Developing Sentences Into Paragraph

Developing Sentences into
PARAGRAPH
Paragraph Writing
Course Materials for
Developing Sentences into Paragraph

This book Unit 1 Building Sentences
covers 12 units, and Unit 2 Paragraph Structure Developing Sentences into
Course Materials for Paragraph Writing

it discusses the Unit 3 Unity and Coherence
course materials in
details. Each unit
explains the theory
of the topic
discussion and the
Unit 4
Unit 5
Unit 6
Unit 7
Unit 8
Paragraph Writing
Writing Process
Prewriting Strategies
Mind Mapping
Idea Listing
PARAGRAPH
Paragraph Writing
Unit 9 Narrative Paragraph
practical skills in Unit 10 Descriptive Paragraph Course Materials for
writing practice. In Unit 11 Expository Paragraph
the discussion of Unit 12 Persuasive Paragraph
each unit, it will be
introduced with the
learning objectives,
the description of the
core materials, the
concept map, the
relevancy between
the core materials
discussed in the
current unit and in
the previous ones,
and the keywords.
ISBN978-602-1033-06-7
9 786021 033067 Santi Erliana | Rahmadi Nirwanto | Sabarun | M. Zaini Miftah

PARAGRAPH
Paragraph Writing
Developing Sentences into Paragraph
Course Materials for Paragraph Wriing
© Genius Media, 2014
All rights reserved

No part of this publicaion may be reproduced or distributed in
any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system,
without the prior writen permission of the publisher and the writers .
Writers:
Sani Erliana
Rahmadi Nirwanto
Sabarun
M. Zaini Mitah
Editor:
Wahjuningsih Usadiai
Layouter:
Nia Rahayu
First Published, 2014

ISBN: 978-602-1033-06-7
Published by:
GENIUS MEDIA
Puncak Permata Sengkaling B-9,
Sumbersekar Dau Malang 65151, Jawa Timur
E-mail: [email protected]
www.geniusmedia.co.id
Member of IKAPI Jawa Timur

No:153/JTI/2014
PARAGRAPH
Paragraph Writing
Foreword
This book is designed as course materials for paragraph wriing for

English Department students. The book is important to facilitate them
to handle how to write academic wriing in university. The sources of
the book materials are basically from the course materials presented by
the lecturers in their wriing classes, and from materials adapted from
other book references. This book is presented using theoreical and
pracical approaches as well. Both of them are very much important for
the students. In addiion, it is expected that the students use this book
as a pracical guide of academic wriing and encounter some problems
of wriing, especially in the wriing class.
This book covers 12 units, and it discusses the course materials
in details. Each unit explains the theory of the topic discussion and the
pracical skills in wriing pracice. In the discussion of each unit, it will
be introduced with the learning objecives, the descripion of the core
materials, the concept map, the relevancy between the core materials
discussed in the current unit and in the previous ones, and the keywords.
The wriing pracice session is provided for a comprehension of the
topic in the parts of the topic elaboraion. In the inal part of each unit,
it is ended with the summary of the discussion, and equipped with the
assessment to evaluate the students’ comprehension.
The highest appreciaion is addressed to Dr. Ibnu Elmi A.S. Pelu,
SH., MH as Rector of State Islamic Insitute of Palangka Raya for his
permission of the wriing and publicaion of this book. Finally, the writers
do hope that the students have a strong moivaion to learn academic
wriing and to pracice wriing as well.
Palangka Raya, 30 December 2014
Writers
iii
iv
PARAGRAPH
Paragraph Writing
Contents
Foreword i
Contents v
Unit 1 Building Sentences 1

The Sentences 2
The Simple Sentences 2
Formula of Simple Sentence 3
Subject-Verb Agreement 5
Fragments 5
The Compound Sentences 5
Compound Sentence using
Coordinaing Conjuncion 6
Exercise 1 9
Compound Sentence using Semicolon 9
Prevening Run-on Sentences 10
Exercise 2 11
Compound Sentence with Conjuncive Adverbs 12
Exercise 3 13
The Complex Sentences 15
Clause 15
A Complex Sentence 15
Subordinator 16
Complex Sentence with Adjecive Clause 17
Apposiives 18
Exercise 4 19
Important Points about Adjecive Clause 20
Subject Pronouns: who, which, and that 21
v
Object Pronouns: whom, which, that,
and O (no pronoun) 22
Clauses with when 24
Summary 25
Assessment 25
Unit 2 Paragraph Structure 31

The Deiniion of Paragraph 32
The Structures of a Paragraph 32
Topic Sentence 32
Supporing Sentences 33
Concluding Sentence 33
Summary 35
Assessment 35
Unit 3 Unity and Coherence 37

