With Answer Keys Gen Chem

12
GENERAL
CHEMISTRY 2
QUARTER 2
LEARNING ACTIVITY SHEET

Sampl
Sampl e T
Table
able of Contents
Page
Compentency Code
number
Predict the spontaneity of a process

pr ocess
based on entropy
STEM_GC11CTIVa-b-140 1 – 16
Explain the second law of
thermodynamics and its significance STEM_GC11CTIVa-b-142 17 – 27
Use Gibbs’ free energy to determine the
direction of a reaction STEM_GC11CTIVa-b-143 28 – 59
Explain chemical equilibrium in terms of
the reaction rates
of the forward and the reverse reaction STEM_GC11CEIVb-e-145 60 – 88
Calculate equilibrium constant and the
pressure or
89 – 96
concentration of reactants or products in
an equilibrium mixture STEM_GC11CEIVb-e-148
State the Le Chatelier’s principle and
apply it qualitatively
to describe the effect of changes in
pressure,
concentration and temperature on a
system at equilibrium STEM_GC11CEIVb-e-149 97 – 106
Define Bronsted acids and bases STEM_GC11ABIVf-g-153 107 – 111
Discuss the acid-base property of water 112 - 125
STEM_GC11ABIVf-g-154
Calculate ph from the concentration of
hydrogen ion or
hydroxide ions in aqueous solutions STEM_GC11ABIVf-g-156 126 – 140
Describe how a buffer solution maintains
its ph STEM_GC11ABIVf-g-160 141 – 153
Calculate the ph of a buffer solution
using the Henderson
Hasselbalch equation STEM_GC11ABIVf-g-161 154 – 172
Define oxidation and reduction reactions STEM_GC11ABIVf-g-169 173 – 180

Balance redox reactions using the

change in oxidation
number method STEM_GC11ABIVf-g-170 181 – 189
Identify the reaction occurring in the
different parts of the cell STEM_GC11ABIVf-g-172 190 – 204
Define reduction potential, oxidation
potential, and cell potential STEM_GC11ABIVf-g-176 205 – 217
Calculate the standard cell potential STEM_GC11ABIVf-g-178 218 – 233
Relate the value of the cell potential to
the feasibility of
using the cell to generate an electric
current STEM_GC11ABIVf-g-179 234 – 243
Describe the electrochemistry involved in
some common
batteries:
a. Leclanche dry cell
b. Button batteries
c. Fuel cells
d. Lead storage battery STEM_GC11ABIVf-g-180 244 – 256
Apply electrochemical principles to
explain corrosion STEM_GC11ABIVf-g-181 257 – 267
Explain the electrode reactions during
electrolysis STEM_GC11ABIVf-g-182 268 – 277
Describe the reactions in some
commercial electrolytic processes STEM_GC11ABIVf-g-183 278 - 287

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epartment of Education
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Learnin g Ac tiv it
ityy Sheet in EARTH SCIE
SCIENC
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(Grade 12)
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GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2
Name: __________
_______________________
__________________
_____ Date: ___________
_____________
__
Grade
Grad e Level : ____
________
________
_________
_________
______
__ Sco
Score:
re: _________
____________
___
L EARNING ACTIVI
A CTIVITY
TY SHEET
Spontaneous Process and Entropy
Background Information for the Lea

Learners
rners (BIL)
Chemical Thermodynamics is the study of the interrelation of heat and

work with chemical reactions or with physical changes of state within the
confines of the laws of thermodynamics.
Thermodynamics is a scientific discipline that deals with the
interconversion of heat and other forms of energy. It has traditionally recognized
three fundamental laws: First Law - Energy of the universe is constant. “Energy
can be converted from one form to another, but it can never be created nor
destroyed”; Se cond Law - Entropy of universe increases. “The entropy of the
Second
universe increases in a spontaneous process and remains unchanged in the
equilibrium process”; and Third Law - At absolute zero, the entropy of a perfect
crystal is 0. “The entropy of the perfect crystalline substance is zero at the
absolute zero of temperature (T = 0, K = -273.150C).”
Spontaneous process as stated in the second law is a physical or
chemical change that occurs by itself. A process that takes place without energy
from an external source. It is the time-evolution of a system which releases free
energy and it moves to a lower, more thermodynamically stable energy state.
If heat flows into surroundings (exothermic) the random motion of the
molecules in the surroundings increases. Thus, the entropy of the surroundings
increases. Entropy is a thermodynamic quantity that is a measure of
randomness and disorder. It measures how spread out or dispersed the energy
of a system is among the different possible ways that system can contain
energy. It tells whether a process or chemical reaction can occur. The
connection between entropy and the spontaneity of a reaction is expressed by
the second law of thermodynamics.
The change in entropy for a given amount of heat absorbed also
depends on temperature. If the temperature of the surroundings is high, the
molecules are already quite energetic. Therefore, the absorption of heat from
an exothermic process in the system will have relatively little impact on the
motion of the molecules and the resulting increase in entropy of the
surroundings will be small. However, if the temperature of the surroundings is
1
Practice Personal Hygiene protocols at all times.

low, than the addition of the same amount of heat will cause a more drastic
increase in molecular motion and hence a larger
l arger increase in entropy.
Consider the phase changes illustrated bellow. Raising the temperature
of a substance will result in more extensive vibrations of the particles in solids
and more rapid translations of the particles in liquids and gases. At higher
temperatures, the distribution of kinetic energies among the atoms or mmolecules
olecules
of the substance is also broader (more dispersed) than at lower temperatures.
Thus, the entropy for any substance increases with temperature.
Source: https://openstax.org/resources/f3f96b7f897d7cd062c326b3e451634f6c3d5a20
Source:
The entropy of a substance increases (ΔS > 0) as it transforms from a

relatively ordered solid, to a less-ordered liquid, and then to a still less-ordered
gas. The entropy decreases (ΔS < 0) as the substance transforms from a gas
to a liquid and then to a solid.
Consider the illustration bellow.
Source: https://encrypted-
tbn0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn%3AANd9GcSU3fNtyjImEWHO5JmAuogCgNibjoAR2urP5w&
usqp=CAU
usqp=CAU
What did you observe? Water is always flows downward on its own.
But never goes upward automatically.
Learning Competency:
Predict the spontaneity of a process based on entropy.

(STEM_CG11CT-IVa-b-140)
2

Ac ti vi ty 1. COMPARE ME!

Compare the pictures in each set.
A.
Rock rolled uphill and downhill. (Image Source:

tbn0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn%3AANd9GcRJCzeHyDYohm4N7wb00whumoo-Ii-
Zmejfrg&usqp=CAU
Zmejfrg&usqp=CAU
1. What can
can you say about the pictures? ________________________________
______________________
___________________________________
_______________________
______________________
________________________
____________
______
2. How do you compare the pictures
pictures?
? _____________
________________________
_____________________
__________
______________________
___________________________________
________________________
_______________________
_______________________
___________
______
3. Which one
one is more spontaneous?
spontaneous? Why? _____________________________
______________________
__________________________________
______________________
_______________________
_________________________
____________
______
B.
Uphill and Downhill Skiing. (Image Source:

tbn0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn%3AANd9GcS7dY8nkQP2SnYSrusdCuA3qS0oJ6Sq8lACdA&
usqp=CAU
usqp=CAU
1. What can
can you say about the pictures? ________________________________
______________________
__________________________________
______________________
_______________________
_________________________
____________
3

2. How do you
you compare
compare the pictures? _____________
________________________
_____________________
__________
______________________
__________________________________
______________________
_______________________
_________________________
____________
3. Which one
one is more spontaneous?
spontaneous? Why? _____________________________
______________________
__________________________________
______________________
_______________________
_________________________
____________
Activity 2. I’M EVERYWHERE!

EVERYWHERE!
A spontaneous process is one that takes place without energy from an

external source. For a chemical reaction to t o be spontaneous, it should proceed
as written (from left to right), without an input of energy.
An endothermic process absorbs heat from the surroundings and has a
positive value, whereas an exothermic process release heat to its surroundings
and has a negative value.
Examples of reactions
1. Combustion of methane
CH4 + 2O2 → 6CO2 + 2H2O ∆H0 = -890.4 kJ/mol
2. Acid-base neutralization
H+(aq) + OH-(aq) → H2O(l) ∆H0 = -56.2 kJ/mol
*Both of these reactions are very exothermic and are not reversible.
3. Solid to liquid phas
phase
e transition of water
H2O(s) → H2O(l) ∆H0 = 6.01 kJ/mol
4. Dissolution of aammonium
mmonium nitrate in water
NH4NO3(s) → NH4+(aq) + NO3-(aq) ∆H0 = 6.01 kJ/mol
*Ice melting above 0 0C and ammonium nitrate dissolving in water are both
spontaneous process yet endothermic.
Exercise:
Directions: Classify the given situations below whether the process is

spontaneous or non-spontaneous.
______ 1. Rusting of iron in moist air ______ 6. Drying of leaves
______ 2. Decaying of radioisotopes ______ 7. Dissolving of salt
______ 3. Oxidation of gold ______ 8. Radioactive atom
atom splits up
______ 4. Spoilage of food ______ 9. Dissolution of sand
sand in
water
______ 5. Burning of chlorine
chlorine ______ 10. Fireworks
4

Activity 3. I’M A PART OF YOU!

YOU!
Entropy, S, is the thermodynamic quantity that is a measure of how

spread out or dispersed the energy of a system is among the different possible
ways that system can contain energy. It is a quantity that is generally used to
describe the course of a process, that is, whether it is a spontaneous process
and has a probability of occuring in a definite direction, or a non-spontaneous
process and will not proceed in the defined direction, but in the reverse
direction.
Most processes are accompanied by entropy change. The following are
processes that lead to an increase in entropy of the system
Process Order Disord er
Melting Solid → Liquid

Vaporization Liquid → Vapor
Dissolving Solute → Solution
Heating System at T1 → System at T2 (T2 > T1)
Entropy change examples:

1. Gas in balloon spreads out intointo room and deflates but nev
neverer a
a balloon
spontaneously filled with air.
►The molecules of gas at a high pressure always spread to lower
pressure regions.
2. Hot coffee in a room
room gets cooler a and
nd the heat sspreads
preads out into the room,
but never a cold cup of coffee being spontaneously warmed up.
►Heats always goes from high temperature into cooler regions.
The spreading out of more concentrated molecules and the spreading
out of more concentrated energy are changes from more order to more random.
Exercise:
FACT OR BLUFF!
Directions: Write Fact on the blank if the
t he condition illustrates entropy and
write Bluff if does not illustrates entropy.
_____________1.
____________ _1. Oxidation of nitrogen
_____________2.
_____________2. Sublimation of mothballs
_____________3.
_____________3. Reduction of silicon
_____________4.
_____________4. Lighting of candles
_____________5.
_____________5. Flow of water up hill
5

_____________6.. Digestion of food

_____________6
_____________7.
_____________7. Boiling water for tea
_____________8.
_____________8. Flow of heat from a cold body to a hot body
_____________9.
_____________9. Diffusion of LPG
_____________10.
_____________10. Making popcorn
Ac ti vi ty 4. WORD SEARCH
Directions: Search and encircle the important terms being described in the
sentences below. Words can be forward, backward, vertical, horizontal, or
diagonal.
1. The scientific discipline
discipline that deals with the iinterconversion
nterconversion of he
heat
at and
other forms of energy.
2. A process of a phys
physical
ical or che
chemical
mical change that occurs by itself.
3. The measure o off randomness
randomness an and
d dis
disorder.
order.
4. Process that
that gives off heat to the surroundings.
5. Process that
that absorbs heat from the surroundings.
surroundings.
6. The value
value of the produc
productt during endothermic process.
7. The value
value of the produc
productt during exo
exothermic
thermic process.
process.
8. The change
change of phase ffromrom solid to liquid.
9. The change
change of phase ffromrom liquid to gas.
10. The change of phase from solid to gas.
6

Activity 5. CORRECT ME IF I’M WRONG!

WRONG!
Directions : Write TRUE if the statement is correct but if it’s false, change the
underlined word or group of words to make the whole statement true.
____________1.
____________1. If heat flows into the surroundings
surroundings,, the random motion of the
molecules in the surroundings decreases.
____________2. In a chemical reaction, the heat change is positive if the heat
____________2.
product is lower than the heat reactant.
____________3. Th
____________3. The
ehheat
eat cchange
hange is negative
negative if the h
heat
eat product is grea
greater
ter than
the heat reactant.
____________4.
____________4. Spontaneous proces
processs is reversible reaction.
____________5. Entropy changes occur when gas molecules inside the LPG
tank escape and spread out into room.
7

____________6. Heat flows from hotter objects to a colder one is a

____________6.
spontaneous process.
____________7.
____________7. Burning of fuel is an example of endothermic reac
reaction.
tion.
____________8.
____________8. Co
Coffee
ffee granules dissolve faster in hot water than in cold water.
____________9. Melting of ice cream left on top of a table is an example of
____________9.
exothermic reaction.
____________10. For a chemical reaction to be spontaneous, it should
____________10.
proceed without a
an
n inpu
inputt of energy.
SUM UP!
1. What characterize
characterize a spontaneous process? ____________
____________________
________
________________________
___________ _________________________
_______________________
____________________
_________
________________________
___________ _____________________________
_____________________________
________________
___
________________________
___________ _________________________
_______________________
____________________
_________
______
2. How does spontaneity app

apply
ly to a chemical reaction? ______________
______________
________________________
_______________________________________
_____________________________
________________
__
________________________
_______________________________________
_____________________________
_________________
___
________________________
_______________________________________
____________________________
________________
___
3. How do entropy change

changess occur? ______________
___________________________
_______________
__
___________________________
_______________________________________
_________________________
_________________
____
________________________
____________________________________
________________________
____________________
________
___________________________
_____________________________________
_______________________
__________________
_____
4. How is hot object

object in an open area gets cooler? ___________________
___________________
________________________
___________ ____________________________
_____________________________
________________
__
________________________
___________ _________________________
_______________________
____________________
_________
________________________
___________ _____________________________
_____________________________
________________
___
8

Reflection:
1. I learned
learned tha
that______________
t_________________________
____________________________
____________________
___
________________________
___________ _________________________
_______________________
____________________
_________
________________________
___________ _________________________
_______________________
____________________
_________
___________________________
___________ ____________________________
________________________
_________________
_____
___________________________
___________ ____________________________
_______________________
_________________
______
2. I enjoyed most on____

on_______________
________________________
__________________________
_____________
_________________________
______________ ______________________
_________________________
____________________
______
________________________
___________ _________________________
_______________________
____________________
_________
________________________
___________ ____________________________
____________________________
_________________
____
___________________________
___________ ___________________________
__________________________
__________________
___
3. I want to learn more on___

on__________________
__________________________
___________________
________
___________________________
___________ ___________________________
_______________________
__________________
______
________________________
___________ _________________________
_______________________
____________________
_________
___________________________
___________ ___________________________
_______________________
__________________
______
___________________________
______________ ________________________
_______________________
__________________
______
9

References
Commission on Higher Education. (2016). General Chemistry 2 (Teaching

Guide for Senior High School). Quezon City: Commission on Higher
Education.
https://www.teacherph.com/general-chemistry-2-teaching-guide/
Jessie A. Key. Introductory Chemistry-1st Canadian Edition. Chapter 18.

Chemical Thermodynamics
Thermodynamics..
https://opentextbc.ca/introductorychemistry/chapter/entropy-and-the-second-
law-of-thermodynamics-2/
10

ANSWER
A NSWER KEY
Ac ti vi ty 1:
1. Pictures at the left

left is rock rolling an
and
d a ski slidi
sliding
ng down a hill while at the
right is a rock pushing and a ski sliding up a hill.
2. The rock and ski at the left rolling anand
d skiing down a hill occurs w without
ithout
any intervention while rock and ski at the right need to apply force to
make the rock roll and ski up the hill.
3. Pictures at the left is more spontaneous because
because it moves without any
outside intervension. The speed at which is occurs governed by kinetics.
Ac ti vi ty 2:
1. Spontaneous 6. Spontaneous
2. Spontaneous 7. Spontaneous
3. N0n-spontaneous 8. Spontaneous
4. Spontaneous 9. Non-spontaneous
5. N0n-spontaneous 10. Spontaneous
Ac ti vi ty 3:
1. Bluff 6. Fact
2. Fact 7. Fact
3. Bluff 8. Bluff
4. Fact 9. Fact
5. Bluff 10. Fact
Ac ti vi ty 4:
1. Thermodynamics 6. Positive
2. Spontaneous 7. Negative
3. Entropy 8. Melting
4. Exothermic 9. Vaporization
5. Endothermic 10. Sublimation
Ac ti vi ty 5:
1. Increase 6. TRUE
2. Negative 7. Exothermic
3. Lower 8. TRUE
4. Irreversible 9. Endothermic
5. TRUE 10. TRUE
11

Sum Up:
1. Spontaneous processes ar e characterized by a decrease in the t he system’s

free energy, they do not need to be driven by an outside source of
energy. It is characterized by an increase in entropy.
2. In a chemical reaction, heat change of reaction
reaction is equal to heat of
product minus the heat of reactant. If it is exothermic, tthen
hen heat change
of reaction is equal to negative. The heat product must be lower than
the heat reactant.
3. Increasing the temperature will increase the entropy. Change in volume
will lead to change
change in entropy. The larger the volume, the higher
higher the
entropy.
(1) Prepared by:

MIRAFLOR T. GARMA
Cordova National High School
12

GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2
Name: ____________
_____________________________
____________________
___ Date: ________
Grade
Grad e Level : ____
_________
_________
_________
__________
________
____
_ Sco
Score:
re: ____
_______
___
L EARNING ACTIVI
A CTIVITY
TY SHEET
THE SECOND
SECOND L
LAW
AW OF THERMO
THERMODYNAMICS
DYNAMICS
Learners
rners (BIL)
Chemical Thermodynamics is the study of the interrelation of heat and

work with chemical reactions or with physical changes of state within the
confines of the laws of thermodynamics.
Thermodynamics is a scientific discipline that deals with the
interconversion of heat and other forms of energy. It has traditionally
tr aditionally recognized
three fundamental laws: First Law - Energy of the universe is constant. “Energy
can be converted from one form to another, but it can never be created nor
destroyed”; Se cond Law - Entropy of universe increa ses. “The entropy of the
Second
universe increases in a spontaneous process and remains unchanged in the
equilibrium process”; and Third Law - At absolute zero, the entropy of a perfect
crystal is 0. “The entropy of the perfect crystalline substance is zero at th e
absolute zero of temperature (T = 0, K = -273.150C).”
The Second Law of Thermodynamics deals with entropy , the quantity
that measures how spread out or dispersed the energy of a system is among
the different possible ways that system can contain energy. It tells whether a
process or chemical reaction can occur. The connection between entropy and
the spontaneity of a reaction is expressed by the second law of
thermodynamics. This law says that when energy changes from one form to
another form, or matter moves freely, entropy (disorder) in a close system
increases. Differences in temperature, pressure and density tend to even out
horizontally after a while.
The change in entropy for a given amount of heat absorbed also
depends on temperature. If the temperature of the surroundings is high, the
molecules are already quite energetic. Therefore, the absorption of heat from
an exothermic process in the system will have relatively little impact on the
motion of the molecules and the resulting increase in entropy of the
surroundings will be small. However, if the temperature of the surroundings is
low, then the addition of the same amount of heat will cause a more drastic
increase in molecular motion and hence a larger
l arger increase in entropy.
The significance of this law is that, it tells us about the direction of heat
transfer and what process are impossible even if they satisfy the first law.
13

Examples are: engine can’t have an efficiency of 100%, a fridge can’t work
without a power supply. Another example is a human body. We eat food (high
temperature reservoir). The coffee eventually cools down showing that the heat
only flows from high temperature to low temperature without the aid of any
external agent. A cold object in contact with a hot one never gets colder,
transferring heat to the hot object and making it hotter furthermore. Mechanical
energy, such as kinetic energy, can be completely converted to thermal energy
by friction, but the reverse is impossible.
Because the universe is made up of the system and the surroundings,
the entropy change in the universe (∆S univ) for any process is the sum of the
entropy changes in the system (∆S sys) and in the surroundings (∆Ssur ).).
∆Suniv = ∆Ssys + ∆Ssur > 0 Process is spontaneous
∆Suniv = ∆Ssys + ∆Ssur = 0 Process tends not to occur,
equilibrium is attained
∆Suniv = ∆Ssys + ∆Ssur < 0 Reverse process occurs
spontaneously
Explain the second law of thermodynamics and its significance.

(STEM_GC11CT-IVa-b-142)
Ac t iv it y 1. IT’S GETTING HOTTER IN HERE!

