cells in leaves. It is not present
in animal cells.

• It is bounded by a double
membrane, with a network of
membrane inside (Fig 2.26). (×400)

• It contains a green pigment called Fig 2.25 Plant cells with chloroplasts
under a light microscope
chlorophyll, which captures
light energy and converts it into chemical energy in food in
photosynthesis.

• Starch grains are often present inside. This is because some of the
glucose produced during photosynthesis is converted into starch and
temporarily stored in chloroplast.

a b
outer membrane

inner membrane

network of
membrane

starch grain (×15 000)

Fig 2.26 (a) Drawing and (b) electron micrograph of a chloroplast

9 Vacuole
large central single
• It is a fluid-filled sac bounded by a vacuole membrane
single membrane.

• Most animal cells have only a

few small vacuoles and some do
not have any. Their vacuoles may
contain water, enzymes and food.

• Plant cells often have a large central

vacuole. It contains cell sap*, (×4000)
which is a liquid containing water Fig 2.27 Electron micrograph of
Cross-link and dissolved substances such as a plant cell with a large
How turgidity of plant cells central vacuole
glucose, pigments and waste.
provides support to plants
will be discussed in Ch 3. • Plant cells become turgid when the large central vacuole is full of
water. This provides support to the plant.

cell sap 細胞液

2– 26
 2 The cell as the basic unit of life

Learning through examples Skill builder Skill practice

A student is observing a prepared slide of liver tissue using a light microscope. Fig P is a
photomicrograph which shows what he is observing. Fig Q is an electron micrograph of part
of a liver cell.

(×400) (×5000)

Fig P Fig Q

a With reference to Fig P above, draw a labelled diagram of the cells enclosed with the dotted line.
(4 marks)
b Name organelles X and Y shown in Fig Q. (2 marks)
c The liver carries out many chemical reactions. To regulate these reactions, liver cells produce many
enzymes. Describe how organelles X and Y shown in Fig Q work together so that liver cells can
perform their functions. (2 marks)

Suggested answers
a
nucleus Drawing high-power
biological diagrams
cytoplasm
Refer to p. 28.
cell membrane

Online tutorial 2.1

Liver cells (×400)

Title 1
Resemblance of drawing 1
Labels (any 2) 1×2
b X: rough endoplasmic reticulum 1
Y: mitochondrion 1 Naming a structure
When naming a
c X is the site for synthesis of enzymes, which regulate the reactions. 1
structure, make sure
Y provides energy for synthesis of enzymes / for the chemical the spelling is correct.
reactions to occur. 1

2– 27
I Cells and Molecules of Life

Learning through examples Skill builder Skill practice

Drawing high-power biological diagrams

Scientists often draw biological diagrams to record what they observed. To make a clear drawing of
the specimen, you should note the following:
• Use a sharp HB pencil.
• Draw only a few representative cells.
• The drawing should resemble the specimen. The structures should be in proportion.
• Label the relevant structures.
• Give a title for your drawing.
• State the magnification of the drawing.
Below are two biological diagrams of the plant cell shown in Fig 2.28.
We can see the differences between poor and good biological
diagrams. Fig 2.28 A plant cell (×180)

Poor biological diagram Good biological diagram

Label lines Drawing lines
should not cross should be smooth cell
one another. and continuous. membrane
cell wall cell membrane
cell wall chloroplast
chloroplast

vacuole
vacuole nucleus

Label lines should Title and

be straight. Do not Do not magnification A plant cell (×180)
use arrows. shade. are missing.

Learning through examples Skill builder Skill practice

Draw a labelled biological diagram of the cells in each of the photomicrographs below. (12 marks)
a Human cheek cells b Human white blood cell c Leaf cells

(×400) (×400) (×200) Q17 (p. 41)

2– 28
 2 The cell as the basic unit of life

Preparation of temporary mounts and observation of

2.2 animal cells

Introduction
Practical 2.2
We can prepare temporary mounts* of animal cells or tissues for microscopic
examination. As many cell structures are colourless when observed under the
microscope, animal cells and tissues are often stained with methylene blue
solution* so that the cell structures can be observed more clearly.