The Unity 38
The Coherence 38
Model of a Good Paragraph 39
Summary 40
Assessment 41
Unit 4 Paragraph Wriing 43

Recognizing Paragraph 44
Main Elements of Paragraph 45
Addiional Elements of Paragraph 46
Exercise 1 46
How to Make Topic Sentence 47
Tips to Make a Topic Sentence 48
The Posiion of the Topic Sentence 49
Developing Topic Sentence from General Topic 51
Exercise 2 52
How to Develop Supporing Sentences 53
Tips to Develop Supporing Sentences 53
Exercise 3 54
vi Developing Sentences into Paragraph

How to Make Concluding Sentence 56
Tips to Write a Concluding Sentence 56
Types of Concluding Sentence 58
Exercise 4 59
How to Develop Sentences into a Paragraph 60
Summary 61
Assessment 62
Unit 5 Wriing Process 63

The Deiniion of Wriing Process 64
The Stages of Wriing Process 65
Prewriing Stage 65
Techniques Suggested in Prewriing Stage 65
Drating Stage 66
Revising Stage 66
Aciviies Suggested in Revision Stage 67
Ediing Stage 67
Techniques Suggested in Ediing Stage 68
Summary 70
Assessment 70
Unit 6 Prewriing Strategies 73

The Prewriing Strategies 74
WH-quesions 75
Free Wriing 75
Clustering 76
Brainstorming 76
Summary 79
Assessment 80
Unit 7 Mind Mapping 81

The Deiniion of Mind Mapping 82
The MindMaple 83
Model of Mind Map using MindMaple Sotware 84
Summary 86
Assessment 86
Developing Sentences into Paragraph vii

Unit 8 Idea Lising 87
The Deiniion of Idea Lising 88
How to Explore Innovaive Idea
using Idea Lising 89
How to Implement Idea Lising
in Wriing Class 91
Summary 93
Assessment 94
Unit 9 Narraive Paragraph 95

The Narraive Paragraph 96
Chronological Order 97
Transiions Signals 97
Summary 99
Assessment 99
Unit 10 Descripive Paragraph 101

The Descripive Paragraph 102
The Descripion of a Person 105
The Descripion of a Place 106
Summary 108
Assessment 108
Unit 11 Expository Paragraph 109

The Expository Paragraph 110
The Modes of Development
in the Expository Paragraph 111
Cause and Efect Patern 111
Process Analysis Patern 111
Comparison and Contrast Patern 112
Classiicaion and Division Patern 112
Deiniion Patern 113
Illustraion or Exempliicaion Patern 113
Transiional Signals 114
Summary 116
Assessment 116
viii Developing Sentences into Paragraph

Unit 12 Persuasive Paragraph 117
The Persuasive Paragraph 118
The Various Methods to Develop
Persuasive Paragraph 119
Facts 119
Referring to an Authority 119
Example 120
Predicing the Consequence 120
Answering the Opposiion 120
Transiional Signals 121
Summary 122
Assessment 122
References 123
Developing Sentences into Paragraph ix

x Developing Sentences into Paragraph
PARAGRAPH
Paragraph Writing
Unit
Building
1 Sentences
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Ater learning this material, it is expected that you
are able to
1. Deine what a sentence is
2. Deine what a simple sentence is
3. Idenify the formula of simple sentence
4. Deine what a compound sentence is
5. Deine what a complex sentence is
6. Write simple sentences
7. Write compound sentences
8. Write complex sentences
DESCRIPTION
In this unit it will be discussed (1) sentences, (2)
simple sentences, (3) compound sentences, and (4)
complex sentences.
CONCEPT MAP
Write Write Write

Deine Simple Compound Complex
Sentence Sentences Sentences Sentences
1
RELEVANCY
The discussion in this unit is as basis of the discussion on the next
units. To learn how to write paragraph that will be learnt in the next
meeing, you must irstly understand the concept of building sentences
such as sentence structure, simple sentence, compound sentence,
and complex sentence. The knowledge of sentence building is also as
foundaion in learning how to develop sentences into paragraph which
will be provided in the next units.
KEYWORDS
Sentence building
Sentence
Simple sentence
Fragments
Compound sentence
Complex sentence
Conjuncion
THE SENTENCES
Do you know what a sentence is? In your daily aciviies you oten
use sentences. When you say to your mother, father and friends, you
always make sentences. When you are wriing something on the paper
you are making sentences. Okay! Now, let’s study the deiniion of a
sentence.
A sentence is a group of words that (1) contains at least one subject
and one verb and (2) expresses a complete thought.
In English you will know that there are four kinds of sentences,
they are, simple sentence, compound sentence, complex sentence,
and compound-complex sentences. In this ime, irst, let’s learn about
simple sentence.
THE SIMPLE SENTENCES