HERE!
Directions: Calculating Entropy Changes in the system: Standard Entropy of

Reaction, ∆S0rxn . Data needed in calculating the entropy change:
1. Suppose that
that the system
system is represented
represented by the following reactions:
aA + bB → cC + dD
2. The standard entropy of reactions ∆S 0rxn is given by the difference in
standard entropies between the products and the reactants.
∆S0 = ∑nS0 (products) - ∑nS0 (reactants)
3. • Where m and n are the stoichiometric coefficients in the reaction.
∆S0rxn = [cS0(C) + dS0(D)] - [aS0(A) + bS0(B)]
14

Note: Standard entropy values: J/K mol; 1atm; 250C

Selected
Selected Thermod ynamic Values (at 250C)*
Values
Species
Species ∆Hf ° S° ∆Gf °
(kJ/mol)
(kJ/mol) (J/K·mol)
(J/K·mol) (kJ/mol)
(kJ/mol)
C(s)
C(s) 0 5.7
5.7 0
CO2(g)
(g) -393.509
-393.509 213.6
213.6 -394.359
-394.359
H2(g)
(g) 0 130.6
130.6 0
PbO(s,)
PbO(s,) -217.32
-217.32 69.54
69.54 -187.89
-187.89
NO(g)
NO(g) 90.25
90.25 210.6
210.6 86.55
86.55
NO2(g)
(g) 33.18
33.18 240.5
240.5 51.31
51.31
SO2(s) -296.83 248.5 -300.194
SO3(g) -395.72 256.2 -371.06
H2SO4(l) -813.989 156.904 -690.003
H2O(l) -285.83 69.91 -237.129
Pb(s) 0 64.89 0
I(s) 0 116.7 0
*Taken from "The NBS Tables of Chemical Thermodynamic Properties" (1982)
and "CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics", 1st Student Edition (1988)
From the standard entropy values in the Thermodynamic Data table, calculate
∆S0 for the following reaction.
Study Me!
H2(g) + I2(s) → 2HI(g)

Step 1. Write the standard entropy below each formula
H2(g) + I2(s) → 2HI(g)
From the table, S0(J/K.mol) 130.6 116.7 206.3
Step 2. Using the equation for the standard entropy of reaction
∆S0 = ∑nS0 (products) - ∑nS0 (reactants)
= [(2) S0 HI] - [(1) S0 H2 + (1) S0 I2]
Step 3. Substitute the entropy values.
= [(2) (206.3)] - [(1) (130.6) + (1) (116.7)]
= [412.6] - [247.3]
∆S0 = +165.3 J/K-mol
15

SOLVE ME!
1. Determine S for th
the
e reaction:
reaction:
SO3(g) + H2O(l) → H2SO4(l)
Given: S0(J/K.mol): 256.2 69.9 156.9
2. Calculate S for the rreaction

eaction
SO2(s) + NO2 → SO3(g) + NO(g)
Given: S0(J/K.mol) 248.5 240.5 256.2 210.6
3. Calculate S at 25 0C for the reduction of a given these absolute

entropies:
2PbO(s) + C(s) → 2Pb(s)+ CO2(g)
Given: S0(J/K.mol) 69.54 5.7 64.89 213.6

16

Ac ti vi ty 2. PREDICT ME!
General rules in predicting entropy change of the system:

1. If the reaction produces more gas molecules than it consumes, ∆S0 is
positive.
2. If the total number of gas molecules diminishes, ∆S 0 is negative.
3. If there is no net cha
change number of gas molecules, ∆S 0 may
nge in the total number
be positive or negative, but will be relatively small numerically.
POSITIVE NEGATIVE
Increase in number of gas molecules Decrease in number of gas molecules
Increase in entropy Decrease in entropy
Solid converted to liquid Gas converted to solid
Solid converted to gas Gas converted to liquid
Liquid converted to gas Liquid converted to solid
Directions: Predict whether the entropy change of the system in each of the
following is positive or negative.
Chemical Re
Reaction
action Positi ve/ Reason
Negative
1.O2(g) → 2O(g)
2. N2(g, 10atm) → N2(g, 1atm)
3.6CO2(g) + 6H2O(g) →
C6H12O6(g) + 6O2(g)
4.2H2(g) + O2(g) → 2H2O(l)
5.NH4Cl(s) →
NH3(g) + HCl(g)
17

Ac ti vi ty 3. CROSSWORD PUZZLE
Directions: Solve the crossword using the clues.
18

Ac ti vi ty 4. FACT OR B
BLUFF
LUFF
Directions: Write Fact on the blank if the statement is correct and Bluff if the
statement is incorrect.
____________1.
____________1. The second law of thermod
thermodynamics
ynamics deals with ent
entropy.
ropy.
____________2. The
The entropy of the universe decreases in a sponta
spontaneous
neous
process.
____________3. When the entropy chan

____________3. change
ge in the universe is greater than
zero, the process is spontaneous.
____________4.
change
ge in the universe is less than zero,
the process is spontaneous
spontaneous..
____________5.
changege in the universe is equal to zero,
zero,
the process is equilibrium.
____________6. The second law of thermodynamics tells us that heat always

____________6.
flows from a body at a higher temperature to a body at the
the lower temperature
____________7. If the reaction produces more gas molec

____________7. molecules
ules than it
consumes, the entropy change is positive.
____________8. If there is no net change in the total number of gas

____________8.
molecules, the entropy change
change is negative.
____________9.
____________9. If the total number of gas molecules diminishes,
diminishes, the entropy
change is either negative or positive.
____________10.
____________10. Digestion of food is a spontaneou
spontaneouss process.
Ac ti vi ty 5: RESEARCH TIME!
Directions: Explain how second law of thermodynamics applies in the

following.
1. Eating food
________________________
____________________________________
______________________________
____________________
__
________________________
____________________________________
______________________________
____________________
__
________________________
____________________________________
________________________
____________________
________
2. Hot cup
cup coffee in
in a table
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___________ _________________________
_______________________
____________________
_________
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___________ _________________________
_______________________
____________________
_________
________________________
___________ _________________________
_______________________
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_________
___________________________
___________ ___________________________
___________________________
__________________
__
19

SUM UP!
1. What is the second law of thermodynamics?

thermodynamics?
________________________
___________ _________________________
_______________________
____________________
_________
________________________
___________ _________________________
_______________________
____________________
_________
________________________
___________ ____________________________
____________________________
_________________
____
________________________
___________ _________________________
___________________________
_______________
2. What does second law of thermodyna

thermodynamics
mics tells about the entropy of
spontaneous processes
processes and processes at equilibrium?
________________________
___________ _________________________
_______________________
____________________
_________
________________________
___________ _________________________
_______________________
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_________
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_______________________
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_________
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____________ ________________________
________________________
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___________________________
___________ ___________________________
___________
3. When is an entropy change positive

positive or negative?
________________________
____________________________________
_______________________
____________________
_________
________________________
____________________________________
_______________________
____________________
_________
________________________
____________ ________________________
________________________
____________________
________
________________________
____________________________________
_______________________
___________
4. Why is the second law of thermod

thermodynamics
ynamics very important to d
daily
aily life?
________________________
___________ _________________________
_______________________
____________________
_________
________________________
___________ _________________________
_______________________
____________________
_________
________________________
___________ _________________________
_______________________
____________________
_________
________________________
___________ _____________________________
_______________________
_______
Reflection
1. I learned
learned that
that________________
____________________________
__________________________
_________________
___
________________________
___________ _________________________
_______________________
____________________
_________
________________________
___________ _________________________
_______________________
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___________ ____________________________
__________________
______
2. I enjoyed most on__

on__________________
_____________________________
_______________________
__________
________________________
____________ ________________________
________________________
____________________
________
________________________
___________ _________________________
_______________________
____________________
_________
________________________
___________ ____________________________
______________________
_______
3. I want to learn more on___

on__________________
__________________________
___________________
________
_________________________
______________ ______________________
____________________________
____________________
___
________________________
___________ _________________________
_______________________
____________________
_________
________________________
___________ ____________________________
_____________________
______
20

References:
Commission on Higher Education. (2016). General Chemistry 2 (Teaching

( Teaching
Guide for Senior High School). Quezon City: Commission on Higher
Education.
"The NBS Tables of Chemical Thermodynamic Properties" (1982) and "CRC

Handbook of Chemistry and Physics", 1st Student Edition (1988)
https://www2.chem.wisc.edu/deptfiles/genchem/netorial/mo
https://www2.chem.wisc.edu/deptfiles/genchem/netorial/modules/thermodyna
dules/thermodyna
mics/table.htm
mics/table.htm
Jessie A. Key. Introductory Chemistry-1st Canadian Edition. Chapter 18.

Chemical Thermodynamics
Thermodynamics..
https://opentextbc.ca/introductorychemistry/chapter/entropy-and-the-second-
21

ANSWER
A NSWER KEY
Ac ti vi ty 1:
1. -169.2 J/K·mol
2. -22.2 J/K·mol
3. +198.8 J/K·mol
Activity 2:
Chemical Re
Reaction
action Positi ve/N
ve/Negative
egative Re
Reason
ason
1.O2(g) → 2O(g) Positive Increase in number of gas

molecules.
2. N2(g, 10atm) → N2(g, Positive Decrease in pressure of the
1atm) system will increase
entropy.
3.6CO2(g) + 6H2O(g) → Negative Decrease in number of gas
C6H12O6(g) + 6O2(g) particles.
4.2H2(g) + O2(g) → Negative Net decrease in number of
2H2O(l) molecules and gases are
converted to solids.
5.NH4Cl(s) → Positive A solid is converted to two
NH3(g) + HCl(g) gaseous products.
Ac ti vi ty 3:
1. Product 6. Reactant
2. Exothermic 7. Temperature
3. Endothermic 8. Negative
4. Pressure 9. Thermodynamics
5. Positive 10. Entropy
Ac ti vi ty 4:
1. Fact 6. Fact
2. Bluff 7. Fact
3. Fact 8. Bluff
4. Bluff 9. Bluff
5. Fact 10. Fact
Ac ti vi ty 5:
1. We eat food (high temperature reservo
reservoir).
ir). The chemical energy of food
is utilized by body to maintain its temperature and to do work. When we
do some work our body warms up and rejects heat into the environment
(low temperature reservoir). Even if we are not doing work our body still
rejects a lot of heat to environment due to metabolism.
22

2. When a hot cup of coffee left on a table the coffee will ev

eventually
entually cool
down showing that heat only flows from high temperature to low
temperature without the aid of any external agent.
Sum Up:
1. The Second Law of Thermodynamics is the Entropy of universe
increases, “states that the entropy of the universe increases in a
spontaneous process and remains unchanged in an equilibrium process.
2. When the entropy change change in the universe is greater than zero, the
process is spontaneous; if it is less than zero, reverse process occurs
spontaneously; and when it is equal to zero, process tends not to occur,
equilibrium is attained.
3. If the reaction produces more gas molecules than it consumes, ∆S0 is
positive; If the total no of gas molecules diminishes, ∆S 0 is negative; and
If there is no net change in the total no of gas molecules, ∆S 0 may be
positive or negative, but will be relatively small numerically.
4. The second law law of thermodynamics p plays
lays the most important role in
making our life easier, i.e. heat transfer from one medium to another.
Prepared by:
(2) MIRAFL
MIRAFLOR
OR T. GARMA
Cordova National High School
23

GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2
Name: __________________________
__________________________ Grade Level: ____________
Date: ___________
___________________________
________________ Score: __________________
__________________
L EARNING ACTIVI
A CTIVITY
TY SHEET
GIBBS’ FREE ENERGY
Background Information f or t he Lea
Learners
rners (BIL)
According to the second law of thermodynamics
t hermodynamics,, a spontaneous
reaction increases the entropy of the universe: that is ∆ > 0. In
determining the direction of the∆ , calculation of ∆ ∆
and are both
necessary. The mathematical expression is given by
∆ = ∆  ∆ > 0
[ eq. 1
Since ∆ = −∆
, we have
∆ = ∆  −∆ > 0

[ eq. 2
Multiplying both sides of the equation by T gives
∆ = ∆  ∆ > 0
[ eq. 3
The equation expressing only the properties ∆ ∆ can now be used
can
as a criterion in determining if a spontaneous reaction occurs.
For convenience, multiply both sides of the equation in equation 3 by -1 and
change the > sign with <:
∆ = ∆  ∆ < 0
[ eq. 4
Equation 4 says that as a reaction proceeds at a constant pressure and
temperature, the reactants forms products and if the changes in H and S of the
system is less than zero, the process is spontaneous.
The relationship between H and S was introduced by the American
Physicist J. Willard Gibbs. He introduced another thermodynamic quantity
known as the Gibb’s free energy (G) or simply free energy. The mathematical
relationship is given by
= eq. 5
24

where G is the free energy, H is the enthalpy, T is the temperature and S is the
entropy. All quantities pertain to the system only.
The change in free energy ( ∆ ) of a system for a constant-temperature
process is given by
∆=∆∆ eq. 6
For a chemical reaction, we expand the equation and it becomes
∆ = ∑ ∆  ∑ ∆ eq. 7
where
∆ = ∑ ∆ 0  ∑  0 eq. 8
and
∆ = ∑ ∆ 0  ∑  0 eq. 9
In this context, free energy is the energy available to do work. The conditions
for spontaneity and equilibrium at constant temperature and pressure in terms
of ∆ are as follows:
• ∆ < 0, the reaction is spontaneous in the forward direction
• ∆ > 0, the reaction is non-spontaneous (spontaneous in the
opposite direction)
• ∆ = 0, the system is at equilibrium
EXAMPLES
1. For farmers, the reaction between nitrogen gas and hydrogen gas is
very important because the resulting product is ammonia which is
very essential in plant production such as corn and play. What is the
free-energy change, ∆ , for the following reaction at 25 0C?
N2(g) + H2(g) → NH3(g)
Solution
• Write the
the b
balanced
alanced chemical equation and placed below each
formula the values of ∆ ∆
and . Use Table 1 to locate for the
needed values.
N2(g) + 3H2(g) → 2NH3(g)
∆ 0 0 -46.3kJ/mol
∆ 191.5J/K•mol 131 J/K 193.0 J/K
•mol •mol
25

• Use equation 8 and 9 to compute for the ∆ ∆and
∆ =2∗ 46.3  

  (0  )  (3 ∗ 0  )=92. 6 
∆ = 2 ∗ 193.0 •  
  (191.5 •  )  (3∗131 •  )
=198.5 • 
• Use equation 6 to compute for the free energy
∆ = (92.6  )  298  )

298 ∗ (198.5 •
= 33.45
• Determine the spontaneity of the reaction
∆= 33.45 which is lesser than 0. This means that the
reaction is spontaneous in the forward direction.
di rection.
2. Methane is one of the components of LPG. So every time you cook
your food in your gas stoves, you are burning methane. Calculate ∆
for the following reaction at 25 0C.
CH4(g) + O2(g) → CO2(g) + H2O(g)
Solution
• Write the
the b
balanced
formula the values of ∆ ∆
and . Use Table 1 to locate for the
needed values.
CH4(g + 2O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2H2O(g)
∆ -74.85

 0



-393.5 -241.8


∆ 
186.2•

205.0•

213.6•

188.7•
• Use equation 8 and 9 to compute for the ∆  and ∆ 
26

∆ =  (2∗241.8  )  (393.5  )

  (74.85  )  (2 ∗ 0  )
=802.25 
∆ =  (2 ∗ 188.7 •  )  (213.6 •
 ) 
  (186.2 •  )  (2∗205.0 •  ) 
=5.2 •  =0.0052 • 
Use equation 6 to compute for the free energy
•
∆ = (802.25  )  298 ∗ (0.0052 •

 )
= 803.8
Determine the spontaneity of the reaction
•
∆= 803.8 which is lesser than 0. This means that the

STANDRAD FREE ENERGY CHANGE

The standard-free energy of reaction ( ∆ 
is the free-energy
change for a reaction when it occurs under standard-state conditions, when
reactants in their standard states are converted to products in their standard
states. The standard states are as follows: for pure liquids and solids, 1 atm
pressure; for gases, 1 atm partial pressure; for solutions, 1 M concentrations.
The temperature of interest is 25 0C or 298 K. To calculate for ∆ , we start
with the equation
aA + bB → cC + dD
The standard free-energy change for this reaction is given by
∆ =[∆  ∆] ∆   ∆ eq. 10
or in general
  ∑ ∆
∆ = ∑ ∆  eq. 11
27

where m and n are stoichiometric coefficients.   is the standard free-energy
of formation of a compound. It is the free-energy change that occurs when 1

mole of the compound is synthesized from its elements in their standard states.
EXAMPLES
3. Calculate the standard free-energy changes for the following
reactions at 250C.
a. CH4(g) + O2(g) → CO2(g) + H2O(g)
b. MgO(s) → Mg(s) + O2(g)
a. Solution
• Write the
the b
balanced
formula the values of ∆ . Use Table 1 to locate for the needed
values.
CH4(g + 2O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
∆ -50.8

 0

 -394.4

 -

237.2

• Use equation 10 or 11 to co
compute
mpute for the free energy
∆ =  (2∗237.2  )  (394.4  )

  (50.8  )  (0  )= 818.0 

∆= 818.0  which is lesser than 0. This means that the
b. Solution
• Write the
the b
balanced
values.
2MgO(s) → 2Mg(s) + O2(g)
28

∆ -569.6

0

 0



• Use equation 10 or 11
11 to compute for the free energy
∆ =  (2 ∗ 0  )  (0  )

  (2∗ 569.6  )= 1139.2 

∆ = 1139.2  which is greater than 0. This means that the
reaction is non-spontaneous.
4. Calculate the standard free-energy changes for the following
reactions at 250C:
a. H2(g) + Br (l)
(l) → HBr (g)
(g)
b. C2H6(g) + O2(g) → CO2(g) + H2O
a. Solution
• Write the
the b
balanced
values.
H2(g) + Br 2(l)
2(l) → 2HBr (g)
(g)
∆ 0

 0

 -

53.2 
• Use equation 10 or 11
11 to compute for the free energy
(2∗53.2  )

∆ = ( ((0  )  (0  ) =
106.4 

∆= 106.4  which is lesser than 0. This means that the
29

b. Solution
• Write the
the b
balanced
values.
2C2H6(g) + 7O2(g) → 4CO2(g) + 6H2O(l)
∆ -32.89

 0

 -394.4

 -237.2


• Use equation 10 or 11 to co
compute
mpute for the free energy
∆ =  (6∗237.2  )  (4∗ 394.4  )

  (2∗ 32.89  )  (7 ∗ 0  ) =
2935.02 

∆= 2935.02  which is lesser than 0. This means that
the reaction is spontaneous in the forward direction.
FACTORS AFFECTING THE SIGN OF G

∆ ∆ ∆ Significance
+ + X At high temperature, reactions proceeds
spontaneously while at low temperature,
the reaction is spontaneous in the reverse
direction
+ - + ∆ is always positive. Reaction proceeds
spontaneously in the reverse direction at
all temperatures.
- + - ∆ is always positive. Reaction proceeds
spontaneously direction at all temperatures
- - X At high temperatures, reaction proceeds
spontaneously in the reverse direction and
at low temperatures, the reaction proceeds
spontaneously
30

TEMPERATURE
TEMPERATURE AND CHEM
CHEMICAL
ICAL REACTIONS
Calcium oxide (CaO), also called quicklime is used in the production of
steel, calcium metal, paper, water treatment and pollution control. It is produced
by the decomposition of limestone (CaCO 3) at a very high temperature.
CaCO3(s) CaO(s) + CO2(g)
The reaction is reversible, where CaCO 3 decomposes to CaO and CO2’ and
CaO and CO2 combines to form CaCO3. CO2 should constantly be removed
from the kiln to shift the equilibrium from left to right so that CaCO 3 will form.
The main issue in the decomposition of CaCO3 is at what temperature
will the reaction become spontaneous (the temperature at which the reactions
begins to favour products), thus using the standard quantities at 25 0C as a start.
∆ =  (635.6  )  (393.5  )

  (1206.9  )=177.8 
∆ =  (39.8 •  )  (213.6 •
 )
  (92.9 •  )=160.5 •  =0.1605 •

∆ = (177.8  )  298 ∗ (0.1605 •
 ) = 130.0 
∆  which is greater than

is 130.0 t han zero, the reaction is non-spontaneous at

25 C. in order to make a favoured reaction, ∆  must become negative. To
0
make this possible, find the temperature at which ∆  will become zero.
∆ = ∆  -T∆ 
0= ∆∆ - T∆
∆ .∗   = 1108
T= ∆ = 11 08
  8
835
35 
.•
Temperatures higher than 835 C, ∆  becomes negative. The reaction now for
0
the decomposition of calcium oxide will be spontaneous. For example, at

8380C,
∆ = ∆ ∆ -T
∆ =177.8    1111 ∗0.1605 • = -0.52


31

EXAMPLES
5. The decomposition
decomposition of am
ammonium
monium chloride is given by the reac
reaction
tion
NH4Cl(s) → NH3(g) + HCl(g)
Is the reaction spontaneous at 250C? How about at 650 0C? At what
temperature will the reaction start to become spontaneous?
a. Solution
∆ =  (46.3  )  (92.3  )—315.39  =176.79 

∆ =  (193 •  )  (187 •  ) 
  (94.56 •  )=285.44 •  =0.28544
∆ = (176.79  )  298 ∗ (0.28544 •
 ) = 90.94 
The computed ∆ is 90.94 which is greater than zero. Therefore, the
reaction will not occur at 250C.
b. Solution
∆ =  (46.3  )  (92.3  )—315.39  =176.79 

∆ =  (193 •  )  (187 •  ) 
  (94.56 •  )=285.44 •  =0.28544
∆ = (176.79  )  923 ∗ (0.28544 •
 )= 86.67 
The computed ∆ is -86.67 which is lesser than zero. Therefore, the
reaction will occur at 6500C.
c. Solution
∆ = ∆  ∆ 
-T
0= ∆∆ ∆
-T
T=
∆ .  =619.36  346.36
= 0C.
∆ .•
The reaction will start to occur at a temperature higher than 346.36 0C.
32