Procedure

• Methylene blue solution may cause haemolysis in people with G6PD deficiency*.
Do not use it if you have G6PD deficiency. Safranine solution* can be used instead.
• Methylene blue solution is harmful. Avoid contact with skin.
• Cover any exposed wounds with sterile dressings and wear disposable gloves.

1 Touch the ox cornea* gently with the middle of a clean slide.

2 Add a drop of methylene blue solution to the touched area to stain the Adding sufficient
methylene blue
cells.
solution can help
3 Use a pair of forceps to place a cover slip over the cells. This flattens the minimize the chance
cells for observation, prevents the cells from drying out and prevents the of trapping air bubbles
in the next step.
objective lens from touching the specimen and getting dirty.

Let the edge of a cover slip touch Slowly lower the cover slip. Make Use tissue paper to soak up any
the methylene blue solution. sure no air bubbles are trapped. excess methylene blue solution.

forceps
tissue
paper

edge of cover slip touching

methylene blue solution

4 Observe the cells with a microscope under high-power magnification.

Draw a labelled high-power diagram of the ox corneal cells.

5 Dispose of the ox eye, the slide and the gloves properly after the practical.
Wash your hands thoroughly.

cornea 角膜 G6PD deficiency 葡萄糖 -6- 磷酸脫氫酶缺乏症 methylene blue solution 亞甲藍溶液 safranine solution 番紅溶液
temporary mount 臨時裝片
2– 29
I Cells and Molecules of Life

Preparation of temporary mounts and observation of

2.3 plant cells

Procedure
Practical 2.3
Prepare the temporary mounts of the following cells or tissues. Observe the
cells with a microscope under high-power magnification and draw a labelled
high-power diagram of the cells observed.

A Onion epidermis • Iodine solution is

an irritant. Avoid
1 Peel off the inner epidermis of the fleshy layer of an onion.
contact with skin.
2 Cut out a small piece of epidermis. • Wear disposable
gloves.
3 Mount it with a drop of iodine solution.

inner inner
inner epidermis epidermis
epidermis

fleshy layer of
onion scissors
cover slip
iodine
forceps
solution

B Hydrilla leaf

Mount a Hydrilla* leaf with a drop of water.

water cover slip

Hydrilla leaf

C Pollen grains

1 Touch a piece of sticky tape with the anther* of a flower (e.g. a Gladiolus* Do not perform part C
flower or a lily flower). if you are allergic to
pollen grains.
2 Stick the tape onto a slide.

pollen grains*
anther
cont.

sticky tape stuck

sticky tape on a slide

anther 花藥 Gladiolus 劍蘭 Hydrilla 黑藻 pollen grain 花粉粒

2– 30
 2 The cell as the basic unit of life

D Onion root tip cells

1 Prepare onion root tip tissue as follows.

a Put small pieces of onion root tips into freshly prepared macerating
fluid* for 2 to 3 days to soften the root tips.
The macerating fluid
b Pour the contents into a watch glass. Tear the tissues apart. is corrosive*. Avoid
c Filter off the macerating fluid. Wash the macerated onion root tip contact with skin
gently with water.

2 Mount the macerated onion root tip with a drop of water.

E Banana tissue

1 Take a small amount of tissue from the soft white middle part of a
banana.

2 Put the tissue into a drop of water on a slide.

3 Separate the cells with a toothpick.

banana
toothpick tissue stir

banana

water

4 Mount the cells with a drop of iodine solution.

Results and discussion

The appearance of the cells is shown below.

nucleus
cell wall cell wall
chloroplast cell wall

(×400) (×400) (×400)

Fig 2.29 Onion epidermal cells Fig 2.30 Hydrilla leaf cells Fig 2.31 Pollen grain

cell wall nucleus starch grain cell wall

nucleus

(×400) (×400)
Fig 2.32 Onion root tip cells Fig 2.33 Cells in banana tissue

corrosive 腐蝕性 macerating fluid 浸離液

2– 31
I Cells and Molecules of Life

What are the sub-cellular structures found in animal cells and plant cells? What are their functions?