Ater you have already recognized what a sentence is, next, do you
know what a simple sentence is? Okay. Let’s discuss a simple sentence.
A simple sentence is a sentence that has one subject-verb pair. The
2 Developing Sentences into Paragraph

subject tells who or what did something. The verb tells the acion (jump,
work, think, write) or condiion (is, was, see, appear).
Example:
Ahmed has changed his schedule.
→ (Ahmed = subject, has changed = verb (predicate), his schedule =
object)
Faimah and Shoiyah are in the university.
→ (Faimah and Shoiyah = subjects, are = verb (predicate), in the
university = adverb of place)
Formula of Simple Sentence

You will learn about the formula of simple sentence. A simple
sentence can have one of several possible “formulas”. There are four
possible formulas. The subject(s) in a sentence are underlined. The
verb(s) are in italic. They are as follow:
1. S V → The big movie was Titanic.
2. S S V → Young people and adults enjoyed the movie.
3. S V V → The ilm entertained and thrilled audiences
everywhere.
4. S S V V → Zinadane Zidan and his friends played and won
the football compeiion.
You must pay atenion with the subject(s) and the verb(s) in a
simple sentence. The subject in a simple sentence may have two or more
items (sentences in example no. 2 and 4). The verb may have two or
more items (sentences in example no. 3 and 4). Those are called simple
sentences because there is only one subject-verb pair.
Subject-Verb Agreement
You have already known about sentence, a simple sentence and
the formula of simple sentence. Now, let’s come to next discussion.
Our discussion is about subject-verb agreement. In a sentence it must
agree between the subjects and verbs. The subjects and verbs agree
in number.
Developing Sentences into Paragraph 3

 My sister is married. (singular)
 My sisters are married. (plural)
 My brother and I are single. (plural)
Subject-verb agreement is someimes confusing in the sentences.
To ovoid confusing, there are several rules you should understand. Pay
atenion please!
1. When a sentence begin with the word there + the verb be, the
subject follows the be verb. Look ahead to see whether to use a
singular or plural verb.
Examples:
 There is a student in the hall. (The verb is is singular to agree
with a student)
 There are three students in the hall. (The verb are is plural
to agree with three students)
2. A preposiional phrase (a group of words beginning with a preposiion
such as of, with, in, at, or on and ending with a noun or pronoun)
can come between a subject and its verb. Preposiional phrase may
come ater a subject, but they are not part of the subject. In this
case you should mentally cross them out when you are deciding
if the verb should be singular or plural.
Examples:
 One (of my sisters) is singer. (The subject is one, not sisters)
 Six kinds (of rice) are available in the grocery store. (The
subject is kinds, not rice)
3. Some words are always singular.
Examples:
 Neither (of my parents) is living.
 Nothing ever happens in my life.
4. A few words are always plural.
Examples:
 Both (of my parents) are teachers.
 Several (of the teachers) speak my language.
 Many (of my friends) work in the library.
5. A few words can be either singular or plural. In this case you must
refer to the noun in the preposiional phrase.

Examples:
 Some (of the money) was missing. (singular)---> money is
non-count noun
 Some (of the students) were missing. (plural)---> student is
count noun
Fragments
Everybody, the last discussion in this chapter is about Fragments.
Do you know what fragment is? Let’s learn about it. In some languages,
you can someimes leave out the subject in a sentence; in others you
can someimes leave out the verb. In English YOU MUST ALWAYS have
at least one subject and one verb in every sentence. If you leave out
either the subject or the verb, your sentence is incomplete. We call
an incomplete sentence A FRAGMENT. So, a Fragment is an incomplete
sentence or sentence error.
To know more about Fragments, let’s study through these examples.
The following sentences are fragments or sentence errors:
1. Is not easy to get an A in Professor Ahmed’s class. (There is no
subject).
To correct the sentence, you must add a subject it:
→ It is not easy to get an A in Professor Ahmed’s class.
2. People in New York always in a hurry. (There is no verb)
To correct the sentence, you must add a verb are:
→ People in New York are always in a hurry.
THE COMPOUND SENTENCES

In the previous discussion you learned about simple sentences.
A simple sentence has one subject-verb combinaion. Another kind of
sentence is a compound sentence. A compound sentence has two or
more subject-verb combinaions.
A compound sentence is composed of at least two simple sentences
joined by a comma and a coordinaing conjuncion. A compound sentence
consists of two or more independent clauses, each with its own subject
and verb, each able to stand alone, for example:

The slender girl pushed the big car, and her father gave her
encouragement.
Both underlined clauses are independent: they could be writen
as simple sentences. The joining word “and” is called a coordinaing
conjuncion because it joins equals, in this case two equal or independent
clauses. (The subordinaion conjuncion, recall, joins two unequal’s-an
independent and a dependent clause.)
Compound Sentence using Coordinaing Conjuncion

As pointed out above, compound sentences consist of two or more
independent clauses. If you leave out the coordinaing conjuncion, each
clause can funcion as a simple sentence, for example:
1. Our club sponsored a car wash on Saturday, and we were quite
successful.
2. I like strawberry ice cream, but Sal prefers chocolate chip.
If you let out and in the irst sentence, you would have two separate
sentences. By using and, however, you show a close relaionship of two
ideas. In the second sentence, but shows a contrast, the opposiion of
two ideas. Each of the seven coordinaing conjuncions has a special
funcion.
There are seven coordinaing conjuncions in English: FOR, AND,
NOR, BUT, OR, YET, and SO (called FANBOYS). Memorize them please.
Here are some more examples of compound sentences with
coordinaing conjuncion:
1. Zainuddin’s sister is having a big party Saturday night, and everyone
is invited.
2. He really didn’t mean to do it, but he could not help himself.
3. The faces of the jurors were tense, for they were about to sentence
a man to die.
4. He could rush into batle and get killed, or he could desert and be
executed.
5. Tony does not plan to atend the party, so he will be free on Saturday
night.
6. Najwa does not plan to atend the party, yet she admits it will
probably be fun.

Noice that a comma is used before each coordinaing conjuncion
in the above compound sentences.
To be clear, let’s see the table showing the use of coordinaing
conjuncion below.
Coordinaing
Funcion Example
Conjuncion
and Join sentences that He dropped a rice ball, and
are alike. it rolled into a hole in the
ground.
but Join sentences that They were happy, but they
are opposite or show were poor.
contrast.
so Join sentences when The greedy man wanted
the second sentence all of the mice’s gold, so he
expresses the result of pretended to be a cat.
something described in
the irst sentence.
or Join sentences that He could choose a big box,
give choices or or he could choose.
alternaives.
yet Yet has approximately I was scared, yet I was
the same meaning as also curious about the
but; old lady.
It shows contrast or The weather is beauiful,
joins opposites. yet it is supposed to rain
Use yet when the second today.
part of the sentence says
something unexpected
or surprising.

for For has the same It is not easy to get there,
meaning as because; for you have to hike down
Use for to introduce a a long, hot trail.
reason or cause.
nor Nor means "not this She didn’t talk, nor did
and not that"; she move.
Use nor to join two (She didn't talk. She didn't
negaive sentences. move.)
Use quesion word order The book isn’t very long, nor
ater nor. Place helping is it diicult to read.
verbs (is, does, did, (The book isn't long. It isn't
can, will, etc.) before diicult to read.)
the subject.
Use a comma before a coordinaing conjuncion in compound

sentences only.
Do not use a comma to join two words or two phrases in a simple
sentence.
Compound Sentences Simple Sentences

(Comma) (No Comma)
Yesterday we went shopping, but Yesterday we went shopping but
we didn’t buy anything. didn’t buy anything.
The stores were crowded, and The stores were crowded and
they were noisy. noisy.
We ate lunch, and then we went We ate lunch and then went
home. home.

Exercise 1
In the paragraph below, underline the compound sentences and
insert the necessary commas.
This past Tuesday night, my husband and I were shopping at

Hypermart and we were about to call it a night. Just before we let,
we met Fariz, an old friend from high school days. I asked the usual
quesion about how his family was. To our shock, we discovered that
Fariz and his wife had goten a divorce. I have come across this unhappy
situaion many imes but each ime it shocks and saddens me. The
rising divorce rate is especially distressing for many of the marriages
could have been saved. Since Tuesday night I have been depressed
and have been wondering how secure my own marriage is.
Compound Sentence using Semicolon

Another way to make a compound sentence is to combine the
independent clauses with a semicolon (;). Let’s study through the
examples as follow:
1. The slender girl pushed the big car; her father gave her
encouragement.
2. The weather was stormy; it was a terrible night.
When do you use semicolon to make compound sentence? Use
semicolons sparingly in making compound sentences, and only if the
following two condiions exist:
First condiion:
The thoughts of the two independent clauses are closely related.
Second condiion:
A period could be subsituted for the semicolon to make two sentences.
(In the examples above a period could be subsituted for each semicolon
to make two sentences).
Let’s pracice to make compound sentence. Combine the following
sentences with semicolons.