Use Gibbs’ free energy to determine the direction of a reaction

(STEM_GC11CT-IVa-b-143)
Ac ti vi ty 1: PROB
PROBLEM
LEM SETS
A. Directions : On the basis of ∆ for each of the following reactions,
decide whether the reaction is spontaneous or non-spontaneous.
Justify your answer.
1. SO2(g) + 2H2S(g) → 3S(s) + H2O(g) ∆ = 91
91 
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2. 2H2O2(aq) → O2(g) + 2H2O(l) ∆ = 211
211 
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3. I2(s) + Br 22(l)
(l) → 2IBr (g)
(g) ∆ = 7.5 
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4. NH4Cl(s) → NH3(g) + HCl(g) ∆ = 92 
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5. 2NO(g) → N2(g) + O2(g) ∆ = 173
173 
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33

6. 2NO(g) + 3H2O(g)→ 2NH3(g) + O2(g)

 ∆ = 479
479 

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7. 2HBr (g)
(g) → H2(g) + Br 2(g)
2(g) ∆ = 110
110 
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8. H2(g) + I2(g)→ 2HI(g) ∆ = 2.6 
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B. Directions: Compute for the ∆ of the given reactions at 25 0C using

the quantities ∆ ∆
and . Show your complete solution. Determine
whether the reaction is spontaneous or non-spontaneous
non-spontaneous..
1. N2(g) + O2(g) → NO(g)
2. H2O(l) H2O(g)
3. C2H2(g) + O2(g) → CO2(g) + H2O(l)
4. SO2(g) + O2(g) → SO3(g)
34

5. KClO4(s) → KClO3(s) + O2(g)
6. MgCO3(s) → MgO(s) + CO2(g)
7. Al(s) + ZnO(s) → Al2O3(s) + Zn(s)
8. H2(g) + CuO(g) → Cu(s) + H2O(g)
9. S(rhombic) + O2(g) → SO2(g)
10. H2(g) → 2H(g)
Ac ti vi ty 2: STA NDARD FREE ENERGY CHANGE

Directions: Compute for the ∆ of the given reactions at 250C using
∆ . Show your complete solution. Determine whether the reaction is
1. C2H5OH(l) + O2(g) → CO2(g) + H2O(l)
2. NaHCO3(s) → Na2CO3(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(g)
35

3. CH3OH(l) + O2(g) → CO2(g) + H2O(l)
4. Ca(s) + HCl(aq) → CaCl2(aq) + H2(g)
5. CS2(l) + O2(g) → CO2(g) + SO2(g)
6. Pb(s) + O2(g) → PbO(s)
7. Al2O3(s) + Fe(s) → Fe2CO3(s) + Al(s)
8. Li(s) + H2O(l) → Li+(aq) + OH-(aq) + H2(g)
9. HCOOH(l) → CO2(g) + H2(g)
10. HCN(g) + H2(g) → CH3NH2(g)
Ac ti vi ty 3: FACROS AFFECTING

A FFECTING THE SIGN OF G
Directions: From the values of ∆ ∆ ,
and predict which of the
following reactions would be spontaneous at 25 0C.
1. Reaction A: ∆=10. 5  and ∆=10.5 •
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36

2. Reaction B: ∆=1.8  ∆=10.5 •

and
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3. Reaction C: ∆=126  ∆=84 •
and
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4. Reaction D: ∆=11.7  ∆=105 •
and
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5. C(diamond) → C(graphite)
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6. FeO(s) + CO(g) Fe(s) +CO2(g)
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7. H2(g) + CO2(g) H2O(g) + CO(g)
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8. H2(g) + I2(g) 2HI(g)
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9. N2O4(g) 2NO2(g)
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10. 2O3(g) → 3O2(g)
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Ac ti vi ty 4: TEMPERA
TEMPERATURE
TURE AND CHEMICA
CHEMICALL REA
REACTIONS
CTIONS
Directions: For the chemical reactions that are non-spontaneous in Problem

Set 3, determine at what temperature will the reaction occur spontaneously?
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Reflection
1. I learned that
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2. I enjoyed most on _________________________

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3. I want to learn more on ___________

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References
Chang, R. (2010). Chemistry (10th ed., pp. 814-835). McGraw-Hill, Inc., USA.
Ebbing, D.D & Gammon, S.D. (2017). General Chemistry (9th ed., 745-769).
Houghton Mifflin Company, USA.
39

ANSWER KEY
K EY
ACTIVITY 1: GIBBS’ FREE ENERGY

ENERGY
A. Direction: On the basis of ∆ for each of the following reactions, decide
whether the reaction is spontaneous or non-spontaneous. Justify your
answer.
1. SO2(g) + 2H2S(g) → 3S(s) + H2O(g) ∆ = 91
91 
Since the computed ∆  91  which is lesser than zero, the
2. 2H2O2(aq) → O2(g) + 2H2O(l) ∆ = 211
211 
3. I2(s) + Br 2(l)
2(l) → 2IBr (g)
(g) ∆ = 7.5 
Since the computed ∆  7.5  which is greater than zero, the reaction
is non-spontaneous. It is spontaneous in the opposite direction.
4. NH4Cl(s) → NH3(g) + HCl(g) ∆ = 92 
Since the computed ∆  92  which is greater than zero, the reaction
5. 2NO(g) → N2(g) + O2(g) ∆ = 173
173 
6. 2NO(g) + 3H2O(g)→ 2NH3(g) + O2(g)
 ∆ = 479
479 

Since the computed ∆  479  which is greater than zero, the
reaction is non-spontaneous. It is spontaneous in the opposite direction.
7. 2HBr (g)
(g) → H2(g) + Br 2(g)
2(g) ∆ = 110
110 
Since the computed ∆  110  which is greater than zero, the
reaction is non-spontaneous. It is spontaneous in the opposite direction.
8. H2(g) + I2(g)→ 2HI(g) ∆ = 2.6 
Since the computed ∆  2.6  which is greater than zero, the reaction
B. Direction: Compute for the ∆  of the given reactions at 25 0C using the
quantities ∆ ∆
and . Show your complete solution. Determine whether
40

the reaction is spontaneous or non-spontaneous.
1. N2(g) + O2(g) → 2NO(g)
∆ =  2 ∗ 90.4  

((0  )  (0  )=180. 8 
∆ =  2 ∗ 210.6 •  
  (191.5 •  )  (205 •
 )=24.7 • 
=0.0247 • 
∆ = (180.8  )  298 ∗ (0.0247 •

 ) = 173.44 
Since the computed ∆ 

is 173.44 which is greater than zero, the reaction
is non-spontaneous. It is spontaneous in the opposite direction
2. H2O(l) H2O(g)
∆ =241.8  —285.8  =44 

∆ =188.7 •  69.9 •  =118. 8 •  =0.1188 •

∆ = (44  )  298 ∗ (0.1188 •

 ) = 8.6 

is 8.6 which is greater than zero, the reaction is non-
spontaneous. It is spontaneous in the opposite direction.
41

3. 2C2H2(g) + 5O2(g) → 4CO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
∆ =  4 ∗ (393.5  )

 2 ∗ (285.8  ))  — 2 ∗ (226.6  )
 5 ∗ (0  ))=2598.
=2598.8 
=4 ∗ (213.6 •
∆ =  )  2 ∗ (69.9 •  )
2 ∗ (200.8 •  )  5 ∗ (205 •  )
=432.4 •  =0.4324 • 
∆ = (2598.8  )  298 ∗ (0.4324 •  )= 2469.94 
Since the computed ∆ is -2469.94

 which is lesser than zero, the reaction is
spontaneous.

4. 2SO2(g) + O2(g) → 2SO3(g)
∆ =  2 ∗ (395.2  ))  — 2 ∗ (296.4  )) (0  ) 
=197.6 
∆ =2 ∗ (256.2 •  )
2 ∗ (248.5 •  )  (205 •
 )=189.6 • 
=0.1896 • 
∆ = (197.6  )  298

298 ∗ (0.1896 • )= 141.1 

is -141.1 which is lesser than zero, the reaction is
spontaneous.
42

5. 2KClO4(s) → 2KClO3(s) + O2(g)
∆ =  2 ∗ (391.20  )) (0  ) — 2 ∗ (433.46  )) 
=84.52 
∆ =2 ∗ (142.97 •  ) 205 •  
2 ∗ (151.9 •  )=187.14 •  =0.18714 • 
∆ = (84.52  )  298 ∗ (0.18714 • ) = 28.75 

spontaneous.
6. MgCO3(s) → MgO(s) + CO2(g)
∆ =  (601.8  )  (393.5  ) — (1112.9  )  = 117.6 
∆ =  (26.78 •  )  213.6 •  
  (65.69 •  )=174.69 •  =0.17469 • 
∆ = (117.6  )  298  ) = 65.54 

298 ∗ (0.17469 •

spontaneous.
7. 2Al(s) + 3ZnO(s) → Al2O3(s) +3 Zn(s)
∆ =  (1669.8  )  3 ∗ (0  )) — 2 ∗ (0  )

 3 ∗ (348.0  ))  = 625.8 
43

∆ =  (50.99 •  )  3 ∗ (41.6 •

 )
   3 ∗ (43.9 •
  22 ∗42.7 •  )
=41.31 •  =0.04131 • 
∆ = (625.8  )  298  )= 638.11 

298 ∗ (0.04131 •
Since the computed ∆ 


spontaneous.
8. H2(g) + CuO(g) → Cu(s) + H2O(g)
∆ =  (0  )  (241.8  ) — (0  )  (155.2  ) 
=86.6 
∆ =  (33.3 •  )  (188.7 •  ) 
  (131 •  )  (43.5 •  )=47.5 • 
=0.0475 • 
∆ = (86.6  )  298  )= 100.76 

298 ∗ (0.0475 •


spontaneous.
9. S(rhombic) + O2(g) → SO2(g)
∆ =  (296.4  ) — (0  )  (0  )  = 296.4 
44

∆ =  (248.5 •  )

  (31.8 •  )  (205 •
 )=11.7 •

=0.0117 • 
∆ = (296.4  )  298 ∗ (0.0117 •

 )= 299.89 

is -299.89 which is lesser than zero, the

reaction is spontaneous.
10. H2(g) → 2H(g)
∆ =  2 ∗ (218.2  )) — (0  )  = 436.4 
∆ =2 ∗ (114.6 •  )
  (131 •  )=98.2 •  =0.0982 • 
∆ = (436.4  )  298 ∗ (0.0982 •

 ) = 407.14 

is 407 which is greater than zero, the
reaction is non-spontaneous.
ACTIVITY 2: STANDRAD FREE ENERGY CHANGE

Direction: Compute for the ∆ of the given reactions at 25 0C using ∆ .
Show your complete solution. Determine whether the reaction is
1. C2H5OH(l) + 3O2(g) → 2CO2(g) + 3H2O(l)
∆ =  (2∗394.4  )  (3∗237.2  )

  (174  )  (3 ∗ 0  )= 1326.4 
Spontaneous reaction
45

2. 2NaHCO3(s) → Na2CO3(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(g)
∆ =  (1047.67  )  (394.4  )  (228.6  )

  (2∗851.86  )= 26.95 
3. 2CH3OH(l) + 3O2(g) → 2CO2(g) + 4H2O(l)
∆ =  (2∗394.4  )  (4∗237.2  )

  (2∗166.3  )  (3 ∗ 0  ) =
1405 
4. Ca(s) + 2HCl(aq) → CaCl2(aq) + H2(g)
∆ =  (750.19  )  (0  )

  (0  )  (2∗95.27  ) =
559.65 
5. CS2(l) + 3O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2SO2(g)
∆ =  (394.4  )  (2∗300.4  )

  (63.6  )  (3 ∗ 0  )= 1058.8 
6. 2Pb(s) + O2(g) → 2PbO(s)
∆ =  (2∗188.49  )

((2 ∗ 0  )  (0  ) =
376.98 
46

7. Al2O3(s) + 2Fe(s) → Fe2O3(s) + 2Al(s)
∆ =  (741.0  )  (0  )

  (1576.4  )  (2 ∗ 0  )= 835.4 
Non-spontaneous reaction

8. Li(s) + H2O(l) → Li+(aq) + OH-(aq) + H2(g)

∆ =  (293.8  )  (157.30  )  (12 ∗ 0  )
  (0  )  (237.2  )= 213.9 
9. HCOOH(l) → CO2(g) + H2(g)
∆ =  (394.4  )  (0  )

((346  )  =
48.4 
10. C12H12O11(s) + 4.5O2(g) → 12CO2(g) + 6H2O(l)
∆ =  (12∗394.4  )

 (6∗237.2  ) — (1544.3  ) 4.5
∗ 0    = 4611.7 
47

ACTIVITY 3: FACTORS AFFECTING THE SIGN OF G

Direction: From the values of ∆ ∆ , and predict which of the following
predict
reactions would be spontaneous at 25 0C.
1. Reaction A: ∆=10. 5  ∆=30 •
and
∆ ∆
is positive and is also positive. The direction of spontaneity of the
reaction is dependent on temperature.
 ∗
∆ . 
T= =
∆ •   = 350
350  

 77 
The reaction is not spontaneous at 250C.

2. Reaction B: ∆=1.8  ∆=113 •
and
∆ is positive and ∆ is negative. The reaction is non-spontaneous at

250C because at this case, ∆
 ∗
is always positive.
T=
∆ .
=  
 =15.93  288.93 
∆ −•
3. Reaction C: ∆=126  ∆=84 •
and
∆ is negative and ∆ is positive. The reaction is spontaneous at 25 0C

because at this case, ∆  is always negative.
4. Reaction D: ∆=11.7  ∆=105 •
and
∆ is negative and ∆ is also negative. The direction of spontaneity of

the reaction is dependent on temperature.
 ∗
∆ −. 
T= =
∆ −•   =111.43  161.57
The reaction is non-spontaneous at 25 0C.

5. C(diamond) → C(graphite)
∆=1.90  which is negative and ∆=3.29 • which is positive.
The reaction is spontaneous at 25 0C because at this case, ∆ is always
negative.
6. FeO(s) + CO(g) Fe(s) +CO2(g)
∆=11  which is negative and ∆=17.9 • which is also
negative. The direction of spontaneity of the reaction is dependent on
temperature.
48

∆  −  ∗ 
T= ∆ =   =614.52  341.53 

−.•
7. H2(g) + CO2(g) H2O(g) + CO(g)
∆=41. 2  which is positive and ∆=42 • which is also positive.
The direction of spontaneity of the reaction is dependent on
temperature.
∆  .  ∗ 
T= ∆  =  
•
 =980. 9 5  707. 9 5  
8. H2(g) + I2(g) 2HI(g)
∆=51. 8  which is positive and ∆=164.3 • which is also
positive. The direction of spontaneity of the reaction is dependent on
temperature.
∆  .  ∗
T= ∆ =   =315.28  42.28
.•

9. N2O4(g) 2NO2(g)
∆=58.04  which is positive and ∆=176.62 • which is also
positive. The direction of spontaneity of the reaction is dependent on
temperature.
∆  .  ∗
   =328.62  55.62
T= ∆ = 
.•
10. 2O3(g) 3O2(g)
∆=284.4  which is negative and ∆=139.8 • which is
positive. The reaction is spontaneous at 25 0C because at this case, ∆
is always negative.
49

ACTIVITY 4: TEMPER
TEMPERATURE
ATURE A
AND
ND CHEMICAL REACTIONS
Direction: For the chemical reactions that are non-spontaneous in Problem
Set 3, determine at what temperature will the reaction occur spontaneously?
Item 1. The reaction will occur spontaneously at a temperature higher than
770C.
Item 2. The reaction will occur spontaneously at a temperature equal to -
15.930C or lower.
Item 4. The reaction will occur spontaneously at a temperature lower than
161.57
Item 6. The reaction will occur spontaneously at a temperature lower than
341.53
Item 7. The reaction will occur spontaneously at a temperature higher than
707.95
Item 8. The reaction will occur spontaneously at a temperature equal to
42.280C or higher.
Item 9. The reaction will occur spontaneously at a temperature equal to
55.620C or higher.
50

Table 1. THERMODYNAMIC DATA AT 1 ATM AND 25 0C
51

52

53

54

Prepared by:
GRACE ANN M. CALIBOSO - AGCAOILI
David M. Puzon Memorial National High School
55

GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2
Name: _____________________________
_____________________________________
________ Grade Level: _______
Date: ___________
___________________________
____________________________
____________ Score: ____________
____________
L EARNING ACTIVI
A CTIVITY
TY SHEET
CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM AND REACTION RATE
BACKGROUND
BA CKGROUND INFO
INFORMATION
RMATION FOR THE
THE LEA
LEARNERS
RNERS (BIL
(BIL))
Few chemical reactions proceed in only one direction. Most do not
proceed in only one direction and proceed essentially to completion. This type
of reaction is called reversible reaction. At first, the reaction proceeds in the
formation of products. As soon as some of the products are formed, the reverse
process occurs and reactant molecules are formed from the product molecules.
Reversible reactions use a double headed arrow indicating that forward and
backward reactions occur concurrently. The general form of a reversible
reaction is
 
where the lower cases letters represent stoichiometric coefficients of the
reactants and products.
To be in equilibrium is to be in
i n a state of balance. In a reversible reaction,
physical equilibrium and chemical equilibrium occurs.
Equilibrium between two phases of the same substance is called
physical equilibrium because the changes that occur are physical processes.
Consider the scenario during a hot summer day when you buy some
solidified water (ice) then you put it in a glass jar. After some time, the ice will
turn to liquid because of the very hot temperature. The vaporization of water in
a closed container at a given temperature is an example.
H2O(l) H2O(g)
mical equilib rium occurs when the rates of the forward and reverse
Chemical
Che
reactions are equal and the concentrations of the reactants and products
remain constant. Chemical equilibrium is a dynamic process. It is dynamic
because 1) when the reactants start to form the products, the product would
then start to reform the reactants. The two opposing processes happen at
56

different rates but a certain point in the reaction will be reached where the rates
of the forward and backward reactions are the same (Figure 1) and 2) the
concentrations of the reactants and products remain becomes constant (Figure
2)
Figure 1. Changes in the rate of the

forward and backward reactions in a
reversible reaction
Chang, R. (2010). Chemistry (10 th ed., pp. 617.

McGraw-Hill, Inc., USA.
Figure 2. Changes in the amount of

reactants and products in a reversible
reaction

Consider the dissociation of N 2O4, a colourless gas use in rocket engines

that dissociates to form brown NO 2. The frozen N2O4 is left to vaporize as it is
warmed above its boiling point (2120C) in a sealed container, the gas turns
darker as the colourless N 2O4 gas dissociates into brown NO2. The gas inside
will cease to become darker because the system reaches equilibrium. The
reaction is represented by
57

N2O4(g) 2NO2(g)
Figure 3. A reversible reaction between N 2

2O
O
and NO 2 molecules.
4 and
4
Chang, R. (2010). Chemistry (10 th ed., pp. 616. McGraw-Hill, Inc., USA.
Forward reaction: N2O4(g) → 2NO2(g) Ratef =

= kf [N2O4]
Reverse reaction: 2NO2(g) → N2O4(g) = kr [NO2]2
Rater =
At equilibrium, the rate at which NO2 forms in the forward reaction equals the
rate at which N2O4 forms in the reverse reaction (Figure 4).
kf [N2O4] = kr [NO2]2
Rearranging the equation gives
 =  =  eq. 1
From equation 1, it can be seen that the
t he quotient of two rate constant is another
constant. This is known as the equilibrium constant.