Can be found in
Sub-cellular structure Function
animal cells plant cells

Nucleus ✓ ✓ • Contains DNA, which controls the

activities of the cell

Cytoplasm ✓ ✓ • Holds many organelles

• A site for many chemical reactions
• Allows the movement and transport
of materials inside the cell

Cell membrane ✓ ✓ • Encloses the cell and separates

the cell contents from the outside
environment
• Controls the movement of substances
into and out of the cell

Cell wall ✗ ✓ • Protects, supports and gives shape to

the plant cell

Rough ✓ ✓ • A site for the synthesis of proteins

endoplasmic
reticulum
(rough ER)

Smooth ✓ ✓ • A site for the synthesis of lipids

endoplasmic
reticulum
(smooth ER)

Ribosome ✓ ✓ • Involved in the synthesis of proteins

Mitochondrion ✓ ✓ • The main site of respiration. It

converts chemical energy in food into
energy that the cell can use

Chloroplast ✗ ✓ (in green • Contains chlorophyll which

plant captures light energy and converts
cells it into chemical energy in food in
only) photosynthesis

Vacuole ✓ (small or ✓ (often • May contain water, enzymes, food

absent) a large and other dissolved substances
central • Provides support to the plant when it
vacuole) is full of water

2– 32
 2 The cell as the basic unit of life

Level 1
Questions 1 and 2: State whether the statements are true or false.
1 All plant cells have chloroplasts. p. 26

2 All plant cells have a large central vacuole. p. 26

\
Level 2
3 Which of the labelled structures in the
green plant cell on the right cannot be
found in an animal cell?
A X only
B Z only
X Y Z
C X and Y only
D X and Z only p. 21

4 Label the structures shown in the photomicrograph and electron

micrograph below.
a Cells in leaf epidermis (×400)

P:

Q:

R:

b Part of an animal cell (×6800)

X:

Y:

Z:

p. 21

2– 33
I Cells and Molecules of Life

B Prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells

Plant cells and animal cells have a similar basic structure. They have a true
nucleus (i.e. a nucleus surrounded by nuclear membrane) and various
membrane-bound organelles (e.g. endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria
and chloroplasts). Their genetic material (DNA) is enclosed within the
nucleus. These kinds of cells are called eukaryotic cells*.

• eukaryote, prokaryote Organisms consisting of eukaryotic cells are known as eukaryotes*.

In Greek, ‘eu’ means ‘true’, Most eukaryotes are multicellular* (e.g. animals and plants), but some
‘pro’ means ‘before’, ‘kary’
are unicellular* (e.g. Amoeba).
means ‘nucleus’.

There is another kind of cells that are generally smaller than eukaryotic
cells and have no true nucleus. They are called prokaryotic cells*.
Their structure is shown below.

cell wall

cell membrane

cytoplasm

DNA (genetic material)

ribosome

Fig 2.34 Drawing (left) and electron micrograph (×12 000) (right) of a prokaryotic cell

Structure of a prokaryotic cell:

Sub-cellular
Descriptions
structure

Cell wall • Present in most prokaryotic cells

• Does not contain cellulose as a plant cell wall does

Cell membrane • Present in all prokaryotic cells

Cytoplasm • Does not contain membrane-bound organelles such

as nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria and
chloroplasts

Visit the following website

• DNA is lying free in the cytoplasm
to learn more about
Ribosomes • Lying free in the cytoplasm
prokaryotic cell:
http://www.brooklyn.
cuny.edu/bc/ahp/LAD/C5/ Organisms consisting of prokaryotic cells are known as prokaryotes*.
C5_Prokary.html
All prokaryotes are unicellular. Bacteria are examples of prokaryotes.
Prokaryotes are believed to be the earliest types of organisms that
appeared on Earth.