Example:
Spring is my favorite ime of year. It is the season for canoe trips
and long walks in the valley.
Combined Spring is my favorite ime of year; it is the season for canoe
trips and long walks in the valley.
Prevening Run-on Sentences

For your wriing to sound like you, you will want to write many
compound sentences, as well as complex and simple ones. By learning
the structure of compound sentences you will be able to use them
oten without making run-on-sentence errors. A run-on sentence,
recall, occurs when you atempt to join two independent clauses with
a comma (a comma splice) or with no punctuaion (a fused sentence),
for example:
Comma Splice  I came to an open ield, it was just like the one next
to our house.
Fused Sentence  I came to an open ield it was just like the one next
to our house.
Now, how to prevent run-on sentences? Here are four ways you
can prevent (or correct) run-on sentences:
1. By making two sentences
Example:
I came to an open ield. It was just like the one next to our
house.
2. By insering one of the seven coordinaion conjuncions (with a
comma)
Example:
I came to an open ield, and it was just like the one next to our
house.
3. By insering a semicolon
Example:
I came to an open ield; it was just like the one next to our
house.

4. By making one of the clauses dependent. (Someimes you must
change the wording of the sentence if you choose this method).
Example:
I came to an open ield, which was just like the one next to our
house.
Or
When I came to an open ield, I discovered that it was just like the
one next to our house.
Exercise 2
Edit the following essay, correcing the run-on sentences by whatever
method seems best. Make sure that you use commas correctly.
Back to Nature
If anyone had told me three years ago that I would be spending

most of my weekends camping. I would have laughed hearily, Campers,
in my eyes, were nothing but masochist who enjoyed insect bites. Ill
cooked meals, and damp sleeping bags, they had nothing in common
with me. I was to learn a lot about camping since then, however. (1
run-on sentence. RO)
The friends who introduced me to camping thought that it
meant being a pioneer. The irst trip they took me on, we roughed it,
we slept in a tent, cooked over an open ire, and hiked to the shower
and bathroom faciliies. This brief visit with Mother Nature cost me
two days hove from work recovering from a bad case of sunburn.
There was no shade, the tallest tree on our campsite was three feet
fall. Another moment from the trip was the doctor’s bill for my sons’s
poison ivy. (2 RO)
I was, nevertheless, talked into going an another fun-illed holiday
in wilderness, this ime we camped with friends who believed that
Daniel Boone would have been proud to use the light bulb if he had
known about it. There was no tent, we had a pop-up camper with
comfortable beds and an air condiioner. These nature lovers had
remembered to bring all the necessiies of life they brought lounge

chairs, a screened porch, the TV, and even a blender. I can sill taste
those Pina Coladas. (3 RO)
Ater that trip, my husband and I became quite interested in
camping, we have done a lot of it since. Recently, we purchased a
twenty-eight foot travel trailer complete with bathroom and built-in
TV antenna. There is a separate bedroom, a modem kitchen with
refrigerator and a roll-out pantry, the trailer even has carpet and
draperies to match. (2 RO)
I must say that I have certainly come to enjoy camping. It must
be true that, sooner or later, everyone inds his or her way back to
nature, I recommend that you ind your way in style. (1 RO)
Compound Sentence with Conjuncive Adverbs

To make compound sentence can be with conjuncive adverbs.
A conjuncive adverb is an adverb used to show a special relaionship
between two independent clauses that are joined together with a
coordinaing conjuncion or a semicolon, for example:
1. He threw a touchdown pass, and then he kicked the extra point.
2. It is a good day for catching pompano; however, with my luck we
will probably catch toad ish instead.
In the irst sentence the conjuncive adverb then shows a ime
relaionship between the irst clause and the second. In the second
sentence the conjuncive adverb however shows a relaionship of contrast
between the two clauses. In the irst sentence, and joins the two clauses
and in the second sentence, a semicolon joins the two clauses.
A conjuncive adverb can also begin a new sentence, as follows:
 Their favorite novels were about the sea. For example, they
really enjoyed Moby Dick and The Old Man and the Sea.
While For example begins a new sentence in this example, it
nevertheless relates back to the preceding sentence and illustrates it.

Here are the most common conjuncive adverbs, according to
funcion:
1. Time: then, next
Example:
 First, we visited the Washington Monument, and then we
toured the White House.
2. Addiion: also, moreover, furthermore
Example:
 We saw Darussalam Mosque, and also we got to see some
of the exhibits in front of the mosque as well.
 We saw Darussalam Mosque; moreover, we got to see some
of the exhibits in front of the mosque as well.
3. Result: consequently, thus, therefore
Example:
 Summer vacaion begins on the irst of June; consequently,
I cannot begin to work unil then.
4. Contrast: however, nevertheless, on the other hand
Example:
 Sulaiman originally planned to join us; however, he later
changed his mind.
5. Illustraion: for example, for instance
Example:
 We have many privileges in this country that we take for
granted; for example, almost everyone has easy access to a
public library.
Note that a comma follows most conjuncive adverbs, as shown
in four of the examples above. However, a comma does not usually
follow then or also.
Exercise 3
Combine the following pairs of sentences with and, or, but and a
conjuncive adverb or with a semicolon and a conjuncive adverb. Use at
least one conjuncive adverb from each of the ive groups noted above.
Supply commas as needed.