Figure 4. Change in the concentrations of NO2 and N 2O4 with time in three
situations. (a) Initially only NO2 is present. (b) Initially only N 2O4 is present. (c)
Initially, a mixture of NO2 and N 2O4 is present.
58

The important things to keep in mind in a reversible reaction are:

• At equilibrium, the co
concentrations
ncentrations of reactants and produc
products
ts no
longer change with time.
• For equilibrium
equilibrium to occur, neither re
reactants
actants nor prod
products
ucts ccan
an es
escape
cape
from the system.
• At equilibrium, a particular
particular ratio of concentration
concentration terms equals a
constant.
EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANT, K c
In 1864, Guldberg and Waage postulated the Law of Mass Action
which expresses for any reaction, the relationship between the concentrations
of the reactants and products present at equilibrium. The general equilibrium
equation is given by
 
where A, B, C and D are the chemical species. According to the law of mass
action, the equilibrium condition is given by
  
 =   

This relationship is the equilibrium -constant expression for the reaction. The
expression
K is the equilibrium constant , which is the numerical value obtained when [ ]
is substituted by the molar concentrations of the chemical species. K is also
referred to as Kq. The equilibrium-constant expression depends only on the
The
stoichiometry of the reaction, not on its mechanism.
Reactions with reacting species that are in the same phase are known
to be homogenous equilibr
equilibr ium. Consider the following reactions.
N2O4 (g) 2NO2 (g)
Both are in the gas phase
 
 =  

59

HF (aq) +C2O42- (aq) 2F-(aq) + H2C2O4 (aq)
All are in the aqueous

aqueous phase
phase
 
 = −
For equilibrium reactions where the products and the reactants are in
different phase, hete
heterogeneous equilibrium , pure solids and pure liquids are
rogeneous
excluded in writing equilibrium constant expressions. This is because the mass
of a pure solid substance is doubled; its volume is also doubled. Consider the
following examples.
CO2 (g) + H2 (g) CO (g) + H2O (l)
 =   Pure liquid
SnO2 (s) + 2 CO (g) Sn2 (s) + 2CO2 (g)

 
 = 

Pure solid Pure solid
PbCl2 (s) Pb2+ (aq) + 2Cl- (aq)

Pure solid  =+−
EXAMPLES:
1. Write the equilibrium constant Kc for the following reversible reactions at

equilibrium.
a. HF (aq) + H2O (l) H3O+ (aq) + F- (aq)
b. 2NO (g) + O2 (g) 2NO2 (g)
c. CH3COOH (aq) + C2H5OH (aq) CH3COOC2H5 (aq) + H2O (l)
a. Solution
 = 

60

b. Solution
 = 
c. Solution
 = 
2. Write the equilibrium constant Kc for the decomposition of nitrogen
pentoxide.
2N2O5 (g) 4NO2 (g) + O2 (g
Solution
 =  
COMPUTATION FOR THE EQULIBRIUM CONSTANT, K c
 =  

The equlibrium constant (Kc or Keq) is defined by a quotient having the
product as the numerator and the reactant
r eactant as the denominator. The magnitude
of the equlibrium tells whether an equlibrium reaction favors the products or
reactants. That is (Figure 5):
• ≫
If Kc is much greater than 1 (Kc 1), the equilibrium will lie to the
right and favours the products.
• ≪
If Kc is much lesser than 1 (Kc 1), the equilibrium will lie to the
left and favours the reactants.
Figure 5. (a) At equilibrium, there are more products than reactants, and the
equilibrium is said to lie to the right. (b) There are more reactants than the
products and
and the equilibrium is said to lie to the left.
61

EXAMPLES
1. Gaseous hydrogen
hydrogen iodide is placed
placed in a closed container at 4250C, where it
closed
partially decomposes to hydrogen and iodine. At equilibrium, it is found that
[HI] = 3.53 * 10-3 M, [H2] = 4.79 * 10-4 M and [I2] = 4.79 * 10-4 M. What is the
value of Kc at this temperature? At what side will the equilibrium lie? The
chemical reaction is given by:
2HI H2 (g) + I2 (g)
Solution
 =   =
[.∗] .∗  =0.0184
.∗ 
Since the computed Kc is lesser than 1, the equilibrium will lie to
the left and it favors the reactant.
2. Carbonyl chloride (phosgene)
(phosgene) was used in WWI as a poisonous gas. At
At
740C, [CO] = 1.2 * 10 -2 M, [Cl2] = 0.054 M, and [COCl2] = 0. 14 M. Calculate
Kc and determine at what side will the equilibrium lie. The chemical reaction
is given by:
CO (g) + Cl2 (g) COCl2
Solution
 =   =
. =2165.49
 . ∗   .
Since the computed Kc is greater than 1, the equilibrium will lie
l ie to
the right and it favours the product.
SUMMARY OF GUIDELINES FOR WRITING EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANT

EXPRESSION, K C
1. The concentrations of the reacting species in the condensed
condensed phase
are expressed in
; in the gaseous phase, the concentrations can


be expressed in  .
62

2. The concentrations of pure solids, pure liqu

liquids
ids (in heterogeneous
equilibria), and solvents (in homogenous equilibria) do not appear in
the equilibrium constant expressions.
3. The equilibrium constant Kc is a dimensionless quantity.
4. In quoting a value for the equilibrium
equilibrium constant, always apply the
balanced equation and the temperature.
REACTION QUOTIENT AND THE DIRECTION OF A REACTION

The direction of a reaction is determined using the reaction quotient
Qc. A reaction quotient is a number obtained by substituting reactant and
product concentrations at any point during a reaction into an equilibrium-
constant expression. The general reaction is given by
 
where A, B, C and D are the chemical species and lower case letters are the
stoichiometric coefficients of the reactants and the products. The reaction
quotient in terms of molar concentrations is given by
 =  

To determine the direction in which the net reaction will proceed to achieve
equilibrium, Kc and Qc are used. The three possible cases (Figure 6) are as
follows:
• Qc < Kc The ratio of initial concentrations of products to reactants is
too small. To reach equilibrium, reactants
r eactants must be converted
to products. The system proceeds from left to right
(consuming reactants, forming products) to reach equilibrium.
• Qc = Kc The initial concentrations are equilibrium concentrations. The
system is at equilibrium.
• Qc > Kc The ratio of initial concentrations of products to reactants is
too large. To reach equilibrium, products must be converted
to reactants. The system proceeds from right to left
(consuming products, forming reactants) to reach equilibrium.
63

Figure 6. The direction of reversible reaction to reach equilibrium depends on the relative
magnitudes of Qc and K c.
EXAMPLES:
start of a reaction, there are 0.249 mol N2, 3.21 * 10-2 mol H2 and 6.42
1. At the start
* 10-4 mol NH3 in a 3.50-L reaction vessel. If the equilibrium constant (K c) for
the reaction is 1.2 at this temperature, decide whether the system is at
equilibrium. If it is not, predict which way the net reaction will proceed. The
reaction is given by
N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) 2NH3 (g)
Solution
▪ Compute for th
the
e initial concentration of the reacting species
[N2] =
.  = 0.00711
711 
. 
[N ] =
. ∗   =9.17∗10−M
2
. 
[NH ] =
. ∗   =1.83∗10−M
3
. 
▪ Compute for Qc
Qc =
   = .∗   =0. 5 6
 ..∗ 
▪ Decision
Qc = 0.56 > 1.2, the system is not in equilibrium. The net
result will be an increase in the concentration of NH 3 and
a decrease in the concentrations of N 2 and H2. The net
reaction will proceed from left to right until equilibrium is
reached.
64

2. The Kc for the formation of nitrosyl chloride, an orange-yellow compound,

from nitric oxide and molecular chlorine is 6.5 * 104. In a certain experiment,
2.0 * 10-2 mole of NO, 2.0 * 10-3 mole of Cl2, and 6.8 moles of NOCl are
mixed in 2.0-L flask. In which direction will the system proceed to reach
equilibrium? The reaction is given by
2NO (g) + Cl2 (g) 2NOCl (g)
Solution
▪ Comput for the initial concentration
concentration of the reacting species
[NO] =
. ∗   = 0.01 0 1 
. 
[Cl ] =
. ∗    =0.00415 M
2
. 
. 
[NOCl] = .  =3. 4 M
▪ Compute for Q c
 .
Q =   = . . = 6.71 * 10
c 7

▪ Decision
▪ Qc = 6.71 * 107 > 6.5 * 104, the system is not in equilibrium.
The net result will be a decrease in the concentration of NOCl
and an increase in the concentrations of NO and Cl2. The net
reaction will proceed from right to left until equilibrium is
reached.
Explain chemical equilibrium in terms of the reaction rates of the forward and
reverse reaction (STEM_GC11CT-IVa-b-145)
65

Ac ti vi ty 1: PROB
PROBLEM
LEM SETS
A. Directions: Read carefully each of the following items. Choose the letter
that correspond to the best answer and write it on the answer sheet.
1. Which of the following is TRUE for a chemical reaction at eq
equilibrium?
uilibrium?
a. only the forward reaction stops
b. only the rev
reverse
erse reaction sstops
tops
c. both the forward and
and reverse
reverse reac
reactions
tions stops
d. the rate constant
constant for the forward and back
backward
ward reactions are equal
e. the rates of the forward an
and
d backward reactions are equal
2. Which of the following is TR
TRUE
UE regarding the concentration of pro
products,
ducts,
for a chemical reaction that is already at equilibrium assuming no
disruptions to the equilibrium?
a. The concentrations of products will not change bec
because
ause there ar
are
e
no more reactants.
b. The concentrations of products will not change because the
limiting reagent is gone.
c. The concentrations of products will not change because the
forward and reverse rates are equal
d. The concentrations of products will change ccontinually
ontinually because
of reversibility.
3. Which of the following are e
equal
qual for a chemical system at equilibrium? If
all are equal, answer e.
a. The concentrations
concentrations of reactants and produc
products
ts are equal
b. The rate constant
constant for the forward and reverse
reverse reactions are equal
c. The time that a particular atom
atom or molecule spends as a reactant
and product are equal
d. The rate of the forward and reverse reactio
reaction
n
e. All of the a
above
bove are e
equal
qual
66

4. A chemical equilibrium
equilibrium may be established
established by starting a reaction with
____________________.
____________________.
a. reactants only
b. products only
c. equal quantities of rea
reactants
ctants and products
d. any quantities
quantities of reactants and products
e. all of the above
5. An equilibrium that strongly favors products has ______
______________.
________.
≪
a. a value of K 1 d. a value of Q ≪ 1
b. a value of K ≫1 e. K = Q
c. a value of Q ≫1
6. The equilibrium constant
constant for the acid ionization of mercaptoethanol is
1.91 * 10-10. The reaction is given by
HSCH2CH2OH (aq) H+(aq) + SCH2CH2OH- (aq)
Which of the following statements is true regarding this equilibrium?
I. The reaction is product favored.
II. The reaction is reactant favored
III. Equilibrium lies far to the right
IV. Equilibrium lies far to the left
a. I and III d. II and IV
b. I and IV e. None are true
c. II and III
7. The equilibrium constant for the formation of hydroge
hydrogen
n iodide fro
from
m iodine
is 45 at a certain temperature.
H2 (g) + I2 (g) 2HI
Which of the following statements is true regarding this equilibrium?
I. The reaction is product favored.
II. The reaction is reactant favored
III. Equilibrium lies far to the right
IV. Equilibrium lies far to the left
a. I and III d. II and IV
b. I and IV e. None are true
c. II and III
67

8. If the reaction quotient Qc has a smaller value than the related
equilibrium constant Kc, ______________________.
______________________.
a. the reaction
reaction is at equilibrium
b. the reaction is not
not at equilibrium, and will make more products at
the expense of the reactants
c. the reaction is not at equilibrium, and
and will make more reactants at
the expense of the products
d. the value of Kc will decrease until it is equal to Q
e. the reaction
reaction favors the products
9. If the reaction quotient Qc has a smaller value than the related
equilibrium constant Kc, ______________________.
______________________.
a. the reaction
reaction is at equilibrium
b. the reaction is not at equilibrium, and will make more products at
the expense of the reactants
c. the reaction is not at equilibrium, and
and will make more reactants at
the expense of the products
d. the value of Kc will decrease until it is equal to Q
e. the reaction
reaction favors the products
10. If the equilibrium is established by initially adding 0.10 mol each of A
and B to a 1L container, then which of the following must be true once
the mixture achieves equilibrium?
A + 2B 2C Kc = 320
a. [A] = [B] d. [A] > [B]
b. [A] = [B] = [C] e. [A] < [B]
c. [B] = 2[C]
11. Which of the following is the correct equilibrium expression for the
following reaction:
man + woman couple
a. Kc=

 d.

 

b.
+ 
K = 
c e. Kc = [couple] – [man] –
[woman]
c. Kc = [man] [woman] [couple]
68

12. Which of the following is the correct equilibrium expression for the
following reaction assuming homogeneity:
fool (money)10 fool + 10money
a. Kc= [fool(money)10] [fool] [money]
b. Kc =



c. Kc = [fool(money)10] [fool] [money]
d.

K =    
c

e. Kc = [fool] + 10[money] – [fool(money)10]
13. For the following hypothetical equilibrium, what is the value of the
equilibrium constant if the concentrations at equilibrium are shown as
A(g) + 2B(g) 2C(g)
when A = 4.5 * 10 -5M; B = 2.2 * 10 -2M; and C = 2.2 * 10 -3M
a. 0. 22 d. 2.3 * 108
b. 9.9 e. 9.5 * 103
c. 4.3 * 105
14. For the following hypothetical equilibrium, what is the value of the
equilibrium constant if the concentrations at equilibrium are shown as
A(aq) + 2B(aq) 2C(aq) + D(aq)
when A = 4.5 * 10 -5M; B = 2.2 * 10 -2M; C=2.2 * 10-3M; and
D = 1.2 * 10 -2M
a. 52 d. 65
b. 32 e. 49
c. 67
15. All of the following are NOT seen in a equilibrium-constant expression
EXCEPT _______ of the reacting species
a. amount d. state
b. molar concentration e. molal concentration
c. phase
69

B. Directions: Evaluate the following expressions. Write HM if the equilibrium

is homogenous and write HT if it is heterogeneous.
1. 3NO(g) N2O (g) + NO2 (g)
2. CH4 (g) + 2H2S (g) CS2 (g) + 4H2 (g)
3. Ni(CO)4 (g) Ni (s) + 4CO (g)
4. HF (aq) H+(aq) + F-(aq)
5. 2Ag (s) + Zn2+(aq) Ag +(aq) + Zn (s)
6. 2C2H4 (g) + 2H2O (g) 2C2H6 (g) + O2 (g)
7. C (s) + 2H2 (g) CH4 (g)
8. 4HCl (aq) + O2 (g) 2H2O (l) + 2Cl2 (g)
9. C (s) + O2 (g) 2CO (g)
10. 2HgO (s) 2Hg (l) + O2 (g)
Ac ti vi ty 2: EQUIL IBRIUM-CONSTA

IBRIUM-CONSTANT
NT EXPRESSION, KC
A. Directions: Write the equilibrium constant for the following reactions.
1. NaHCO3 (s) Na2CO3 (s) + CO2 (g) + H2O (g)
2. CaSO4 (s) CaO (s) + SO2 (g) + O2 (g)
3. CO2 (g) CO (g) + O2 (g)
4. O2 (g) O3 (g)
5. HCOOH (aq) H+(aq) + HCOO- (aq)
6. HgO (s) Hg (l) + O2 (g)
7. NO2 (g) + H2 (g) NH3 (g) + H2O (l)
8. ZnS (s) + O2 (g) ZnO (s) + SO2 (g)
9. C (s) + CO2 (g) CO (g)
10. C6H5COOH (aq) C6H5COO- (aq) + H+(aq)
11. NH4CO2NH2 (s) NH3 (g) + CO2 (g)
12. Br 2 (g) Br (g)
(g)
13. N2O3 (g) NO2 (g) + NO (g)

14. H2S (g) H2 (g) + S2 (g)
15. NO (g) + H2 (g) N2 (g) + H2O (g)
16. HCl (g) + O2 (g) Cl2 (g) + H2O (g)
17. NOBr (g)
(g) NO (g) + Br 2 (g)
70

18. Na2CO3 (s) + SO2 (g) + O2 (g) Na2SO4 (s) + CO2 (g)
19. PbI2 (s) Pb 2+ (aq) + I- (g)
20. Fe 3+ (aq) + OH- (aq) Fe(OH)3 (s)
B. Directions: Write the balanced reaction for the given equilibrium-

constant expressions. All the reacting species are in the gas phase.
1. Kc =


2.
    
K =    
  
c
 
3. c
  
K =  

4. c
 
K =  

5.

K =  
c

Ac ti vi ty 3: CALCULA
CAL CULATING
TING EQUILIB RIUM-CONSTANT, K C
Directions: Read and solve the following problems. Show your complete
solution. Final answer must be rounded-off in two decimal places.
1. Consider the equilibrium at 7000C:
2H2 (g) + S2 (g) 2H2S (g)
Analysis shows that there are 2.5 moles of H 2; 1.35 * 10-5 mole S2;
and 8.70 moles H 2S present in a 12.0 – L flask. Calculate the
equilibrium constant for the reaction. At what side will the equilibrium
lie?
2. A reaction vessel contains NH3, N2 and H2 at equilibrium at 890.76 0C.
The equilibrium concentrations are [NH3] = 0.25 M; [N2] = 0. 11 M;
and [H2] = 1.91 M. Calculate the equilibrium constant for the reaction.
At what side will the equilibrium lie?
N 2 (g)

+ H2 (g) NH3 (g)
 
the following reaction at 16000C:
3. Consider the
Br 2 (g) 2Br (g)
(g)
71

when 1.05 moles of Br 2 are put in a 0.980-L flask, 1.20 percent of the
Br 2 undergoes dissociation. Calculate the equilibrium constant for the
reaction. At what side will the equilibrium lie?
4. Methanol is manufactured industrially by the reactio
reaction
n
CO (g) + 2H2 (g) CH3OH (g)
A gaseous mixture at 500K is 0.020 M CH 3OH; 0.10 M CO; and 0.10
M H2. Calculate the equilibrium constant for the reaction if the
temperature is 300K. At what side will the equilibrium lie?
5. Pure phosgene gas was placed in a 435-mL container with a
temperature of 767K. The phosgene gas dissociates to CO and Cl 2.
It was found out that the concentrations of the reacting species at that
temperature are [COCl2] = 1.6 M; [CO] = 1.3 M; [Cl2] = 0.06 M. What
is the equilibrium constant for the reaction? At what side will the
equilibrium lie? The reaction is given by
COCl2 (g) CO (g) + Cl2 (g)
6. In a 1767.3-mL
1767.3-mL sealed container was a mixture of 0.13 mole Na2CO3;
1.21 moles SO2; 0.53 mole O2; 1.93 moles Na2SO4; and 0.07 mole
CO2 at 670C. What is the equilibrium constant for the reaction at
450K? At what side will the equilibrium lie? The reaction is given by

Na2CO3 (s) + SO2 (g) + O2 (g) Na2SO4 (s) + CO2 (g)

7. Ammonium carbanate decomposes as follow
followss
NH4CO2NH2 (s) 2NH3 (g) + CO2 (g)
If the mixture is placed in a sealed steel 7.69-dm3 vessel and the
amount of the reacting species are [NH 4CO2NH2] = 0.45 mole; [NH 3]
= 0.21 mole; [CO2] = 1.32 moles, what is the
t he equilibrium constant for
the reaction? At what side will the equilibrium lie?
8. Consider the reaction of carbo
carbon
n and hydro
hydrogen
gen gas to form methan
methane.
e.
Experiment shows that at 3630C, there are 4.0 moles C; 0.4 mole H2;
and 1.3 moles CH4 in a 10 dm3. What is the equilibrium constant for
the reaction? At what side will the equilibrium lie? The reaction is
given by
C (s) + 2H2 (g) CH4 (g)
72

9. At 657K, the
the following reaction occurs in a 1
1.25-L
.25-L sealed con
container.
tainer.
CH4 (g) + 2H2S (g) CS2 (g) + 4H2 (g)
It was found out that the
t he mixture contains 1.25 moles CH4; 0.89 mole
H2S; 2.41 moles CS2; and 0.2 mole H2. What is the equilibrium
constant for the reaction at that temperature? At what side will the
equilibrium lie?
10. At 5650C, the following reaction happens
2HgO (s) 2Hg (l) + O2 (g)
If the reaction mixture is placed in a 2354.21-mL sealed steel tank
container and it contains [HgO] = 1.2 M; [Hg] = 2.3 M; and [O2] = 0.21
M. What is equilibrium constant for the reaction at that temperature?
At what side will the equilibrium lie?
Ac ti vi ty 4: CALCULA
CAL CULATING
TING REACTION QUOTIENT, QC
Directions: Read and solve the following problems. Show your complete
solution. Final answer must be rounded-off in two decimal places.
1. A 50-L reaction vessel
vessel con
contains
tains 1.0 moles N2; 3.0 moles H2 and 0.5 mole
NH3. Will more NH3 be formed or it will dissociate when the mixture goes
to equilibrium at 4000C. the equation is given by
N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) 2NH3 (g)
Calculate for the reaction quotient of the reaction. At what side will the
equilibrium shift if the equilibrium constant of the reaction is 0.50 at
4000C?
2. A 10-L vessel contains 0.0015 mole CO2; 1.0 mole C; and 0.10 mole CO.
If a small amount of carbon is added to tthis
his vessel and the temperature
is reached to 10000C, will more carbon monoxide form? What is the
reaction quotient of the reaction. At what side will the equilibrium shift if
the equilibrium constant of the reaction is 1.17 at that
t hat temperature? The
reaction is given by
C (s) + CO2 (g) 2CO (g)
3. The following equilibrium process has been studied at 4580C.