eukaryote 真核生物 eukaryotic cell 真核細胞 multicellular 多細胞的 prokaryote 原核生物 prokaryotic cell 原核細胞
unicellular 單細胞的
2– 34
 2 The cell as the basic unit of life

What are the similarities and differences between prokaryotic cells and
eukaryotic cells?
Similarities
Both are bounded by a cell membrane. Their genetic material is DNA.
Differences
Prokaryotic cells Eukaryotic cells
(e.g. bacterial cells) (e.g. plant cells and
animal cells)

Size • Usually smaller • Usually larger

Nucleus and genetic • No true nucleus • Have a true nucleus
material • DNA lying free • DNA enclosed in the
in the cytoplasm nucleus
Membrane-bounded • Absent • Present
organelles (e.g.
ER, mitochondria,
chloroplasts)
Ribosomes • Lying free in the • Some are attached
cytoplasm to ER and some lying
free in the cytoplasm
Cell wall • May be present • Present in plant cells
or absent but absent in animal
• Does not contain cells
cellulose • Most contains cellulose

Level 1 Level 2
1 Circle the structures that can be found in 2 Which of the following comparisons
both eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells. between a prokaryotic cell and a eukaryotic
Nucleus Cytoplasm Mitochondrion cell is correct?
Chloroplast Vacuole Ribosome A Prokaryotic cells have no nucleic acid.
Cell wall Cell membrane B Both have cell wall.
Rough endoplasmic reticulum C Both have a nuclear membrane.
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum p. 34
D Both have ribosomes. p. 34

2– 35
I Cells and Molecules of Life

2.5 Levels of body organization

Most eukaryotes are multicellular organisms. Multicellular organisms
like humans and plants consist of many different types of cells. These
cells work together in a coordinated way to serve different functions
in an organism. Cells usually work together at different levels of
organization as shown below.

Cell e.g. e.g.

The basic unit of organisms smooth muscle epithelial cell
cell*

Tissue* e.g. e.g.

smooth muscle epithelial tissue*
Similar cells work together for one
or more particular functions tissue*

Organ* e.g.
Different tissues work together for stomach*
one or more particular functions

System* e.g. liver

Different organs work together to digestive system*
perform a particular task small
intestine

Organism e.g.
Different systems work together to human
maintain life

Fig 2.35 An example of the levels of body organization in humans

Recall Think about... (p. 1)

1 Microscopes
2 Materials like carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids have to be
supplied to produce new cells.

Suggested answers to
p. 11 a, b and c

digestive system 消化系統 epithelial tissue 上皮組織 organ 器官 smooth muscle cell 平滑肌細胞
smooth muscle tissue 平滑肌組織 stomach 胃 system 系統 tissue 組織
2– 36
 2 The cell as the basic unit of life

Key terms
1 biomolecule 生物分子 12 inorganic 無機的
2 carbohydrate 碳水化合物 13 lipid 脂質
3 cell 細胞 14 microscope 顯微鏡
4 cell membrane 細胞膜 15 mitochondrion 線粒體
5 cell wall 細胞壁 16 nucleic acid 核酸
6 chlorophyll 葉綠素 17 nucleus 細胞核
7 chloroplast 葉綠體 18 organic 有機的
8 cytoplasm 細胞質 19 prokaryotic cell 原核細胞
9 differentially permeable 差異透性的 20 protein 蛋白質
10 endoplasmic reticulum 內質網 21 temporary mount 臨時裝片
11 eukaryotic cell 真核細胞 22 vacuole 液泡

Concept map

Cells

are made up of can be without

observed with a true a true
under the nucleus nucleus

inorganic eukaryotic prokaryotic

water biomolecules microscope
ions cells cells
reveals the sub-cellular
structures of cells, such as

cell wall (in plant cells cell

cytoplasm organelles
but not animal cells membrane

such as

endoplasmic chloroplasts vacuoles (large

nucleus mitochondria
reticulum (in green plant in plant cells,
cells) small or absent
in animal cells)

2– 37
I Cells and Molecules of Life

MC
4 The diagram below represents an animal cell
Exercise viewed under an electron microscope.