Example:
I have got to study irst. Ater that I may go to the movies with
you.
Combined I have got to study irst, and then I may go to the movies
with you. (Noice that ater that is omited)
I was not sick ater eaing the pizza. Marisa and Faima missed
two days of school.
Combined I wasn’t sick ater eaing the pizza; however, Marisa and
Faima missed two days of school.
1. We had many things to talk about. The ime passed quickly.

2. The poet Keats died in his midtwenies. His poetry is more valued
that that of many a writer who lived to a ripe old age.
3. The Borobudur restaurant will probably be more successful now
that it is in a beter locaion. Its new management is irst-rate.
4. Rahmat knows how to ix anything. He even ixed his grandfather’s
cuckoo clock.
5. It was only a small inexpensive git. It was a well-chosen one.
6. I enjoy working in the early morning because I feel rested then.
It’s the only ime the house is quiet.
7. Every day Mrs. Aziza picks whatever is ripe. Ater that she feeds
the chickens.
8. Christy Brown was an Irish writer who was severely brain damaged
from birth. He published several extraordinary books in his
lifeime.
9. The day was clear and sunny. We decided to move the party out-
of-doors.
10. Hundreds of people greet each other every day in the Tjilik Riwut
airport. It is not the place to form a lasing relaionship.

THE COMPLEX SENTENCES
In previous discussions, you learned about simple sentences and
compound sentences. Now, in this discussion, you will study a third kind
of sentence, called complex sentence.
Before you discuss complex sentence in detail, you should irstly
learn about clauses.
Clause
Let’s learn about clauses. A clause is a group of word that contains
at least one subject and one verb. For example:
Anna let the party early. (Clause)
…….because she was ired. (Clause)
Do you know the kinds of clauses in English? There are two kinds
of clauses in English: independent and dependent. An independent
clause can be a sentence by itself. Independent clause is another name
for simple sentence. For instance:
Anna let the party early. (Independent Clause)
Hold the cat’s mouth closed. (Independent Clause)
A dependent clause, in contrast, cannot be a sentence by itself
because its meaning is not complete. A dependent clause “depends”
on something else to complete its meaning. For example:
...because she was ired (Dependent Clause)
...while you count to ten (Dependent Clause)
A Complex Sentence
A complex sentence is a combinaion of one independent clause
and one (or more) dependent clause(s). For example:
Anna let the party early because she was ired.

(Independent Clause) (Dependent Clause)
Hold the cat’s mouth closed while you count to ten.
(Independent Clause) (Dependent Clause)

In a complex sentence, when the dependent clause comes irst,
separate then clauses with a comma. When the independent clause
comes irst, do not separate them. For instance:
Because she was ired, Anna let the party early.
Anna let the party early because she was ired.
Subordinator
A dependent clause always begins with a subordinaing word,
or subordinator. There are diferent kinds of subordinators. Time
subordinators begin a clause that tells when something happens. Reason
subordinators begin a clause that tells why something happens. Place
subordinators begin a clause that tells where something happens or
where something is located. To be clearly discussed, let’s see the table
showing those categorizaions.
Kind of
Subordinators Example
Subordinators
ater He goes to school ater he
inishes work.
as Several overcrowded buses
passed as we were waiing.
as soon as She felt beter as soon as she
took the medicine.
before Before you apply to college, you
Time
have to take an entrance exam.
Subordinators
since It has been a year since I let
home.
unil We can>t leave the room unil
everyone has inished the test.
when When you start college, you
someimes have to take a
placement test.

whenever Whenever I don't sleep well, I
feel sick the next day.
while Several overcrowded buses
passed while they were waiing.
because Jack excels at sports because he
trains hard.
Reason since Since she works out daily, Jill is in
Subordinators great condiion.
as As they want to compete in a
marathon, they run every day.
where I can never remember where I
Place put my house keys.
Subordinators wherever A baby animal follows its mother
wherever she goes.
Complex Sentence with Adjecive Clause

You can make complex sentence with adjecive clause. Do you
know adjecive clause? Let’s discuss it. Adjecive clauses are dependent
clauses. They are called adjecive clauses because, like adjecives, they
modify nouns and pronouns. They begin with the words who, whom,
which, and that, among others. These words are called relaive pronouns,
and adjecive clauses are also called relaive clauses. An adjecive clause
joined to an independent clause makes a complex sentence.
Because we use adjecive clauses to give more informaion about
a noun, they are very useful in wriing deiniions, for examples:
1. Propaganda is a form of communicaion that tries to inluence
people’s thinking and acions.
2. Sadie Hawkins' Day is a day when women can invite men to dance
or to go out on a date.
3. Laino music, which has many diferent styles and arists, is becoming
increasingly popular in the United States.
All three sentences above are complex sentences with adjecive
clauses. Sentence 1 and 2 are complex sentences with necessary adjecive
clauses. Meanwhile, sentence 3 is a complex sentence with an extra
informaion adjecive clause like apposiives.