Na2CO3 (s) + SO2 (g) + O2 (g) Na2SO4 (s) + CO2 (g)

73

In one experiment, the amount of the reacting species at equilibrium are

found to be [Na2CO3] = 0.645 mole; [SO2] = 0.65 mole; [O2] = 0.67 mole;
[Na2SO4] = 1.3 moles; and [CO 2] = 0.015 mole. Assuming that the
volume of the gas in the container is 988 mL at 498 0C, what is the
reaction quotient of the reaction? At what side will the equilibrium shift if
the equilibrium constant of the reaction is 1.3 at that temperature?
4. The equilibrium concentration for the reaction
reaction between hydrochloric acid
and oxygen gas to form liquid water and chlorine gas is given by
4HCl (g) + O2 (g) 2Cl2 (g) + 2H2O (l)
At 7600C, the concentration of the reacting species are [HCl] = 1.79 M;
[O2] = 0.14 M; [H2O] = 0.45 M; and [Cl2] = 3.45 M. Calculate the reaction
quotient of the reaction if it is contained in a 675-mL container and K c is
5.22. At what side will the equilibrium shift?
5. At the start of the reaction,
reaction, there are 0.167 mole C2H4; 0.394 mole H2O;
1.17 mole C2H6 and 0.23 mole O2 in a 7963- mL tank at 980 0C. If the
equilibrium constant for this reaction at 500 0C is 2.67, what is the
reaction quotient? Predict at which direction side the net reaction will
proceed. The reaction is given by
2C2H4 (g) + 2H2O (g) 2C2H6 (g) + O2 (g)
6. A mixture of 0.16 mole hydrogen gas and 1.3 moles sulfur gas to form
0.46 mole dihydrogen sulfide is placed in a 54.36-mL steel container.
Assuming that the equilibrium constant of the reaction at 706.45K is
0.76, in what direction will the system proceed? The reaction is
2H2 (g) + S2 (g) 2H2S (g)
7. The equilibrium constant for the formation of ccalcium
alcium sulphate from the
reaction of calcium oxide, sulphur dioxide and oxygen gas is 2.67 at
790C. In a certain experiment, 0.10 mole CaO; 1.2 moles SO2; 0.12 mole
O2; and 1.8 moles CaSO4 are mixed in a 3.45-L container. In which
direction will the system proceed? The reaction is
2CaO (s) + 2SO2 (g) + O2 (g) 2CaSO4 (s)
8. At 12800C, the Kc for the reaction
2ZnS (s) + 3O2 (g) 2ZnO (s) + 2SO2 (g)
is 1.68. if the reacting species is placed in a 3.21-L sealed container and
the concentrations are as follows: [ZnS] = 1.2 M; [O2] = 0.17 M; [ZnO] =
74

1.2 M; and [SO2] = 3.1 M, what will be the reaction quotient of the
reaction? To which direction will the system proceed?
9. The reaction
2NOBr (g)
(g) 2NO (g) + Br 2 (g)
has a Kc of 0.018 at 670C. The reacting species are placed in a 1700-
cm3 sealed container with amounts [NOBr] = 3.94 moles; [NO] = 1.34
moles; and [Br 2] = 1.67 moles. What will be the value of Q c? To which
direction will the system proceed?
10. A mixture of 1.12 moles NO 2; 0.2 moles H2; 0.16 mole NH3 and 0.04
mole H2O is placed in a 473.0-cm3 steel container. Calculate Q c
assuming that Kc of the reaction is 1.29 at 980K. To which direction will
the system proceed? The reaction is given by
2NO2 (g) + 3H2 (g) 2NH3 (g) + H2O (l)
Reflection
1. I learned that _____

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2. I enjoyed most on ____________

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3. I want to learn more on _____________

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75

References
Brown, T.L. et al. Chemistry: The Central Science (12th ed., pp. 610-649).
Pearson Prentice Hall. USA
Chang, R. (2010). Chemistry (10 th ed., pp. 614-657). McGraw-Hill, Inc.,
USA.
Ebbing, D.D & Gammon, S.D. (2017). General Chemistry (9th ed., 580-622).
Houghton Mifflin Company, USA.
76

ANSWER KEY
K EY
ACTIVITY 1
A. Multiple Choice
1. e
2. c
3. d
4. e
5. b
6. d
7. a
8. b
9. c
10. d
11. d
12. b
13. c
14. e
15. b
B. Homogenous or Heter
Heterogeneous
ogeneous
1. HM
2. HM
3. HT
4. HM
5. HT
6. HM
7. HT
8. HT
9. HT
10. HT
77

ACTIVITY 2
A. Writing the equilibrium constant
1. 2NaHCO3 (s) Na2CO3 (s) + CO2 (g) + H2O (g)
Kc = 
2. 2CaSO4 (s) 2CaO (s) + 2SO2 (g) + O2 (g)
KC = 
3. 2CO2 (g) 2CO (g) + O2 (g)
  
K =  
C

4. 3O2 (g) 2O3 (g)
KC =


5. HCOOH (aq) H+(aq) + HCOO- (aq)
KC =


6. 2HgO (s) 2Hg (l) + O2 (g)
KC = 
7. 2NO2 (g) + 7H2 (g) 2NH3 (g) + 4H2O (l)
KC =
 
 
8. 2ZnS (s) + 3O2 (g) 2ZnO (s) + 2SO2 (g)
KC =


9. C (s) + CO2 (g) 2CO (g)
KC =


10. C6H5COOH (aq) C6H5COO- (aq) + H+(aq)
KC =


11. NH CO NH
4 2 2 (s) 2NH3 (g) + CO2 (g)
K =    
C
12. Br 2 (g) 2Br (g)

(g)
KC =


13. N O
2 3 (g) NO2 (g) + NO (g)
 
K =   
C

78

14. 2H2S (g) 2H2 (g) + S2 (g)

KC =


15. 2NO (g) + 2H2 (g) N2 (g) + 2H2O (g)
KC =
 
 
16. 2HCl + O
(g)
 2 (g) Cl2 (g) + H2O (g)
  
K =   
C

17. NOBr (g)
(g) 2NO (g) + Br 2 (g)
KC =


18. Na2CO3 (s) + SO2 (g) + O2 (g)
 Na2SO4 (s) + CO2 (g)

KC =
 

19. PbI 2 (s) Pb 2+ (aq) + 2I- (g)
K = + − 
C
20. Fe 3+ (aq) + OH- (aq) Fe(OH)3 (s)

KC =


B. Writing the balanced reactio
reaction
n from Kc
1. Kc =


C3H8 (g) + 5O2 (g) 2CO2 (g) + 4H2O (g)
2. Kc =
 
 
H2S (g) + 3O2 (g) 2H2O (g) + 2SO2 (g)
3. Kc =


2N2O5 (g) 4NO2 (g) + O2 (g)
4. Kc =

 
4NO (g) + 6H2O (g) 4NH3 (g) + 5O2 (g)
5. Kc =
  

Zn2+ (g) + 2NH3 (g) Zn(NH3)2+ (g)
79

ACTIVITY 3
1. H2 = 2.5 moles = 0.21 M
S2 = 1.35 * 10 -5 moles = 1.125 * 10-6 M
H2S = 8.70 moles = 0. 73 M
0.73 
 0.21 1.125∗10− =1.07∗10
≫
Kc 1, the equilibrium will lie to the right and favours the product
2. [NH3] = 0.25 M
[N2] = 0. 11 M
[H2] = 1.91 M
 = 0.110.21.591 =0.29
≪
Kc 1, the equilibrium will lie to the left and favours the reactant
3. Br 2 = 1.05 moles = 1.07 M
Br = 1.05 moles * 1.20% = 0.0126 mole = 0.01 M
0.01 
 = 1.07 =9.35∗10−
≪
4. CH3OH = 0.020 M
CO = 0.10 M
H2 = 0.10
 = 0.10.000.2010 = 20
≫
5. [COCl2] = 1.6 M
[CO] = 1.3 M
[Cl2] = 0.06 M
 = 1.31.0.606 =0.05
≪
6. Na2CO3 = 0.13 mole = 0.07 M
SO2 = 1.21 moles = 0.68 M
O2 = 0.53 mole = 0.30
Na2SO4 = 1.93 moles = 1.09
80

CO2 = 0.07 mole = 0.04
 = 0.60.80.0430 =0.11
≪
7. [NH4CO2NH2] = 0.45 mole = 0.06 M
[NH3] = 0.21 mole = 0.03 M
[CO2] = 1.32 moles = 0.17 M
 = 0.030.17 = 1.53∗10−
≪
8. C = 4.0 moles = 0.4 M
H2 = 0.4 mole = 0.04 M
CH4= 1.3 moles = 0.13 M
 = 0.0.0143 =81.25
≫
9. CH4 = 1.25 moles = 1 M
H2S = 0.89 mole = 0. 71 M
CS2 = 2.41 moles = 1.93 M
H2 = 0.2 mole = 0. 16 M
 1.93
3 0.16 
 = 10.71 =2.51∗ 10−
≪
10. [HgO] = 1.2 M
[Hg] = 2.3 M
[O2] = 0.21 M
 = 0.21 =0.21
≪
Kc 1, the equilibrium will lie to
t o the left and favours the reactant
81

ACTIVITY 4
1. N2 = 1.0 moles = 0.02 M
H2= 3.0 moles = 0.06
NH3 = 0.5 mole = 0.01
Kc = 0.50
0. 0 1 
 = 0.0220.06 =23.15
Qc > Kc, the system is not in equilibrium. To attain equilibrium,

products must be converted to reactants.
2. CO2 = 0.0015 mole = 0.00015 M
C = 1.0 mole = 0.1 M
CO = 0.10 mole = 0.01
Kc = 1.17
0.01 
 = 0.00015 =0.67
Qc < Kc, the system is not in equilibrium. To attain equilibrium,

reactants must be converted to products.
3. [Na2CO3] = 0.645 mole = 0.65 M
[SO2] = 0.65 mole = 0.66 M
[O2] = 0.67 mole = 0.68 M
[Na2SO4] = 1.3 moles = 1.32 M
[CO2] = 0.015 mole = 0.02
Kc = 1.3
 = 0.60.660.0268 =0.04

4. [HCl] = 1.79 M
[O2] = 0.14 M
[H2O] = 0.45 M
[Cl2] = 3.45 M
Kc = 5.22
3.45 
 = 1.790.14 =8.28
82


r eactants.
5. C2H4 = 0.167 mole = 0.21 M
H2O = 0.394 mole = 0.49 M
C2H6 = 1.17 mole = 1.47
O2 = 0.23 mole = 0.29 M
Kc = 2.67
1.47 0.29
 = 0.210.49 =59.18

6. S2 = 1.3 moles = 23.91 M
H2 = 0.16 mole = 2.94 M
H2S = 0.46 mole = 8.46 M
Kc = 0.76
8.46 
 = 2.9423.91 =0.35

7. CaO = 0.10 mole = 0.03 M
SO2 = 1.2 moles = 0.35 M
O2 = 0.12 mole = 0.03 M
CaSO4 = 1.8 moles = 0.52 M
KC = 2.67
 = 0.3510.03 =272.11

8. [ZnS] = 1.2 M
[O2] = 0.17 M
[ZnO] = 1.2 M
[SO2] = 3.1 M
KC = 1.68
83

3.1 
 = 0.17 =332.53

9. [NOBr] = 3.94 moles = 2.32 M
[NO] = 1.34 moles = 0.79 M
[Br 2] = 1.67 moles = 0.98 M
KC = 0.018
0.79 0.98
 = 2.32 =0.11

10. NH3 = 0.16 mole = 0.34 M
H2O = 0.04 mole = 0.08 M
NO2 = 1.12 moles = 2.37 M
H2 = 0.2 moles = 0.42 M
Kc = 1.29
0.34 
 = 2.370.42 =0.28

Prepared by:
GRACE ANN M. CALIBOSO - AGCAOILI
David M. Puzon Memorial National High School
84

GENERA
GENERA L CHEMISTRY 2
CHEMISTRY
Name: __________________________
____________________________
__ Grade Level: _________
Date: ___________
________________________
__________________
_____ Score: __________
______________
____
LEARNING
LEA RNING ACTIVITY SHEET
SHEET
CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM
Background Information f or th e Le
Learne
arners
rs (BIL)
In a chemical
a chemical reaction,
reaction, chemical equilibr
equilibr ium is the state in which both
reactants and products are present in concentrations
in concentrations which have no further
tendency to change with time, so that there is no observable change in the
properties of the system. Usually, this state results when the forward reaction
proceeds at the same rate as the reverse
the reverse reaction.
reaction. The
The reaction
reaction rates of the
forward and backward reactions are generally not zero, but equal. Thus, there
are no net changes in the concentrations of the reactant(s) and product(s).
Such a state is known as dynamic
as dynamic equilibrium.
equilibrium.
Historical Introduction
The concept of chemical equilibrium was developed and found that

some chemical
some chemical reactions are reversible.
are reversible. For any reaction mixture to exist at
equilibrium, the rates
the rates of the forward and backward (reverse) reactions are
equal. In the following chemical
following chemical equation with arrows pointing both ways to
equilibrium,[5] A and B are reactant
indicate equilibrium, are reactant chemical species, S and T are
product species, and and α , β
β, σ , and
and τ are the stoichiometric
the stoichiometric coefficients of the
respective reactants and products:
α A
A + β B ⇌ σ S
S + τ T
T
The equilibrium concentration position of a reaction is said to lie "far to the

right" if, at equilibrium, nearly all the reactants are consumed. Conversely the
equilibrium position is said to be "far to the left" if hardly any product is formed
from the reactants.
Guldberg and Waage
and Waage (1865), building on Berthollet's ideas, proposed the law
the law
of mass action:
action:
Forward reaction rate =k+ A α Bβ

backward reaction rate = K_Sϭ Tϯ
where A, B, S and T are active

are active masses and k+ and k− are
are rate
rate constants.
constants.
Since at equilibrium forward and backward rates are equal:
K+ {A}α {B}β = K_{S}ϭ {T}t
85

and the ratio of the rate constants is also a constant, now known as
an equilibrium
an equilibrium constant.
constant.
Kc= Kt = {S}ϭ {T}t
k {A}ϭ {B}β
By convention the products form the numerator.

the numerator. However, the
the law
law of
mass action is valid only for concerted one-step reactions that proceed through
a single transition
single transition state and is no t valid in general because
because rate
rate equations do
not, in general, follow the stoichiometry
the stoichiometry of the reaction as Guldberg and Waage
had proposed (see, for example, nucleophilic
example, nucleophilic aliphatic substitution by SN1 or
reaction of hydrogen
hydrogen andand bromine
bromine to form
form hydrogen bromide)
bromide).. Equality of
forward and backward reaction rates, however, is a necessarya necessary condition for
chemical equilibrium, though it is not sufficient
not sufficient to explain why equilibrium
occurs.
Despite the failure of this derivation, the equilibrium constant for a

reaction is indeed a constant, independent of the activities of the various
species involved, though it does depend on temperature as observed by
the van
the van 't Hoff equation. Adding
equation. Adding a
a catalyst
catalyst will affect both the forward reaction
and the reverse reaction in the same way and will not have an effect on the
equilibrium constant. The catalyst will speed up both reactions thereby
increasing the speed at which equilibrium is reached.
Although the macroscopic
the macroscopic equilibrium concentrations are constant in
time, reactions do occur at the molecular level. For example, in the case
of acetic
acetic acid dissolved in water and forming
forming acetate
acetate and
and hydronium
hydronium ions,
⇌
CH3CO2H + H2O CH3CO−2 + H3O+
a proton may hop from one molecule of acetic acid on to a water molecule and
then on to an acetate anion to form another molecule of acetic acid and leaving
the number of acetic acid molecules unchanged. This is an example of dynamic
dynamic
equilibrium.
equilibrium.
Equilibria, like the rest of thermodynamics, are statistical phenomena,

averages of microscopic behavior.
A French chemist, Henri Le Chatelier studied the changes made in the

system that affect its equilibrium. He found out that “ if a system at equilibrium
is subjected in to a stress, the stress is displaced in a direction so as to relieve
the stress. This is called Le Chatelier’s principle.
Studies revealed that different chemical reactions behave differently. In
the same manner that equilibrium is reached at different points for different
chemical reactions. Equilibrium constant will determine when a given chemical
reaction reaches its equilibrium point. It is expressed in terms of the
86

concentrations of the products divided by the concentrations of the reactants.

Each concentration is raised to an exponent equal to the coefficient of the
substance in the balanced chemical equation. Mathematically, for a chemical
reaction,
aA(g) + bB(g) == cC(g) + dD(g)
Keq = ([C]c) ([D]d)
([A]a) ([B]b)
Where K eq is the equilibrium constant
[C] & [D] are the concentrations of the products
[A] & [B] are the concentrations of the reactants
a b,c,d are th
the
e coefficients of the respec
respective
tive products in the balanc
balanced
ed
chemical
equation.
Illustrative example:
HC2H3O2 = H+ + C2H3O2

Initial 0.1 molar 0 0
At equilibrium 0.10-0.01(0.1) 0.01(0.01) 0.01(0.01)
0.099 0.001 0.001
0.001 0.001
The concentration of the substance and the ions at equilibrium are

obtained as shown because only 1.0% of the solution was ionized and the rest
was unionized.
Using the dissociation process, express the Keq of the system.

Keq = [H+] [Ac-]
[HAc]
= (0.01) (0.1) (0.01) (0.1)
(0.099)
= 1.01 x 10-5
Calculate the Equilibrium constant and the pressure and concentration of

reactants or products in an equilibrium mixture (STEM_11CE-IVb-e-148)
87

Activity I. LET’S TEST YOUR UNDERSTADING!
Directions: Give the equilibrium constant expression of the following reactions:
1. 2HCl(g) = H2(g) + Cl(g)

2. 4Fe(s) + 3O2(g) = 2Fe2O3(s)
3. 2NaCl(s) = 2Na(s) + Cl2(g)
4. 2KClO3 = 2KCl(s) = 3O2(g)
5. H2(g) + Cl2(g) = 2HCl(g)
SOLUBILITY
SOLUBIL ITY PRODUC
PRODUCT
T CONSTANT
Assuming that Lead (II) Chloride, PbCl2 is placed in a beaker with water.
The crystals will star to dissolve and as the amount of lead ions and chloride
ions increases in the solution, the possibility of ions returning to the solid state
will also increase. The rate at which the crystals dissolve to form ions and the
rate at which the ions return to solid state is known as solubility equilibrium.
If we try to determine the solubility product of lead (II) chloride given its
dissociation process, we have:
PbCl2(aq) = Pb+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq)
Note that [PbCl2] is not part of the solubility product expression since the
undissociated PbCl2, is not actually in the solution. The solubility equilibrium is
attained when the rate at which ions leave the solid state is equal to th
thee rate at
which ions return to the solid state. The rate of formation of ions is dependent
on the area of a solids. The greater the surface area of the solid used, the
greater is the rate of formation of ions.
Illustrative example:
1. Write the solubility product expression

expression for the dissociation o
off sodium
chloride and silver nitrate.
a. NaCl(s) = Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
Ksp = [Na+]{Cl-]
b. AgNO3(s) = Ag+(aq) + NO3-(aq)
Ksp = [Ag+] [NO3-]
Ac ti vi ty 2: SOL UBIL ITY PRODUCT EXPRESSION .
DIRECTION: Give the solubility product expression of the following reactions:

1. MgSO4(s) = Mg+(s) + SO4-(aq)
2. AgCl(s) = Ag+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
3. CaCl2(s) = Ca+(aq) + 2Cl(aq)
4. MgI2(s) = +
Mg (aq) + 2I(aq)
88

Ac t iv it y 3: CA
CALCUL
LCUL AT
ATION
ION OF EQUILIB RIUM CONSTANT
CONSTA NT
Problem #1
A mixture of SO2, O2 and SO3 at 1000K contains the following partial
pressures:
PSO2 = 0.41 atm, PO2 = 0.16 atm, PSO3 =057 atm. Which way can the
reaction
2SO2(g) + O2(g) ↔ 2SO3 (g) go to reach equilibrium? K =
3.40
Problem #2
For the reaction
I2 (g) ↔ 2I(g)
At 500 K, K = 2.3 x 10 -10. A mixture kept at 500K contains I 2 at a
partial pressure of 1.0 atm and I at partial pressure of 1.0 x 10 -5 atm.
Which way must the reaction go to t o reach equilibrium?
Problem #3
An equilibrium mixture at 1000K contains N2O4(g) and NO2(g) at the

following partial pressures PN2O4 = 2.3 x 10-7 atm, PNO2 = 0.41 atm.
Calculate K for the reaction N 2O4(g) ↔ 2NO2(g)
Reflection:
1. I learned that ______________

______________________________
______________________________
__________________
____
________________________
____________________________________
________________________
__________________________
______________
2. I enjoyed most on ____________________

_____________________________________
_________________________
________
________________________
_______________________________________
_____________________________
_______________________
_________
________________________
____________________________________
______________________________
_________________________
_______

_____________________________
______________________________
____________
________________________
____________________________________
________________________
________________________
______________
__
________________________
_______________________________________
______________________________
__________________
___
89

References:
Frank Brescia, John Arents, Herbert Meislich, amos Turk, Fundamentals of

Chemistry 4th Edition
Ma. Christina Padolina, PhD, Laboratory Manual and Workbook in Chemistry
Marasinghe, B.Dr. 2010. Upper Secondary Chemistry. A textbook of chemistry
for Grades 11 &12.
Bettelheim, Brown, Campbell, Farrell, Introduction to General, Organic and
Biochemistry, 8th Edition
Sackheim, George I, Lehman, Dennis D., Chemistry for Health Sciences, 8 th
Edition
90

ANSWER KEY
K EY
ACTIVITY
ACTI VITY 1
1. [H2] [Cl]
[HCl]
2. [Fe2O3]2
[Fe]4 [O2]3
3. [Na]2 [Cl2]
[NaCl]2
4. [KCl]2 [O2]3
[KClO3]2
5. [HCl]2
[H2] [Cl2]
ACTIVITY
ACTI VITY 2
1. [Mg2] [SO4-2]
2. [Ag+] [Cl-]
3. [Ca+2] [Cl2-]
4. [Mg2] [I2-]
ACTIVITY
ACTI VITY 3
Problem #1
An sw er: We calculate the reaction quotient and then compare it with K:
Q = P2SO3/ P2SO2PO2
= 0.572/0.412 x 0.16
= 12.1
Since Q is greater than K (12.1>3.40), the partial pressure of the product
(SO3)
is too large relative to the partial pressures of the reactants (SO2 and O2). To
reach equilibrium, the reaction must go from right to left.
2SO2(g) + O2(g) ← 2SO3(g)
91