Section 2.1

Level 1
MC
1 Which of the following is/are the function(s) of
proteins?
(1) making up body tissues Which of the following diagrams best represents
(2) regulating chemical reactions in organisms the image of the same cell produced by a light
(3) protecting the body against pathogens microscope at high-power magnification?
A (1) only B (1) and (2) only A B
C (2) and (3) only D (1), (2) and (3)
p. 6

Level 2
MC
2 Which of the following have a main function C D
that is similar to starch in organisms?
(1) triglycerides
(2) phospholipids
(3) glycogen
A (1) and (2) only B (1) and (3) only
p. 12
C (2) and (3) only D (1), (2) and (3)
p. 5
Level 2
MC
5 Peter is observing some cells using a light
Section 2.3 microscope under low-power magnification.
The photomicrograph below shows the cells in
Level 1 the field of view.
MC
up
3 CE Bio 2009 II Q1
When using a microscope for high-power cell X
observation, we should focus on the specimen
with a low-power objective before using the
left right
high-power objective. It is because under
lower-power magnification,
(1) the field of view is larger.
(2) the light intensity is higher. down (×200)
(3) it is easier to focus on the specimen.
If he wants to move cell X to the centre of
A (1) and (2) only the field of view, to which direction should he
B (1) and (3) only move the slide? Hint (p. 42)
C (2) and (3) only
A up and left B up and right
D (1), (2) and (3)
C down and left D down and right
p. 15, 16
p. 15

2– 38
 2 The cell as the basic unit of life

MC
6 CE Bio 2004 II Q13 c The student wants to estimate the density
The following question refers to the of stomata on the leaf epidermis using the
photomicrographs below, which show the cross equation below:
section of a stem under different magnifications: average number of stomata
in three fields of view
area of a field of view

Should he use a 4X objective or a 40X

objective when counting the stomata?
Explain briefly. (3 marks)
p. 15–17

I II

A student first focused on the section under

Section 2.4
the microscope and saw the section as shown
in I. In order to see the section as shown in II, Level 1
MC
the following steps are required. Arrange them
8 The electron micrograph below shows a plant
in the correct sequence.
cell.
(1) Turn the nosepiece for an objective of
higher magnification. U
(2) Turn the coarse adjustment knob / fine V
adjustment knob. W
X
(3) Adjust the position of the section on the
stage. Y
A (2), (1), (3) B (2), (3), (1)
C (3), (1), (2) D (3), (2), (1)
(×1200)
p. 16
Which sub-cellular structures are also found in
7 A student is observing a piece of leaf epidermis animal cells?
under a light microscope. He can see some
A U, V, W and X only
guard cells in the field of view.
B U, W and Y only
C V, W and X only
D V, X and Y only p. 21
MC
9 The diagram below shows a plant cell. Which
of the labelled structures are also found in a
L bacterial cell?
stomata

guard cells
W
(×40) X
Y
a Calculate the actual length of guard cell (L). Z
(2 marks)
b If the student wants to observe one of A W
the cells in more detail, describe what he B X
should do. (3 marks) C Y
D Z p. 34

2– 39
I Cells and Molecules of Life

MC
10 CE Bio 2008 I Q4c 13 DSE Bio Practice Paper IA Q3
The following table shows some steps of The following diagram shows an animal cell
preparing a temporary slide of onion epidermis with some of its organelles:
and the purpose behind each step. Complete
the table. (2 marks) P Q