Apposiives
Do you recognize apposiives? Apposiives are nouns or noun phrases
that rename a preceding noun or noun phrase. For instance:
They set up a special table on which they display seven foods with
names beginning with the leter s in Farsi, the language of Iran.
In above sentence, Farsi and the language of Iran are the same
things. The language of Iran is apposiive.
Apposiives are very useful in wriing deiniions because they give

the reader more informaion about your topic concisely (without a lot
of extra words). Let’s see the example.
Fudge, a delicious chocolate candy, was invented as a result of a

cooking mistake.
In above sentence, a delicious chocolate candy is apposiive which

tells readers more informaion about the topic discussed.
Apposiives can be necessary informaion or extra informaion.

Consider this sentence:
My friend Fairuz got married last week.
In this sentence, Fairuz is an apposiive because Fairuz and my

friend are the same person. Fairuz is a necessary apposiive because it
is necessary to idenify which friend got married. If you omit the word
Fairuz, you don’t know which friend got married.
Now, consider this sentence:

Fairuz, my friend, got married last week.
In this sentence, the apposiive is my friend. It is extra informaion

because the name Fairuz already ideniies the person who got married.
If you omit my friend, you sill know who got married. The fact that he

is the writer’s friend is not necessary to idenify him. It is merely extra
informaion.
If there is only one of an item, it is unnecessary to idenify it further,
so apposiives of one-of-a-kind items are always extra informaion. For
example, Earth has only one moon, so any apposiive of the Moon in a
sentence would be extra informaion. Similarly, adjecives such as tallest,
strongest, oldest, and most interesing automaically make the following
noun one of a kind. Have a look at the following examples.
The Moon, Earth’s only natural satellite, orbits Earth about once
a month.
The highest mountain in North America, Mount McKinley, is in
Alaska.
The apposiive Mount McKinley is extra informaion because it

follows the highest, and there can be only one “highest.” And, now let’s
see the example:
I have three sons. My son Ubaid looks like me.
Ubaid is necessary informaion because there are three sons, and

the name Ubaid is necessary to idenify which son.
Exercise 4
Idenify and punctuate apposiives.
Step 1 Underline the apposiive in each of the following sentences.
Step 2 Decide whether it is necessary or extra informaion, and write
NI for necessary informaion or EI for extra informaion on the
line.
Step 3 Add commas around unnecessary apposiives.
1. The planet Pluto is more than 2.5 billion miles from Earth. (NI)
2. Pluto, the most distant planet from Earth, is more than 2.5 billion
miles away. (EI)
3. Venus the closest planet to Earth is only 25 million miles away.

4. The largest planet in the universe Jupiter is eleven imes larger
than Earth.
5. Astronomers scienists who study the stars discovered a tenth
planet in our solar system in 2005.
6. The Moon is Earth's only natural satellite, but the planet Saturn
has at least twenty-two satellites.
7. Since the irst ariicial satellite Sputnik 1 was launched by Russia
in 1957, thousands of space probes, satellites, and telescopes have
been sent into space.
8. Also, millions of pieces of space junk man-made garbage zoom
around Earth at speeds of up to 25,000 miles per hour.
Important Points about Adjecive Clause

Do you sill remember to make complex sentence with adjecive
clause? You can make complex sentence with adjecive clauses by
combining two sentences. Take an example:
January is an iniial month of the year.

January is a naional holiday
Combined January, which is a naional holiday, is an iniial month
of the year.
The clause which is a naional holiday is an adjecive clause that

modiies the noun January. The modiied noun is called the antecedent.
So, the antecedent in the sentence is January.
Here are some important points to know about adjecive
clauses.
1. Place an adjecive clause ater its antecedent and as close to it as
possible to avoid confusion.
Example:
Confusing → He let the car on the street that he had just bought.
(Did he buy a car or a street?)
Clear → He let the car that he had just bought on the street.
2. When a relaive pronoun is the subject of the adjecive clause,
make the verb in the clause agree with its antecedent.