Problem #2
er:: We first calculate the reaction quotient for the given reaction and the
An sw er
given mixture:
Q= P2I/PI2 = (1.0 x 10 -5)2/ 1.0 = 1.0 x 10-10
We see that Q is less than K (1.0 x 10-10 < 2.3 x 10-10). Therefore the partial
pressure of I is too small and the partial pressure of I2 is too large. The reaction
can go from left to right.
I2 → 2I
Problem#3
An sw er : At equilibrium
K = P2NO3/PN2O4
We substitute the given equilibrium pressure:
K=(0.41)2/ 2.3 x 10 -7 = 7.3 x 105
This large equilibrium constant indicates that the equilibrium favors the product
pr oduct
NO2 in this case. Most N 2O4 molecules are spilt up into NO2 molecules at 1000K
Prepared by:
5 DOLORES ARAGON-LIBAN
Magalalag National High School
92

GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2
Name: ____________
_______________________
___________ Gr
Grade
ade Lev el: ___________
__________________
_______
Date: ___________
________________________
_____________ Sco re: _____________
__________________
_____
L EARNING ACTIVI
A CTIVITY
TY SHEET
FACTORS THAT AFFECT CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM

Learners
rners (BIL)
Le Châtelier’s Principle states that if an external stress is applied to a

system at equilibrium, the system adjusts in such a way that the stress is
partially offset as the system reaches a new equilibrium position.
Stress - means a change in concentration, pressure, volume, or temperature

that removes the system from the equilibrium state. We will use Le Châtelier’s
principle to assess the effects of such changes.
The Effect of Changes in Concentr

Concentration
ation
Adding or removing a product or reactant disturbs equilibrium.

a. Stress of an added reactant or product is relieved by reaction in the
direction that consumes the added substance. Adding reactant, the
reaction shifts to the right (toward the product). Adding product, the
reaction shifts to the left (toward reactant)
b. Stress of removing a reactant or product is relieved by reaction in the
direction that replenishes the removed substance. Removing reactant
will shift the reaction towards the reactant. Removing a product will shift
the reaction towards the product.
Changes in the value of Q (reaction quotient) disturbs an equilibrium.

a. Keq > Q – reaction shifts to the product
b. Keq < Q – reaction shifts to the reactant
To show you how to predict the changes in concentration on a system at

equilibrium.
Let us consider the synthesis of ammonia.
  3 ⇌ 2

93

Given the concentration of each of the

t he molecule we have as follows;
[N2] =0.399 M [H2] = 1.197 M [NH3] = 0.202 M
What if we are going to add 1.0 mol/L of N 2, we can answer it by calculating the
Q.
For the system which is no longer at equilibrium
     0.202 
 =  = 1.3991.197 =1.70×10−
Using the first set of equilibrium concentrations, we are to calculate for the value
of K.
[ NH 3 ] 2 ( 0 . 202 ) 2 2
K = =

= 5 . 96 x 10 −

[ N 2 ][ H 2 ] 3 ( 0 . 399 )( 1 . 197 ) 3
Therefore, we can conclude that since the Q is less than

t han the value of K because
of the added N2 the system will shift to the right to restore equilibrium.
According to Le Châtelier’s Principle the system will shift to a direction that

consumes Nitrogen.
The Effect
Effect of a Change in Pressure
There are three ways to change the pressure of a reaction system involving
gaseous components:
1. Add or remove a gaseous reactant or product.
2. Add an inert gas (one not involved in the reaction).
3. Change the volume of the
t he container.
Changes in pressure and volume affects the number of moles in the

gaseous reactants and gaseous products. Increase in pressure due to
decrease in volume results in a reaction in the direction of fewer number of
moles. Decrease in pressure due to increase in volume results in a reaction in
the direction of greater number of moles.
94

Example 1: in the production of ammonia,   3 ⇌ 2

.
Increasing the pressure will shift the reaction towards the product because
there is fewer number of moles (2) in the product than in the reactant
(1+3=4moles)
Note:
- When an inert gas is added, there is no effect on the equilibrium position.
-The addition of an inert gas increases the total pressure but has no effect on
the concentrations or partial pressures of the reactants or products.
The Effect
Effect of a Change in Temperature
A change in concentration, pressure, or volume may alter the equilibrium

position, that is, the relative amounts of reactants and products, but it does not
change the value of the equilibrium constant.
- Only a change in temperature can alter the equilibrium constant.
To see why, let us consider the reaction
N 2O4 ( g )  2 NO2 ( g )
The forward reaction is endothermic (absorbs heat, Δ H° > 0):

heat + N 2O

4( g )  2 NO2 ( g ) ΔH˚ = 58.0 kJ/mol
So the reverse reaction is exothermic (releases heat, ΔH° < 0):
2 NO2 ( g ) → N 2O4 ( g ) + heat ΔH˚ = - 58.0 kJ/mol
- In summary, a temperature increase favors an endothermic reaction, and a

temperature decrease favors an exothermic reaction.
Using Le Châtelier’s Principle
For each of the following

f ollowing reactions, predict how the value of K changes as the
temperature is increased.
95

a. N 2 ( g ) + O2 ( g )  2 NO( g )  H  = 181 k J

b.2 SO2 ( g ) + O2 ( g )  2 SO3( g )  H  = −198 k J
SOLUTION
a. This is an endothermic reaction, as indicated by the

t he positive value for Δ H˚ .
Energy
can be viewed as a reactant, and K increases (the equilibrium shifts to the
right) as the temperature is increased.
b. This is an exothermic reaction (energy can be regarded as a product). As
the temperature is increased, the value of K decreases (the equilibrium shifts
to the left).
The Effect
Effect of a Ca
Catalyst
talyst
A catalyst enhances the rate of a reaction by lowering the rea ction’s activation
energy.
A catalyst lowers the activation energy of the forward reaction and the reverse
reaction to the same extent. However, they do not affect the amount reactants
and products in equilibrium.
State the Le Châtelier’s Principle and apply it qualitatively to describe the effect
of changes in pressure, concentration and temperature on a system at
Equilibrium. (STEM_GC11CEIVb-e-149)
Ac ti vi ty 1. PREDICT ME
Directions: Predict the direction of the following chemical equations given in

each items.
1) For the reaction below, which change would cause the equilibrium to shift
to the right?
CH4(g) + 2H2S(g) ↔ CS2(g) + 4H2(g)
(a) Decrease the concentration of dihydrogen sulfide.
(b) Increase the pressure on the system.
(c) Increase the temperature of the system.
(d) Increase the concentration of carbon disulfide.
(e) Decrease the concentration of methane.
96

2) What would happen to the position of the equilibrium when the following
changes are made to the equilibrium system below? 2SO 3(g) ↔ 2SO2(g) + O2(g)
(a) Sulfur dioxide is added to the system.
(b) Sulfur trioxide is removed from the system.
(c) Oxygen is added to the system.
3) What would happen to the position of the equilibrium when the following
changes are made to the reaction below? 2HgO(s) ↔ Hg(l) + O2(g)
(a) HgO is added to the system.
(b) The pressure on the system increases.
4) When the volume of container the following mixture of gases is increased,

what will be the effect on the equilibrium position? 4HCl (g) + O2(g) ↔ 2H2O(g) +
2Cl 2(g)
5) Predict the effect of decreasing the volume of the container for each
equilibrium.
(a) 2H2O(g) + N2(g) ↔ 2H2(g) + 2NO(g)
(b) SiO2(s) + 4HF(g) ↔ SiF4(g) + 2H2O(g)
(c) CO(g) + H2(g) ↔ C(s) + H2O(g)
Ac ti vi ty 2: EQUIL IBRIUM SHIFT
Directions: Fill in the blank, Give the direction of the chemical equation below.
1. Given the equilibrium equation: PCl 5(g) PCl 3(g) + Cl 2(g)

a) If the [PCl5] is increased, the equilibrium will shift to the ________
b) If the [PCl5] is decreased, the equilibrium will shift to the
t he ________
c) If the [PCl3] is increased, the equilibrium will shift to the ________
d) If the [PCl3] is decreased, the equilibrium will shift to the ________
e) If the [Cl2] is increased, the equilibrium will shift to the ________
f) If the [Cl2] is decreased,
decreased, the equilibrium
equilibrium will shift to the ________
2. Given the reaction at equilibrium: A (g) B (g) ∆H = + 32.5 kJ C(g)

a) If the
t he temperature was increased, which way would this equilibrium
shift: _____________
_____________
b) If the
t he temperature was decreased, which way would this equilibrium
shift: ______________
______________
3. Given the reaction: X(g) + Y(g) → W(g) + Z(g) ∆H = -75 kJ

a) Rewrite this as a thermochemical reaction (exothermic-heat term on right)
____________
___________ _
b) If the temperature was increased, which way would this equilibrium shift:
____________
c) If the temperature was decreased, which way would this equilibrium shift:
______
97

4. Given the equilibrium equation: N2O4(g) 2O2(g) + N2(g)

a) If the total pressure of this system is increased, the equilibrium will shift
_____
b) If the total pressure of this system is decreased, the equilibrium will shift
_____
c) If the total volume of this system is increased, it means the same as
decreasing the pressure so the equilibrium will shift to the ______
d) If the total volume of this system is decreased, it means the same as
increasing the pressure so the equilibrium will shift to the______
5) Given the equilibrium equation: X + Y + heat Z XY

a) Increasing the temperature will cause the equilibrium to shift _______
Ac ti vi ty 3: APPLY
APPL Y ME
Directions: Apply Le Châtelier’s Principle to predict the following problems.

1. Consider the following equilibrium system involving SO2, Cl2, and SO2Cl2
(sulfuryl dichloride):
SO2(g) + Cl2(g) ↔ SO2Cl2(g)
Predict how the equilibrium position would change if
(a) Cl2 gas were added to the system;
(b) SO2Cl2 were removed from the system;
(c) SO2 were removed from the system. The temperature remains constant.
2. Consider the following equilibrium systems:

(a) A ↔2B ΔH° = 20.0 kJ/mol
(b) A + B ↔ C ΔH° = - 5.4 kJ/mol
(c) A ↔ B ΔH° = 0.0 kJ/mol
Predict the change in the equilibrium constant Kc that would occur in each
case if the temperature of the reacting system were raised.
3. What effect does an increase in pressure have on each of the following

systems at equilibrium? The temperature is kept constant and, in each case,
the reactants are in a cylinder fitted with a movable piston.
(a) A(s) ↔ 2B(s)
(b) 2A(l) ↔ B(l)
(c) A(s) ↔ B(g)
(d) A(g) ↔ B(g)
(e) A(g) ↔ 2B(g)
98

Reflection:
1. I learned that _____________

________________________
___________________________
_________________________
_________
________________________
_________________________________________
_____________________________
_____________________
_________
________________________
____________________________________
_____________________________
___________________
__
2. I enjoyed most on ________________________
_______________________________________
____________________
_____
___________________________
_________________________________________
__________________________
____________________
________
________________________
____________________________________
________________________
___________________
_______
_____________________________
_____________________________
___________
________________________
_________________________________________
_____________________________
____________________
________
________________________
____________________________________
________________________
___________________
_______
99

References:
INTERNET
http://www.boundless.com/
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Chatelier’s_principle
http://mmsphyschem.com/lechatP.pdf
http://ths.sps.lane.edu/chemweb/unit11/problems/eq/
BOOKS
CHANG RAYMOND 2010, General Chemistry. Americas New York

Publications., 10th edition.
S. S. Zumdhal and S. A. Zumdhal 2010, Chemistry. Brooks/Cole Center
Learning.,United States Publications. , 9th edition.
PETRUCCI et al, 2010., General Chemistry(Principles ans Modern
Applications)., 9th edition.
D. D. DeCoste et al., Chemistry, Centgage Learning. United State Publications.
100

ANSWER KEY
K EY
ACTIVITY 1
1) c, increase the temperature of the system because a decrease in

temperature favors the ex
exothermic
othermic reaction.
2) a) Shifts left to counteract the increas

increased
ed concentration
concentration of SO2(g).
b) Shifts left to counteract the decrease in concentration of SO3(g).
c) Shifts left to counteract the increase in concentration of O 2(g).
3) a) No shift because pure liquids
liquids and solids have no effect o
on
n the equilibrium
position.
b) Heterogeneous equilibrium, therefore increased pressure has no effect
on the system.
4) Shifts left to increase the number of gas molecules. The increased in volume
results to decreased in pressure. Therefore the reaction shifts to the left in the
direction of greater number of moles of gases.
5) a) Shifts left to produce fewer number of gas molecules.
b) Shifts right to produce fewer number of moles of gas.
c) Shifts right to produce fewer number of moles of gas.
ACTIVITY 2
1. a. Right
b. Left
c. Left
d. Right
e. Left
f. Right
2. a. Right (toward product)

b. Left (towards reactant)
3. a. W(g) + Z(g) → X(g) + Y(g) ΔH˚ = +75 kJ

b. Left (reactant)
c. Right (product)
4. a. Left
b. Right
c. Right
d. Left
5. a. Right
101

ACTIVITY 3
1. According to Le Chateliers principle a system at equilibrium will react to an

external stress in such a way that the stress is involve. Hence,
a. The system will consume the added reactant Cl2 so it will shift to the right
b. The system will replace the removed SO2Cl2 so it will shift to the
t he right
c. The system will replaces the moved reactant SO2 so it will shift to the left
2. a.ΔH˚ is positive, so the direction will shift to the right as the temperature
increases.
b.ΔH˚ is negative so the direction favors the reactant side and heat is in the
product side.
c. ΔH˚ is equal to zero it has no effect
eff ect on the equilibrium.
3. a. since no gas on the equation, there will be no effect on the equilibrium.
equilibrium .
b. no gas involve in the reactant (heterogeneous equilibrium) that is why
there’s no effect on the equilibrium.
c. since no gas in the reaction, increasing
increasing the press
pressure
ure will shift
d. since there is equal number of moles of reactants and products,
pro ducts, increased
in pressure has no effect o on
n the sys
system.
tem.
e. increased in pressure
pressure will shift the reac
reaction
tion equilibrium to the left.
Prepared by:
WILLIA M E. ERR
ERRO
O
Itawes National Agricultural and Technical School - Main Campus
102

GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2
Name: ______________________ Grade Level: ____________________
Date: ___________
________________________
_____________ Sco r e: ____________
____________________
________
L EARNING ACTIVI
A CTIVITY
TY SHEET
FACTORS THAT AFFECT CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM
Learners
rners (BIL)
The Bronsted - Lowry Theory is an acid- base theory proposed by Johannes

Nicolaus Bronsted and Thomas Martyn Lowry in 1923. this theory states that
any compound that can transfer a proton to any other compound is an acid and
the compound that accept proton is a base. A proton is a nuclear particle with
a unit positive electrical charge.This substance can function an acid with the
presence of a base. Likewise, the base can function with presence of an acid.
In addition, an acidic substance loses a proton it forms base and this is called
conjugate base of an acid and when a substance gains proton it is called
conjugate acid of the base
Bronsted - Lowry Definition of Terms:

Terms:
Acids - a substance that is capable of donating Hydrogen ion H+ (proton).

Bases - it is a substance that is capable of accepting Hydrogen ion H+
Conjugate acid-base pair - is defined as an acid and its conjugate base or a
base and its conjugate acid.
Amphoteric - species that can act as acids or bases (Ex. water).
Conjugate Base - species that remains after an acid donates a Hydrogen ion
(H+).
Conjugate Acid - an species that forms after a base accepts the Hydrogen ion
(H+).
Ac i d i on izat io n o r Dis

Disso
so ci ati on Equ ati on :
− +
HA( a q) + H 2O( l ) → A ( a q) + H 3O ( a q)
acid base conjugate base conjugate acid
103

Base ionization
ionization or Dissociation Equa
Equation
tion
+ −
B( a q) + H 2O( l ) → BH
( a q) + OH ( a q)
base acid conjugate acid conjugate base
Example 1:
HCl
HCl + H 2 O → H 3O
+
+ Cl
−

- The chloride ion (Cl-) is conjugate base formed from the acid HCl, and the
Hydronium ion (H3O+) is the conjugate acid of the base water (H 2).
Define Bronsted Acids and Bases. (STEM

(STEM_GC1
_GC11AB
1ABIVf-g-153
IVf-g-153 )
Ac ti vi ty 1: CLASSIFY
CLA SSIFY ME
1. Classify the following as Brønsted acids, bases or both.

a. H2O
b. OH-
c. NH3
d. NH4+
e. NH2-
f. CO32-
Ac ti vi ty 2: TRY ME
2. What is the conjugate base of the following:

a. HClO4
b. NH4+
c. H2O
d. HCO3-
104

Ac ti vi ty 3: UNDERSTAND ME
3. What is the conjugate acid of the following bases?

a. CN-
b. SO42-
c. H2O
d. HCO3-
Ac ti vi ty 4. FILL ME
Fill in the Blank: Identify the acid-base conjugate pair:

⇌
1. C5H5N(aq) + H2O(aq) C5H5NH+(aq) + OH-(aq)
_______ _______ ________ _________
⇌
2. HPO42-(aq) + H2O(l) H2PO4-(aq) + OH-
_______ _______ ________ _________
⇌
3. CH3COOH(aq) + H2O(l) CH3COOH2+(aq) + OH-(aq)
_______ _______ ________ _________
⇌
4. HS- (aq) + H2O(l) S2-(aq) + H3O+(aq)
_______ _______ ________ _________
⇌
5. CH3OH(aq) + H2O(l) CH3O-(aq) + H3O+(aq)
_______ _______ ________ _________
Reflection:
1. I learned that ______________

_____________________________
___________________________
___________________
_______
_________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________
_________
________________________
____________________________________
________________________
________________________
_____________.
_.
2. I enjoyed most on ____________________
_________________________________
_________________________
____________
________________________
_________________________________________
_____________________________
_____________________
_________
________________________
_________________________________________
_____________________________
______________
__
__________________________
____________________________
_______________
__
________________________
____________________________________
______________________________
__________________________
________
________________________
_________________________________________
_____________________________
______________
__
105

References
BOOKS
CHANG RAYMOND 2010, General Chemistry. Americas New York

Publications., 10th edition.
T. S. Zumdhal and S. A. Zumdhal 2010, Chemistry. Brooks/Cole Center
Learning.,United States Publications. , 9th edition.
PETRUCCI et al, 2010., General Chemistry(Principles ans Modern
Applications)., 9th edition.
E. D. DeCoste et al., Chemistry, Centgage Learning. United State Publications.
INTERNET
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Br%C3%B8nsted%E2%80%93Lowry_acid%E2%
80%93base_theory
106

ANSWER KEY
K EY
ACTIVITY 1
1. a.both b.both c.both d.acid e.both f.base

ACTIVITY 2
2. a. ClO4- b. NH3 c. OH- d. CO32-
ACTIVITY 3
3. a. HCN b. HSO4- c. H3O+ d. H2CO3

HSO
ACTIVITY 4
1. Acid - H2O
Base - C5H5N
Conjugate Acid - C5H5NH+
Conjugate Base - OH-
2. Acid - H2O
Base - HPO42-
Conjugate Acid - H2PO4
Conjugate Base - OH-
3. Acid - H2O
Base - CH3COOH
Conjugate Acid - CH3COOH
Conjugate Base - CH3COOH2+
4. Acid - HS-
Base - H2O
Conjugate Acid - H3O+
Conjugate Base - S2-
5. Acid - CH3OH
Base - H2O
Conjugate Acid - H3O+
Conjugate Base - CH3O-
Prepared by:
William A. Erro
Itawes National Agricultural and Technical School - Main Campus
Campus
107

GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2
Name: __________________________
____________________________
Date: ___________
________________________
__________________
_____ Score: __________
______________
____
L EARNING ACTIVI
A CTIVITY
TY SHEET
ACID-B A SE PROPERTY OF WATER

Learners
rners (BIL)
Water has so many unique properties which makes it an exceptional

solvent and makes it essential for life on Earth. One of its unique properties is
its ability to act as either an acid or as a base in a solution. Water can be a
proton donor (an acid) or a proton acceptor (a base). Therefore, water
molecules exhibit amphiprotic property even in trace amounts.
Water accepts a Water donates a

H3O+ proton, acts as a H2O proton, acts as
OH-
base an acid
What does amphiprotic mean?