Step Purpose R
Peeling of epidermis Separate a thin tissue
for observation Which of the labelled structures are particularly
Staining with iodine (a) abundant in an enzyme-secreting cell?
solution A P and Q only B P and R only
Adding a drop of Reduce the refraction C Q and R only D P, Q and R
water of light p. 22–26
(b) Flatten the tissue
14 AQA GCE (AS) 2013
p. 29–31
Some cells lining the bronchi of the lungs
secrete large amounts of mucus. Mucus
Level 2 contains protein. Name one organelle that
DSE Bio 2014 IA Q3, 5 you would expect to find in large numbers in
mucus-secreting cell and describe its role in
Directions: Questions 11 and 12 refer to the
the production of mucus. (2 marks)
following study: A student wants to use an ordinary
p. 22–26
light microscope to observe the binary fission of a
photosynthesizing protist under high magnification. 15 AL Bio 2011 IA Q3a, b
A temporary mount of the protist is placed on the
The photographs below show the appearance
stage of the microscope.
of the same type of plant cells as observed
MC
11 Below are some steps in using a light microscope: under a light microscope (Photomicrograph
A) and an electron microscope (Electron
(1) Focus with 10X objective
Micrograph B).
(2) Focus with 40X objective
(3) Search the field with 10X objective
(4) Search the field with 40X objective
(5) Move the slide until the protist is located
in the centre of the field
(6) Adjust light intensity if necessary
Which of the following is the most reasonable
sequence of steps for the above study?
(×200) (×3400)
A (1), (3), (5), (6) B (2), (6), (4), (5)
Photomicrograph A Electron Micrograph B
C (1), (2), (4), (5), (6) D (1), (3), (5), (2), (6)
p. 15, 16 a Based on a comparison of the photographs,
MC name two organelles which are revealed
12 Which of the following structures would be in Electron Micrograph B but not in
observable in the above study? Hint (p. 42) Photomicrograph A. (2 marks)
A ribosome b Discuss briefly the impact of the advances
B chloroplast in microscopy on the study of cells.
C mitochondrion (2 marks)
D endoplasmic reticulum p. 34 p. 22–26

2– 40
 2 The cell as the basic unit of life

16 The electron micrograph below shows part of 18 The photomicrographs below show two types
a cell. of human cells, muscle cells and white blood
cells. The white blood cells shown produce
antibodies, which protect the body against
diseases.

muscle cell white blood cells

(×150) (×100)

a The cells in the photomicrographs are

stained. State the purpose of staining cells
in microscopic observation. (1 mark)
b With reference to the photomicrographs,
describe two observable differences in the
structures between muscle cells and white
(×14 000) blood cells. (2 marks)
Is this cell a eukaryotic cell or a prokaryotic c The table below shows the relative
cell? Give one piece of evidence from the abundance of mitochondria and rough
electron micrograph to support your answer. endoplasmic reticulum (ER) in four cells.
(2 marks)
p. 21, 34 Relative Relative
Cell abundance of abundance of
mitochondria rough ER
17 The photomicrograph below shows some cells
W − −
in the leaf of a plant.
X + +

Y ++++ ++++

Z +++++ +

The number of ‘+’ is proportional to the relative abundance

of the structure in the cell. A ‘−’ represents the absence of
the structure.
organelle X
i Which cell (W, X, Y or Z) is likely
cell P
to be the muscle cell and which one
(×160) is likely to be the white blood cell?
Explain your answer. (4 marks)
a Draw a labelled diagram of the cells shown ii A student suggests that W may be a
in the photomicrograph. (4 marks) bacterial cell. Do you agree with him?
b Mitochondria are present in cell P. Suggest Give one piece of evidence from the
one reason why they cannot be observed in table to support your answer. (2 marks)
the photomicrograph above. (1 mark) p. 24, 25, 34
c Describe how organelle X and
mitochondria in cell P work together so 19 Compare and contrast the structures of animal
that the cell can obtain energy in usable cells and plant cells. (10 marks)
form to perform its functions. (2 marks) p. 21
p. 12, 25, 27

2– 41
I Cells and Molecules of Life

Level 3 ii State one piece of evidence from the pie

MC charts that cell Z may produce more
20 A student is observing a cell under a proteins than the liver cell. Explain
microscope. Which of the following features your answer. (2 marks)
allow(s) him to determine whether the cell is an p. 22–26
animal cell or a plant cell? Hint (p. 42)
(1) absence of cell wall
(2) absence of chloroplasts
Section 2.5
(3) presence of nucleus
A (1) only B (3) only
Level 1
MC
C (1) and (2) only D (1), (2) and (3) 22 The diagram below shows the internal structure
p. 21, 34 of a leaf.