Think of a hammer. A hammer can be
used to drive nails into a wood, also it
can be used to remove nails from the
wood. It serves a dual purpose just like
amphoteric substances.
https://www.distrelec.biz/Web
https://www.distrelec.biz/Web/WebShopImages
/WebShopImages/l/l
andscape_large/2-/01/30110
andscape_ 722-01.jpg
large/2-/01/30110722-01.jpg Water, just like hammer, can
accept and donate a proton.
Note: The term amphoteric is a general term for substances that can react both
as an acid and a base. On the other hand, amphiprotic (protic refers to
hydrogen ion) is a more specific term used to describe a substance which can
both donate and accept hydrogen ions (protons). All amphiprotic substances
are amphoteric but not all amphoteric substances are amphiprotic. For
example, ZnO acts as a Lewis acid, which can accept an electron pair from OH -
but cannot donate a proton.
108

How does this happen? For example, the reaction of a strong acid like
hydrochloric acid ( HCl ) and water leads to the formation of chlorine and
hydronium ( H O+ ) ions.
   → +  
In this case, water acts as a base because it accepts a proton which leads to
the formation of hydronium ion ( HO+ ). On the other hand, the reaction between
a base like ammonia ( NH− ) and water leads to the formation of ammonium
(NH+ ) and hydroxide ( OH ) ions.
   → +  −
Water acts as an acid because it donates a proton which leads to the formation
of hydroxide ion ( OH− ).
Au to -io ni zati on of Water

Some substances undergo reactions without the addition of another
substance. This is just one of the unique properties of water. Under standard
conditions, experiments on the electrical conductivity of water have shown that
water ionizes on a very small extent. The auto-ionization (self-ionization) of
water refers to the reaction in which a water molecule donates one of its protons
(H atom) to a neighbouring water molecule, either in pure water or in aqueous
solution. The result is the formation of a hydroxide ion (OH-) and a hydronium
(OH
ion (H3O+). The auto-ionization of water molecules is shown as (also called
autoprotolysis of water):
In chemical reaction equation,
equation (1)
We often use the simplified form of the reaction:

equation (2)
109

Among the above equations, it does not make any difference which
equation is used to explain the ionization of water. Even though, equation (1) is
more appropriate, the equation (2) offers a more simple view of the ionization
which then will be used on the next discussion.
Note that this process is readily reversible. Because water is a weak acid
and a weak base, the hydronium and hydroxide ions exist in very, very small
concentrations relative to that of non-ionized water. Just how small are these
concentrations? Let's find out by examining the equilibrium constant for this
reaction (also called the auto-ionization constant), which has the special
symbol, Kw
Ion Prod uct of Water

The Ion
In the study of acid-base reactions, the hydrogen ion concentration is the
key because its value indicates the acidity or basicity of the solution. Because
only a very small fraction of water molecules are ionized, the concentration of
water, [H2O], remains virtually unchanged. Therefore, the equilibrium constant
(Kc) for the auto-ionization of water, using equation (1), is
 = +− equation (3)
where: Kc = equilibrium
equilibrium constant
−+ = concentration of hydronium ion
  = concentration
concentrat ion of hydroxide ion
Since we can use H+ and H3O+ interchangeably to represent the hydrated
proton, the equilibrium constant can also be expressed as
 = +− equation (4)
To indicate that the equilibrium constant refers to the auto-ionization of water,
we replace Kc by Kw
 = +− = +− equation (5)
where K w is called the ion-product con stant of water , which is the product of
the molar concentrations of + − and ions at a particular temperature.
110

In pure water at 250 C, the concentrations of + −

and are equal.
Pure water or any other aqueous solution in which this ratio holds is said to be
neutral.
+− = 1.0 x 10-7 M
  = 1.0 x 10-7 M
   
ℎ:: =   
ℎ ,
,
 

 
Substituting these in equation (4), we have
 = +− = (1.0 x 10-7) (1.0 x10-7) = 1.0 x 10-14
Whether we have pure water or an aqueous solution of dissolved species, the
following relation always holds at 25°C.
 = +− = 1.00 10− equation (6)
This equation is very useful in calculating either H + ion concentration knowing
OH- concentration or OH- ion concentration knowing H + concentration through
the following equations:
 .  
  =  = 
+   − equation (7)
− =  = . − equation (8)
A neutral solution is an aqueous solution in which the concentrations

of H3O+ ions and OH- ions are equal just like pure water at 25°C.
An acidic solution is a solution in which the concentration of hydrogen
ions is greater than the concentration of hydroxide ions. For example,
hydrogen chloride ionizes to produce H + and Cl− ions upon dissolving in water.
A basic solution is a solution in which the concentration of hydroxide

basic
ions is greater than the concentration of hydrogen ions. Solid potassium
hydroxide dissociates in water to yield potassium ions and hydroxide ions.
111

The relationship between [H+] and [OH-] is inversely proportional. The increase
in concentration of the OH− ions causes a decrease in the concentration of the
H+ ions and the ion-product of [H +][OH−] remains constant.
Solution Genera
Generall Condition At 25°C
25°C
acidic + > − + > 1.0  10− − < 1.0  10−

neutral + = − + = 1.0  10− − = 1.0  10−

basic + < − + < 1.0  10− − > 1.0  10−

Table showing the relationship between [H+] and [OH-] ions.
Sample Problem 1: Using Kw for an Aqueous Solution

The concentration of OH - ions in a certain household ammonia cleaning
solution is 0.0025 M. Calculate the concentration of H+ ions.
Solution:
In this problem, we are given the concentration of the OH - ions which is 0.0025
M and are asked to calculate the [H+]. The relationship between [H+] and [OH-
] in an aqueous solution is given by the ion-product equation,
 = +− = 1.0  −1010− −

, rearranging this equation
+ = − = 1.0 −10 = 1.00.0025

10 = 4.0  10− 
Because [H+] < [OH-], the solution is basic.
Sample Problem 2. Calculating the [OH-] from a given [H+]

Sufficient acidic solute is added to a quantity of water to produce a solution
with [H+] = 4.0 x 10-3 M. What is the [OH-] in this solution?
Solution:
In this problem, we are given the concentration of the H + ions which is 4.0 x
10-3 M and are asked to calculate the [OH-]. The relationship between [H+] and
[OH-] in an aqueous solution is given by the ion-product equation,
112

 = +− = 1.0  −1010− −

, rearranging this equation
− = + = 1.0+10 = 1.4.001010− = 2.5  1010− 
Because [H+] > [OH-], the solution is acidic.
Discuss the acid-base property of water. (STEM_GC11AB-IVf-g-154)
Ac ti vi ty 1: WHO AM I?
Directions: Answer the following questions briefly.
1. What do we mean when we say that water is amphiprotic? (a) Can we also
describe water as amphoteric? Why?
______________________
___________________________________
_________________________
_______________________
______________
___
______________________
__________________________________
______________________
_______________________
_________________
____
______________________
__________________________________
______________________
_______________________
_________________
____
2. Give at least two (2) things that we use in our

ou r daily activities which is
amphiprotic in nature and explain why.
______________________
__________________________________
______________________
_______________________
_________________
____
______________________
__________________________________
______________________
_______________________
_________________
____
______________________
__________________________________
______________________
_______________________
_________________
____
B. In the following reactions, identify if water is playing the role of an acid, a

base, or neither.
1. −   → − − − + ____________
2. +    →   + ____________
3.  −  6  →  − ____________
4.  −   → −   + ____________
5.    →    ____________
113

Ac ti vi ty 2: DRILL YOUR BRA

BRAIN!
IN!
A. Directions. Draw a graph showing the relationship of [OH-] and [H+] on the
following situation. Explain the relationship.
+ Neutral
Solution
− + Acidic
Solution
− + Basic
Solution
−
10-14 10-14 10-14 10-14 10-14 10-14
10-13 10-13 10-13 10-13 10-13 10-13
10-12 10-12 10-12 10-12 10-12 10-12
10-11 10-11 10-11 10-11 10-11 10-11
10-10 10-10 10-10 10-10 10-10 10-10
10-9 10-9 10-9 10-9 10-9 10-9
10-8 10-8 10-8 10-8 10-8 10-8
10-7 10-7 10-7 10-7 10-7 10-7
10-6 10-6 10-6 10-6 10-6 10-6
10-5 10-5 10-5 10-5 10-5 10-5
10-4 10-4 10-4 10-4 10-4 10-4
10-3 10-3 10-3 10-3 10-3 10-3
10-2 10-2 10-2 10-2 10-2 10-2
10-1 10-1 10-1 10-1 10-1 10-1
100 100 100 100 100 100
________________________
____________________________________
_________________________
_______________________
__________
________________________
____________________________________
______________________________
_______________________
_____
________________________
____________________________________
_________________________
_______________________
__________
B. Calculate the molar H+ ion concentration of a solution if the OH - ion

concentration is
a. vinegar, 1.0 x 10-11 M
b. ammonia, 5.6 x 10-3 M
c. NaOH solution, 2.5 x 10-2 M
C. Calculate the molar OH- ion concentration of a solution if the H+ ion
concentration is
a. coffee, 1.0 x 10-5 M
b. lemon juice, 2.5 x 10-2 M
c. cleanser, 5.0 x 10-10 M
114

Ac ti vi ty 3: HOW WELL DO YOU KNOW?

A. Answer the following briefly.
1. Write the chemical equation showing the ionization of water.
________________________
____________________________________
_______________________
____________________
_________
2. Write the equilibrium constant expression for this equation.
________________________
____________________________________
_______________________
____________________
_________
3. What is the relationship between [H 3O+] and [OH-] in pure water at 25°C?
________________________
____________________________________
_______________________
____________________
_________
4. How can the relationship between [H3O+] and [OH-] be used to define or
identify if the solution is basic or acidic?
________________________
_______________________________________
_____________________________
_________________
___
___________________________
_____________________________________
_______________________
___________________
______
5. If a base is added to pure water, why does the [H3O+] decrease?
______________________
__________________________________
______________________
_______________________
_________________________
____________
______________________
__________________________________
_________________________
_____________________
________
B. Solve for the following problems. Tell whether the solution is basic or
acidic.
1. Sufficient acidic solute is added to a quantity of water to produce a
solution with [H+] = 5.7 x 10 -6 M. What is the [OH -] in this solution?
2. The concentration of OH- ions in a particular household ammonia
cleaning solution is 0.075M. What is the H+ ion concentration?
C. Selected information about five solutions, each at 25°C, is given in the

following table. Complete the table by filling in the missing
mi ssing information.
[H+] [OH-] Acidic or Basic
2.2 x 10-2 M
3.3 x 10-3 M
7.7 x 10-2 M
6.3 x 10-8 M
4.2 x 10-6 M

115

Ac ti vi ty 4: OPERATION: Cro ss wo rd Puzzl

Puzzlee
Directions. Complete the crossword by filling in the boxes to form a word that
fits each clue.

116

Reflection:
1. I learned that __
________________
__________________________
_______________________
________________
_____
__________________________
______________ ______________________
________________________
___________________
_____
__________________________
______________ ______________________
________________________
___________________
_____
2. I enjoyed most on ____________

________________________
________________________
________________
____
___________________________
________________ _______________________
_________________________
________________
___
__________________________
______________ ______________________
________________________
___________________
_____
3. I want to le
learn
arn more on _____________
________________________
______________________
____________
_
__________________________
______________ ______________________
________________________
___________________
_____
_____________________________
______________ ____________________________
_________________________
______________

117

References:
Books
Stoker, H. Stephen.2010. Exploring General, Organic and Biological Chemistry.
CENGAGE Learning. Philippine Edition.
Teaching Guide for Senior High School. General Chemistry 2. 2016. Commission
on Higher Education.
Timberlake, Karen C. Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and

Biological Chemistry.12th ed.
Whitten, Kenneth W et.al. 2004. General Chemistry. Brooks/Cole. 7th ed.
Online Sources
Acid-Base Properties
Properties of Water (n.d.). Retrieved June 15, 2020 from
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/introchem
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/introchem/chapter/acid-base-prope
/chapter/acid-base-properties-of-
rties-of-
water/
water/
Acids and Bases. (n.d). Retrieved June 15, 2020 from

https://www.khanacademy.org/science/chemistry/acids-and-bases-to
https://www.khanacademy.org/science/che mistry/acids-and-bases-topic/acids-
pic/acids-
and-bases/a/water-autoionization-and-kw
Ionization of Acids and Bases (n.d.). Retrieved June 15, 2020 from
https://www.ck12.org/book/cbse-chemistry-book-cla
https://www.ck12.org/book/cbse-chemistry-book-class-11/section/8.12
ss-11/section/8.12//
The Acid-Base Properties

Properties of Water and Ion Product (n.d.). Retrieved June 15,
2020 from
https://faculty.ncc.edu/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=xZ3v05
https://faculty.ncc.edu/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=xZ3v05k1gPc%3D&tabid=18
k1gPc%3D&tabid=1896
96

118

ANSWER KEY
K EY
Activity 1. Who Am I?
A. 1. Water is said to be amphiprotic, that is, H2O molecules can both
donate and accept protons. Yes. Water also exhibits amphoterism because it
can either act as an acid or a base in a reaction.
2. Answer varies. Some of which are:
a. Pencil. It is used to write and can also be used to erase.
b. Screwdriver. It is used to drive/tighten or remove screws.
B. In the following reactions, identify if water is playing the role of an acid, a
base, or neither.
1. −   → − − − + ___acid_____
2. +    →   + ___base____
3.  −  6  →  − ___neither__
4.  −   → −   + ___acid____
5.    →    ___base__ _
Activity 2: Drill it!

A. Draw a graph showing the relationship of [OH -] and [H+] on the following
situation. Explain the relationship.
+ Neutral
Solution
 + Acidic
Solution
− + Basic
Solution
−
10-14 10-14 10-14 10-14 10-14 10-14
10-13 10-13 10-13 10-13 10-13 10-13
10-12 10-12 10-12 10-12 10-12 10-12
10-11 10-11 10-11 10-11 10-11 10-11
10-10 10-10 10-10 10-10 10-10 10-10
10-9 10-9 10-9 10-9 10-9 10-9
10-8 10-8 10-8 10-8 10-8 10-8
10-7 10-7 10-7 10-7 10-7 10-7
10-6 10-6 10-6 10-6 10-6 10-6
10-5 10-5 10-5 10-5 10-5 10-5
10-4 10-4 10-4 10-4 10-4 10-4
10-3 10-3 10-3 10-3 10-3 10-3
10-2 10-2 10-2 10-2 10-2 10-2
10-1 10-1 10-1 10-1 10-1 10-1
100 100 100 100 100 100

119

The relationship between + and − in aqueous solution is an inverse

is increased, −  decreases, and vice versa.
proportion; when  + is
B. Calculate the molar H+ ion concentration of a solution if the OH - ion

concentration is
a. vinegar, 1.0 x 10-11 M [H+] =1.0 x 10-3 M
b. ammonia, 5.6 x 10-3 M [H+] =1.8 x 10-12 M
c. NaOH solution, 2.5 x 10-2 M [H+] =4.0 x 10-13 M
C. Calculate the molar OH- ion concentration of a solution if the H+ ion
concentration is
a. coffee, 1.0 x 10-5 M [OH-] = 1.0 x10-9 M
b. lemon juice, 2.5 x 10-2 M [OH-] = 4.0 x10-13 M
c. cleanser, 5.0 x 10-10 M [OH-] = 2.0 x10-5 M
Activity 3: How well do you know?

A. Answer the following briefly.
1. Write the chemical equation showing the ionization of water.
   ↔ +  −
2. Write the equilibrium constant expression for this equation.
 = −+ = 1.0  10−
3. What is the relationship between [H3O+] and [OH-] in pure water at 25°C?
The formation of H3O+ ion by ionization of pure water is always
accompanied by the formation of an OH - ion, thus [H3O+] is always equal to
[OH-] which is equal to 1.0 x 10 -7 M.
− = + = 1.0  10−
4. How can the relationship between [H 3O+] and [OH-] be used to define or
identify if the solution is basic or acidic?
If + >+ −, then the sol uti o n i s aci d i c
If   < −, then the solution is basic

120

5. If a base is added to pure water, why does the [H3O+] decrease?

The relationship between [H+] and [OH-] is inversely proportional. The
increase in concentration of the OH − ions causes a decrease in the
concentration of the H+ ions and the ion-product of [H+][OH−] remains constant.
B. Solve for the following problems. Tell whether the solution is basic or acidic.
1. 1.8  10−− 
, acidic
2. 1.3  10  , basic
C. Selected information about four solutions, each at 25°C, is given in the

following table. Complete the table by filling in the missing information.
[H+] [OH-] Acidic or Basic
2.2 x 10-2 M 4.5 x 10-13 M Acidic
3.0 x 10-12 M 3.3 x 10-3 M Basic
1.3 x 10-13 M 7.7 x 10-2 M Basic
6.3 x 10-8 M 1.6 x 10-7 M Basic
4.2 x 10-6 M 2.4 x10-9 M Acidic
Activity 4: Operation: Crossword Puzzle

1.Hydroxide ion
2.Autoionization
3.Amphoteric
4.Neutral
5.Acid
6.Molarity
7.Basic
8.Amphiprotic
9.Base
10. Acidic
Prepared by:
Rosemari e C. F
Fernandez
ernandez
Itawes National High School

121

GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2
Name: __________________________
____________________________
Date: ___________
___________________________
__________________
__ Score: __________
______________
____
L EARNING ACTIVI
A CTIVITY
TY SHEET
pH: A MEASURE OF ACIDITY

Learners
rners (BIL)
Personnel working in food processing,

medicine, agriculture, spa and pool
maintenance, soap manufacturing, and
wine making measure the [H 3O+] and
[OH-] of solutions. The proper level of
acidity is necessary to evaluate the
functioning of the lungs and kidneys, to https://images.wisegeek.com/che
https://images.wisegeek.com/chemist-with-vials.jpg
mist-with-vials.jpg
control bacterial growth in foods, and to prevent the growth of pests in food
crops.
In aqueous solution, an acid is defined as any species that increases
the concentration of H+ ions, while a base increases the concentration of OH-
ions. Typical concentrations of these ions in solution can be very small, and
they also span a wide range. Let’s take a look on the concentration of H+ ions
of pure water at 25°C and to the acid present in our stomach. We have learned
from our previous lesson that pure water has a value of 1.0 x 10-7 M of H+ and
the acid in our stomach has 1.0 x10 -1 M. This means that the [H +] of acid in our
stomach is 6 orders of magnitude larger than in pure water.
We have also learned how to quantify the concentration of H + ions from
the given concentration of OH - ions or vice-versa using the ion-product
constant of water, Kw. Now we are going to learn the relationship between
these concentrations and the so-called, pH.

122

The pH Concept
Because the concentrations of H+ and OH- ions in aqueous solutions
are frequently very small numbers and therefore inconvenient to work with,
Soren Sorensen† in 1909 proposed a more practical measure called pH. The
pH scale is a scale of small numbers that is used to specify molar hydronium
ion concentration in an aqueous solution.
https://www.sciencenewsforst
https://www.sciencenewsforstudents.org/wp-content
udents.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/860_
/uploads/2019/11/860_SS_pH.png
SS_pH.png
Figure 1: pH of some common substances. On the pH scale, values below 7.0 are acidic, a
value of 7.0 is neutral, and values above 7.0 are basic.
Timberlake, Karen C. Chemistry: An I ntroduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry.12th ed.
Figure 2: The pH of a solution can be determined using (a) pH meter, (b) pH paper, (c)
indicators that changes in color in response to pH values.

123

lating pH and [H3O+]

Relating
Re
We can calculate the pH of a solution knowing the concentrations of H +
or OH- ions in that solution. The calculation of pH scale values involves the use
of logarithms. The pH is the negative logarithm of an aqueous solution’s molar
hydronium ion concentration. Expressed mathematically, the definition of pH
is
 = +  = +
or equation (1)
The negative logarithm gives us a positive number for pH, which
otherwise would be negative due to the small value of [H +]. Like the equilibrium
constant, the pH of a solution is a dimensionless quantity.
Because pH is simply a way to express hydrogen ion concentration,
acidic and basic solutions at 25°C can be distinguished by their pH values, as
follows:
Notice that pH increases as [H+] decreases.

Sometimes we may be given the pH value of a solution and asked to
calculate the H+ ion concentration. In that case, we need to take the antilog of
equation (1) as follows:
+ = 10− or + = 10− equation (2)
Integral p H Va
Values
lues
For any hydronium ion concentration expressed in exponential notation

in which the coefficient is 1.0, the pH is given directly by the negative of the
exponent value of the power of 10:
+ = 1.0  1100− equation (3)

 =  equation (4)

124

Thus, if the hydronium ion concentration is 1.0 x 10 -9, then the pH will be
9.00. This simple relationship between pH and hydronium ion concentration is
valid only when the coefficient in the exponential notation expression for the
hydronium ion concentration is 1.0.
Sample problem 1. Calculating pH from [H3O+] and [OH-]
Calculate the pH for each of the following solutions.

a. [H3O+] = 1.0 x 10-6 M
b. [OH-] = 1.0 x10 -6 M
Solution:
a. Because the coefficient in the exponential expression for the molar
hydronium ion concentration is 1.0, the pH can be obtained from the
relationships (equations 3 and 4)
+ = 1.0  1010− = 1.0  1010−

 = =
=6
The power of 10 is -6 in this case, so the pH will be 6.00.
b. The given value is the concentration of OH - ions. Before we could

compute for the pH, we have to find first the concentration of H3O+ ions using
the ion product of water,
Kw = [H3O+] [OH-] = 1.0 x 10 -14, rearranging we have
+ 1. 0  10 14
  = 1.0  106 = 1.0 x 10 , applying now equations 3 and 4
-8
+ = 1.0  10− = 1.0  1010−

 = =
=8
The power of 10 is -8, in this

t his case, the pH will be 8.00.
Non-integral p H Va
Values
lues
If the coefficient in the exponential expression for the molar hydronium

ion concentration is not 1.0, then the pH will have a non-integral value; that is,
it will not be a whole number. For example, consider the following non-integral
pH values.

125

Note: The easiest way to obtain non-integral pH values such as these involves
using an electronic calculator that allows for the input of exponential numbers
and that has a base-10 logarithm key (LOG). In using such an electronic
calculator, you can obtain logarithm values simply by pressing the LOG key
after having entered the number whose log is desired. For pH, you must
remember that after obtaining the log value, you must change signs because
of the negative sign in the defining equation for pH.
Sample Problem 2. Calculating pH from [H3O+]
Aspirin, which is acetylsalicylic acid, was the first non-steroidal anti-

inflammatory drug used to alleviate pain and fever. If a solution of aspirin has
a [H3O+] = 1.7 x 10-3 M, what is the pH of the solution?
Solution: What is known is the [H 3O+] = 1.7 x 10-3 M and we are asked to
compute for the pH of the solution of aspirin. We know that to get the value of
pH, we use equation (1),
 = + , substituting from the given
= 1.7  10− = 2.77
Sample Problem 3. Calculating [H3O+] from pH
Determine the [H3O+] for solutions having a pH=8.25.

Solution: We are given the value of pH=8.25 and we are asked to compute for
the concentration of H3O+. For this, we are going to use equation (2)
+ = 10− , substituting

+ = 10−. = 5.6  1100−
Relating
Relating pOH and [OH-]
and
A pOH scale analogous to the pH scale can be devised using the

negative logarithm of the hydroxide ion concentration of a solution. Thus, we
define pOH as

=  − equation (5)

126

If we are given the pOH value of a solution and asked to calculate the
OH- ion concentration, we can take the antilog of equation (5)
− = 10− equation (6)
Relatin
Relatingg pH and pOH
Now consider again the ion-product constant for water at 25°C:
Kw = [H+] [OH-] = 1.0 x 10 -14
Taking the negative logarithm of both sides and from the definitions of pH and
pOH, we obtain
-log [H+] + -log [OH-] = -log 1.0 x 10-14

10
pH + pOH = 14.00 equation (7)
This provides us with another way to express the relationship between the
H+ ion concentration and the OH- ion concentration.
Sample Problem 6. Calculating [OH-] from pOH
In a NaOH solution [OH-] is 2.9 x 10-4 M. Calculate the pH of the solution.
Solution: Solving this problem takes two steps. First, we need to calculate pOH
using equation (5). Next, we use equation (7) to calculate the pH of the solution.
First, we use equation (5),
=  =log2.9  10− =3.54

 − =log
Then we use equation (7),
pH + pOH = 14
pH = 14 - pOH = 14 - 3.54 = 10.46
The answer shows that the solution is basic
Note: We can also use of water, Kw= [H+][OH-] to

use the ion-product constant of
calculate [H+], and then we can calculate the pH from the [H +].

127

Calculate pH from the concentration of hydrogen ions or hydroxide ions in
aqueous solutions. (STEM_GC11AB-IVf-g-156)
Ac ti vi ty 1. BRA INS OUT!

Directions: Read and analyze each problem carefully. Identify the known
variables and solve for the unknown following the steps in solving a problem.
1. The OH- ion concentration of a blood sample is 2.5 x 10-7 M. What is
the pH of the blood?
2. The pH of an unknown solution is 5.68. What is the [OH -] and pOH of
the solution?
3. Upon investigating the pH of different ponds, you found out that a
certain pond measures 4.2 which is below the recommended pH of 6.5.
a. What are the [H3O+] and [OH-] of the pond?
b. What are the [H3O+] and [OH-] of the pond that has a pH of 6.5?
4. Calculate pH from the following hydrogen ion concentration (M).
Identify each as an acidic pH or a basic pH.
Hydrogen Ion Concentration pH Basic/Acidic
1. 0.0015
2. 5.0 x 10-9
3. 1.0
4. 1.0 x 10-12
5. 0.0001
6. 1.0 x 10-4
7. 1.0 x 10-8
8. 5.63 x 10-9
9. 3.67 x 10-6
10. 3.25 x 10-4
5. You decided to test the pH of your brand-new swimming pool. The

instruction manual advises to keep it between 7.2-7.6. Shockingly, you
found out that the pH of your pool is 8.3! What kind of chemical should you
add?

128

Ac ti vi ty 2: FILL ME UP!

Directions: Complete the table showing the relationship between pH, pOH
and the concentration of the hydronium ions and hyd
hydroxide
roxide ions
ions..
+
 −

1  10−

1  10−
1  10−
1  10−
1  10−
1  10−
1  10−
1  10−
1  10−
1  10−
1  10−
1  10−
1  10−
1  10−
1  10
Q1. From the completed table, what relationship of pH and hydronium ion
concentration can be established?
________________________
____________________________________
_______________________
____________________
_________
Q2. From the completed table, what relationship of pH and hydroxide ion
________________________
____________________________________
_______________________
____________________
_________
Q3. What is the relationship of hydroxide and hydronium ion

concentrations? How about the pH and pOH?
__________________________
____________________________________
________________________
____________________
______

129

Q4. How can you use the pH scale in differentiating acidic, neutral and
basic solutions?
________________________
____________________________________
_____________________________
____________________
___
Ac ti vi ty 3: pH matt
m att ers ! 1 PI
PIC,
C, 4 SENTENCES
Directions: The pictures below illustrate the different effects of pH in our

environment. Using four (4) sentences, describe how pH affects our daily life .
1. Human Survival
Commons.wikimedia.org
2. Animal Survival
________________________
______________________________
______
________________________
______________________________
______
___________________________
______________________________
___
________________________
______________________________
______
https://rain-acid.weeb
https://rain-acid.weebly.com/consequences.html
ly.com/consequences.html
3. Plant Survival
_________________________
____________________________
___
_________________________
____________________________
___
___________________________
____________________________
_
_________________________
____________________________
___
https://www.usgs.gov/special-topi
https://www.usgs.gov/special-topic/water-science-
c/water-science-
school/science/acid-rain-and-water

130

4. Soil Acidity
__________________________
____________________________
__
___________________________
____________________________
_
________________________
____________________________
____
________________________
____________________________
____
https://www.usgs.gov/special-topic/water-science-
Activity 4: SHOW ME WHAT YOU’VE GOT!

GOT!
Directions: Investigate and analyze the given situation. Provide an explanation

for your answer.
Hair stylists recommend slightly acidic and near neutral shampoo for
smoother hair. You find 5 brands that you like. The first has a pH of 3.6, the
second is 13, the third is 8.2, the fourth is 6.8 and the fifth is 9.7. Which one
should you buy? Explain why it is better.
________________________
____________________________________
_____________________________
__________________________
_________
________________________
____________________________________
________________________
________________________
______________
__
________________________
_______________________________________
______________________________
___________________.
____.
Reflection:
1. I learned that ___________

________________________
_________________________
____________
__________________________
____________________________________
____________________________
___________________
_
__________________________
____________________________________
________________________
___________________
_____
2. I enjoyed most on ________________________

_________________________________
_________
__________________________
____________________________________
________________________
___________________
_____
__________________________
____________________________________
________________________
___________________
_____
3. I want
want to le
learn
arn more on __________________________
_____________________________
___
__________________________
____________________________________
________________________
___________________
_____
__________________________
____________________________________
________________________
___________________
_____

131

References:
Books
Stoker, H. Stephen. 2010. Exploring General, Organic and Biological
Chemistry. CENGAGE Learning. Philippine Edition.
Teaching Guide for Senior High School. General Chemistry 2. 2016.

Commission on Higher Education
Timberlake, Karen C. Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and

Biological Chemistry.12th ed.
Whitten, Kenneth W et.al. 2004. General Chemistry. Brooks/Cole. 7th ed.

Chemistry.
Online Sources
Acid-Base Properties of Water (n.d.). Retrieved June 15, 2020 from
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/introchem/chapter/acid-base-properties-of-
water/
Ionization of Acids and Bases (n.d.). Retrieved June 15, 2020 from
https://www.ck12.org/book/cbse-chemistry-book-class-11/section/8.12/

132

ANSWER KEY
K EY
Ac ti vi ty 1. BRA INS OUT!

1. The OH- ion concentration of a blood sample is 2.5 x 10 -7 M. What is the pH
of the blood?
since [OH-] is given, we have to compute first for the [H3O+]
using this equation,
+− = 1.0  1010−
+ 1. 0  1014 1.0  1014

  = − = 2.5  107 = 4.0  108
Then we can compute now for the pH

= + = log4.0  10− =7.4
2. The pH of an unknown solution is 5.68. What is the [OH -] and pOH of the
solution?
=14
=14=145.68=8.32
− = 10− = 10−. = 4.7979  1010−
3. Upon investigating the pH of different ponds, you found out that a certain
pond measures 4.2 which is below theth e recommended pH of 6.5.
a. What are the [H3O+] and [OH-] of the pond?
+ = 10− = 10−. = 6.3  1010−
=14
=14=144.2=9.8
− = 10− = 10−. = 1.6  1010− 
b. What are the [H3O+] and [OH-] of the pond that has a pH of 6.5?
+ = 10− = 10−. = 3.2  10−
=14
=14=146.5=7.5
− = 10− = 10−. = 3.2  1010− 

133

4. Calculate pH from the following hydrogen ion concentration (M). Identify

each as an acidic pH or a basic pH.
Hydrogen Ion Concentration pH Basic/Acidic
1. 0.0015 2.82 acidic
2. 5.0 x 10-9 8.30 Basic
3. 1.0 0 Acidic
4. 1.0 x 10-12 12 Basic
5. 0.0001 3 Acidic
6. 1.0 x 10-4 4 Acidic
7. 1.0 x 10-8 8 Basic
8. 5.63 x 10-9 8.25 Basic
9. 3.67 x 10-6 5.44 Acidic
10. 3.25 x 10-4 3.49 acidic
5.. You decide to test the pH of your brand new swimming pool. The instruction
manual advises to keep it between 7.2-7.6. Shockingly, you found out that the
pH of your pool is 8.3! What kind of chemical should you add?
Add an acidic solution to the pool.
Ac ti vi ty 2: FILL ME UP!

Directions: Read and analyze each problem carefully. Identify the known
variables and solve for the unknown following the steps in solving a problem.
+  − 
1  10−
0 1  10−− 14
1  10− 1 1  10− 13
1  10− 2 1  10− 12
1  10− 3 1  10 − 11
1  10 4 1  10− 10
1  10− 5 1  10− 9
1  10− 6 1  10 8
1  10−− 7 1  10−− 7
1  10 8 1  10 6
1  10−− 9 1  10−− 5
1  10− 10 1  10− 4
1  10− 11 1  10− 3
1  10− 12 1  10− 2
1  10− 13 1  10  1
1  10 14 1  10 0

134

Q1. From the completed table, what relationship of pH and hydronium ion
As the concentration of hydronium ion increases, the pH value

decreases.
Q2. From the completed table, what relationship of pH and hydroxide ion
As the concentration of hydroxide ion increases, the pH value increases.

Q3. What is the relationship of hydroxide and hydronium ion
concentrations? How about the pH and pOH?
Hydronium and hydroxide ion concentrations are inversely proportional,
that is, as hydronium ion concentration increases, the hydroxide ion
concentration decreases. Same applies with pH and pOH.
Q4. How can you use the pH scale in differentiating acidic, neutral and
basic solutions?
Ac ti vi ty 3: pH matt
m att ers ! 1 PIC, 4 SENTENCES
Directions: The pictures below illustrate the different effects of pH in our

environment. Using four (4) sentences, describe how pH affects our daily life.
ANSWERS MAY
MA Y VARY.
1. Human Survival
Human body works within the pH range of 7.0 to 7.8. Living organisms
can survive only in a narrow range of pH. Large amount of acids are being
released in the stomach every time you eat. It helps in the digestion of food
without harming the stomach. Tooth decay starts when the pH of the mouth is
lower than 5.5. Tooth enamel, made up of calcium phosphate, is corroded when
the pH in the mouth is below 5.5.

135

2. Animal Survival
When pH of rain water is less than 5.6, it is called acid rain. The effects
of acid rain include damage to the limestone and marble in statues and
buildings; weakening of the exposed metal on bridges and cars; damage to
bodies of water, wildlife, plants, forests and crops; and the contamination of the
drinking water supply. When acid rain flows into the rivers, it lowers the pH of
the river water. Aquatic life cannot survive in acidic water.
3. Plants Survival
Acid rain has indirect effects on plants. It weakens the trees by damaging
their leaves, limiting the nutrients available to them, or poisoning them with toxic
substances slowly released from the soil. Trees affected by acid rain do not
grow as quickly as usual, their leaves and needles turn brown and fall off when
they should be green and healthy
4. Soil Acidity
Plants require a specific pH range for their healthy growth. Soil pH
should be maintained at >5.5. Acidic soil prevents or limits root development.
Plants grown in acidic soil cannot absorb water and nutrients, are stunted, and
exhibit nutrient deficiency symptoms (especially those for phosphorus).
Activity 4: SHOW ME WHAT YOU’VE GOT!

GOT!
Directions: Investigate and analyze the given situation. Provide an

a n explanation
for your answer.
Hair stylists recommend slightly acidic and near neutral shampoo for
smoother hair. You find 5 brands that you like. The first has a pH of 3.6,
the second is 13, the third is 8.2, the fourth is 6.8 and the fifth is 9.7.
Which one should you buy? Explain why it is better.
The fourth brand that has a pH of 6.8. It is close to being neutral
(pH=7), but is below pH 7 making it slightly acidic.
Prepared by:
Rosemari e C. F
Fernandez
ernandez
Itawes National High School

136

GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2
Name: ____________
__________________________
________________
Date: _________________________
_____________________________
____ Score: _____________
______________
_
L EARNING ACTIVI
A CTIVITY
TY SHEET
BUFFERS
Background Information fo r t he Lea

Learners
rners (BIL)
A buffer is a solution that can resist pH change upon the addition of an

acidic or basic component. It can neutralize small amounts of added acid or
base, thus maintaining the pH of the solution relatively
r elatively stable. This is important
for processes and/or reactions which require specific and stable pH ranges.
Buffer solutions have a working pH range and capacity which dictate how much
acid/base can be neutralized before pH changes, and the amount by which it
will change. Buffer solutions are used as a means of keeping pH at a nearly
constant value in a wide variety of chemical applications. For example, blood in
the human body is a buffer solution.
Human blood has narrow limits in which its pH must be maintained. The
pH range is between 7.35 to 7.45. A pH outside this range results in many
diseases, including cancer. Many foods cause acidity. There are substances in
the body that neutralize acids or bases when the pH of the blood is increased
or decreased. For this reason, the pH of the blood is controlled.
Whatt is a buffer composed of?
Wha
To effectively maintain a pH range, a buffer must consist of a weak

conjugate acid-base pair, meaning either a. a weak acid and its conjugate base,
or b. a weak base and its conjugate acid. The use of one or the other will simply
depend upon the desired pH when preparing the buffer. For example, the
following could function as buffers when together in solution:
• Acetic acid (weak organic acid w/ formula CH 3COOH) and a salt

containing its conjugate base, the acetate anion (CH3COO-), such as
sodium acetate (CH3COONa)
• Pyridine (weak base w/ formula C 5H5N) and a salt containing its
conjugate acid, the pyridinium cation (C5H5NH+), such as Pyridinium
Chloride.
• Ammonia (weak base w/ formula NH3) and a salt containing its conjugate
acid, the ammonium cation, such as Ammonium Hydroxide (NH 4OH)

137

How does a buffer work?
A buffer is able to resist pH change because the two components

(conjugate acid and conjugate base) are both present in appreciable amounts
at equilibrium and are able to neutralize small amounts of other acids and bases
(in the form of H3O+ and OH-) when the are added to the solution. To clarify
this effect, we can consider the simple example of a Hydrofluoric Acid (HF) and
Sodium Fluoride (NaF) buffer. Hydrofluoric acid is a weak acid due to the strong
attraction between the relatively small F- ion and solvated protons (H3O+),
which does not allow it to dissociate completely in water. Therefore, if we obtain
HF in an aqueous solution, we establish the following equilibrium with only slight
dissociation (Ka(HF) = 6.6x10-4, strongly favors reactants):
HF(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ F−(aq) + H3O+(aq) (1)
We can then add and dissolve sodium fluoride into the solution and mix
the two until we reach the desired volume and pH at which we want to buffer.
When Sodium Fluoride dissolves in water, the reaction goes to completion, thus
we obtain:
NaF(aq) + H2O(l) → Na+ (aq) + F−(aq) (2)
Since Na+ is the conjugate of a strong base, it will have no effect on the
pH or reactivity of the buffer. The addition of NaF to the solution will, however,
increase the concentration of F- in the buffer solution, and, consequently, by Le
Châtelier’s Principle, lead to slightly less dissociation of the HF in the previous
equilibrium, as well. The presence of significant amounts of both the conjugate
acid,HF, and the conjugate base, F-, allows the solution to function as a buffer.
This buffering action can be seen in the titration curve of a buffer solution.
As we can see, over the working range of the buffer. pH changes very
little with the addition of acid or base. Once the buffering capacity is exceeded
the rate of pH change quickly jumps. This occurs because the conjugate acid

138

or base has been depleted through neutralization. This principle implies that a
larger amount of conjugate acid or base will have a greater buffering capacity.
If acid were added:
F−(aq) + H3O+(aq) ⇌ HF(aq) + H2O(l)
In this reaction, the conjugate base, F-, will neutralize the added acid,
H3O+, and this reaction goes to completion, because the reaction of F- with
H3O+ has an equilibrium constant much greater than one. (In fact, the
equilibrium constant the reaction as written is just the inverse of the Ka for HF:
1/Ka(HF) = 1/(6.6x10-4) = 1.5x10+3.) So long as there is more F- than H3O+,
almost all of the H3O+ will be consumed and the equilibrium will shift to the
right, slightly increasing the concentration of HF and slightly decreasing the
concentration of F-, but resulting in hardly any change in the amount of H3O+
present once equilibrium is re-established.
If base were added:
HF(aq) + OH−(aq) ⇌
F−(aq) + H2O(l) (4)
In this reaction, the conjugate acid, HF, will neutralize added amounts of
base, OH-, and the equilibrium will again shift to the right, slightly increasing the
concentration of F- in the solution and decreasing the amount of HF slightly.
Again, since most of the OH- is neutralized, little pH change will occur.
These two reactions can continue to alternate back and forth with little pH
change.
How can a buffer maintain the pH of a substance even if small amounts
of acids or bases are added into the substance? If an acid is added to the
substance, the conjugate base of the buffer neutralizes the acid added. If a
base is added to the substance, the conjugate acid of the buffer neutralizes the
base added. For a buffer solution made up of HCH3COO and NaCH3COO, the
conjugate acid is HCH3COO and the conjugate base is CH3COO-, If HCl is
added into the solution containing the acetic acid – acetate buffer, the HCl
reacts with the conjugate base of the buffer, CH3COO-. HCl is strong acid and
is completely ionized.
HCl → H+ + Cl--

The H+ reacts with the CH 3COO-1, the conjugate base of the buffer
forming acetic acid.
H+ + CH3COO-1 → HCH3COO

139

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LEARNING ACTIVITY SHEET

Predict the spontaneity of a process

Balance redox reactions using the

Republic of the Philippines

Printed by: DepEd Regional Office No. 02

Address: Regional Government Center, Carig Sur, Tuguegarao City, 3500

Spontaneous Process and Entropy

Background Information for the Lea

Chemical Thermodynamics is the study of the interrelation of heat and

The entropy of a substance increases (ΔS > 0) as it transforms from a

Predict the spontaneity of a process based on entropy.

Ac ti vi ty 1. COMPARE ME!

Rock rolled uphill and downhill. (Image Source:

Uphill and Downhill Skiing. (Image Source:

Activity 2. I’M EVERYWHERE!

A spontaneous process is one that takes place without energy from an

Directions: Classify the given situations below whether the process is

Activity 3. I’M A PART OF YOU!

Entropy, S, is the thermodynamic quantity that is a measure of how

Melting Solid → Liquid

Entropy change examples:

_____________6.. Digestion of food

Ac ti vi ty 4. WORD SEARCH

Activity 5. CORRECT ME IF I’M WRONG!

____________6. Heat flows from hotter objects to a colder one is a

2. How does spontaneity app

3. How do entropy change

4. How is hot object

2. I enjoyed most on____

3. I want to learn more on___

Commission on Higher Education. (2016). General Chemistry 2 (Teaching

Jessie A. Key. Introductory Chemistry-1st Canadian Edition. Chapter 18.

1. Pictures at the left

1. Spontaneous processes ar e characterized by a decrease in the t he system’s

(1) Prepared by:

Chemical Thermodynamics is the study of the interrelation of heat and

Explain the second law of thermodynamics and its significance.

Ac t iv it y 1. IT’S GETTING HOTTER IN HERE!

Directions: Calculating Entropy Changes in the system: Standard Entropy of

Note: Standard entropy values: J/K mol; 1atm; 250C

H2(g) + I2(s) → 2HI(g)

2. Calculate S for the rreaction

3. Calculate S at 25 0C for the reduction of a given these absolute

Ac ti vi ty 2. PREDICT ME!

General rules in predicting entropy change of the system:

2. N2(g, 10atm) → N2(g, 1atm)

4.2H2(g) + O2(g) → 2H2O(l)

Ac ti vi ty 3. CROSSWORD PUZZLE

Directions: Solve the crossword using the clues.

____________3. When the entropy chan

____________6. The second law of thermodynamics tells us that heat always

____________7. If the reaction produces more gas molec

____________8. If there is no net change in the total number of gas

Ac ti vi ty 5: RESEARCH TIME!

Directions: Explain how second law of thermodynamics applies in the

1. What is the second law of thermodynamics?

2. What does second law of thermodyna

3. When is an entropy change positive

4. Why is the second law of thermod

2. I enjoyed most on__