21 The electron micrograph below shows part of a

liver cell.
Y
X

glycogen Z
granule
(×100)
(×4000) Which of the following combinations correctly
identifies the levels of organization of X, Y and
a Name the organelles X and Y. (2 marks)
Z?
b Glycogen granules are found in the liver
cell. State the function of glycogen in X Y Z
humans. (1 mark) A cell organ tissue
c The pie charts below show the total B tissue cell organ
membrane surface areas of organelles C tissue organ cell
X and Y relative to the total membrane D organ tissue cell p. 36
surface areas of all organelles in two types
of human cells, a liver cell and an unknown
Hints
cell (Z).
Q5 The image observed under a light microscope
is inverted.
liver cell Z
Q12 Protists are eukaryotes.
Q20 A feature that is present in all animal cells but
Key: absent in all plant cells allows us to confirm
X that a cell is an animal cell. A feature that
Y is present in all plant cells but absent in all
other animal cells allows us to confirm that a cell is
organelles
a plant cell.

i With reference to the functions of liver Q21 A large total membrane surface area of
cells, explain why the total membrane organelle X indicates a cell may have a large
amount of organelle X.
surface area of organelle X is higher in
liver cells. Hint (p. 42) (2 marks)

2– 42
 2 The cell as the basic unit of life

Reading to learn
Read the article below and answer the questions.

Umbrella algae experiment

The ‘little plant’ shown in Fig 2.36 is an umbrella alga*. It is a marine alga of
about 5 cm tall, with a cap, a stalk and a foot. Can you believe that it is only
composed of a single cell? cap
In the 1930s, a scientist called Hammerling thought of a clever way to make
use of the unusually large size of this cell in his scientific investigations. He
used the cell to investigate whether genetic information was contained in the
nucleus of cells.
stalk
He cut off the cap of one umbrella alga and the foot of another, and found
that the cap grew back but the foot did not (Fig 2.37). He then proposed that
genetic information, which instructs the growth of cells, was contained in the
foot
nucleus in the foot.

Fig 2.36 An umbrella

alga

cap grew back

cap cap cut off

stalk

nucleus
foot foot cut off
foot did not
grow back
Fig 2.37 Hammerling’s experiment

Questions
1 Is an umbrella alga a eukaryote or a prokaryote? Explain your answer. (2 marks)

2 How does the result of this experiment support Hammerling’s view that genetic information was contained
in the nucleus? (2 marks)

3 Give one aspect of nature of science that can be demonstrated in this experiment. Explain your answer.
(2 marks)

umbrella alga 傘藻

2– 43
 Self test Time allowed: 15 minutes Total: 10 marks

Section A (1 mark each)

1 A student used a light microscope with a 40X 2 Which of the following cells have a cellulose
objective and a 10X eyepiece to observe a cell wall?
plant tissue. If he used a 10X objective instead, (1) bacterial cells
which of the following combinations correctly (2) onion epidermal cells
describes the newly formed image? (3) ox corneal cells
Total Area of the tissue A (2) only
magnification observed B (3) only
A 20X smaller C (1) and (2) only
B 20X larger D (1), (2) and (3)

C 100X smaller
D 100X larger

Section B (8 marks)
3 A student used a light microscope to observe an animal cell. She drew the biological diagram below to
record her observation.

nucleus
cell membrane

a State two problems of her biological diagram. (2 marks)

b The teacher showed her an electron micrograph of an animal cell at the same magnification.
i Explain why the student can observe more organelles in the electron micrograph. (1 mark)
ii The student drew a biological diagram according to the electron micrograph.

However, the student missed out some of the sub-cellular structures in her diagram. Name two of
the structures which she may have missed out. (2 marks)

c In aged people, organelle X may become less efficient in performing its function. With reference to the
function of X, give an explanation for the reduced physical fitness of aged people. (3 marks)

2– 44