Example:
A teacher who teaches young children needs a lot of paience.
Teachers who teach young children need a lot of paience.
3. Don't use double pronouns.
Example:
Last night we watched reruns of Friends, which it is my favorite TV
show.
4. When you make an adjecive clause, choose an appropriate relaive
pronoun. Let’s discuss it.
Subject Pronouns: who, which, and that

When a relaive pronoun is the subject of an adjecive clause,
choose a subject pronoun: who, which, or that.
People Things
Extra Informaion who which
who Which
Necessary Informaion that (informal) that
The funcion of subject pronouns: who, which, and that:
 Who is used for people.
 Which is used for things.
 That is used for people and things.
 Use that for people is informal.
 Use that in necessary clauses only.
To understand subject pronouns: who, which, and that used in
adjecive clause to write complex sentences, let’s follow the examples
below.
Extra Informaion
The Nobel Prizes are named for Alfred Nobel.
He was a ciizen of Sweden.
Combined The Nobel Prizes are named for Alfred Nobel, who was a
ciizen of Sweden.

April Fool’s Day is a day for playing tricks on your friends.
It is on April 1.
Combined April Fool's Day, which is on April 1, is a day for playing
tricks on your friends.
Necessary Informaion
The student is from Indonesia.
She got the best score on the last test.
Combined The student who got the best score on the last test is
from Indonesia.
Combined The student that got the best score on the last test is
from Indonesia.
Leap Day is a special day.

It happens only every four years.
Combined Leap Day is a special day which happens only every four
years.
Combined Leap Day is a special day that happens only every four
years.
Object Pronouns: whom, which, that, and O (no pronoun)

When the relaive pronoun is an object in an adjecive clause,
choose the object pronoun whom, which, or that, or use no pronoun.
People Things
Extra Informaion whom which
whom Which
Necessary Informaion that (informal) That
O O
The funcion of object pronouns: whom, which, that, and O (no
pronoun):
 Whom is used for people. Informally, who is used instead of
whom.
 Which is used for things.
 That is used for people and things.
 Use that for people is informal.

 Use that in necessary clauses only.
 You may omit an object relaive pronoun in necessary clauses
only.
 Noice that an object pronoun is placed at the beginning of the
adjecive clause, before the subject.
To understand object pronouns: whom, which, that, and O (no
pronoun) used in adjecive clause to write complex sentences, now let’s
see the examples below:
Extra Informaion
Professor Lee is my English teacher.
We saw him at the supermarket.
Combined Professor Lee, whom we saw at the supermarket, is my
English teacher.
Boxing Day is unknown in the United States.

People in Canada, Great Britain, and many other English-speaking
countries celebrate Boxing Day.
Combined Boxing Day, which people in Canada, Great Britain, and
many other English-speaking countries celebrate, is
unknown in the United States.
The person is my teacher.
We saw her at the supermarket.
Combined The person whom we saw at the supermarket is my English
teacher.
CombinedThe person that we saw at the supermarket is my English
teacher.
CombinedThe person we saw at the supermarket is my English
teacher.
The ilm was long.

We saw it last week.
Combined  The ilm which we saw last week was long.
Combined  The ilm that we saw last week was long.
Combined  The ilm we saw last week was long.

Clauses with when
You can begin a clause with when to give more informaion about
a ime.
Time
Extra Informaion When
Necessary Informaion When
The funcion of when:

 When replaces a preposiional phrase or the word then.
 When can begin both extra and necessary-informaion clauses.
To understand when used in adjecive clause to write complex
sentences, now let’s see the examples below:
Extra Informaion
A popular day with children is Halloween.
They dress up in costumes and get candy from neighbors on
Halloween.
Combined A popular day with children is Halloween, when they dress
up in costumes and get candy from neighbors.
Ramadan is a ime.
Muslims fast then.
Combined Ramadan is a ime when Muslims fast.

SUMMARY
A sentence is a group of words that (1) contains at least one

subject and one verb and (2) expresses a complete thought.
A simple sentence is a sentence that has one subject-verb
pair. In an English sentence it must agree between the subjects and
verbs.
There are four possible formulas in a simple sentence:
1. SUBJECT VERB
2. SUBJECT and SUBJECT VERB
3. SUBJECT VERB and VERB
4. SUBJECT and SUBJECT VERB and VERB
A Fragment is an incomplete sentence or sentence error. In the
daily wriing class, it is also called sentence fragment.
A compound sentence is a sentence that is composed of at
least two simple sentences joined by a comma and a coordinaing
conjuncion.
A compound sentence consists of two or more independent clauses,
each with its own subject and verb, each able to stand alone.
A compound sentence may be constructed by using coordinaing
conjuncion, semicolon, and conjuncive adverbs.
A complex sentence is a sentence that is a combinaion of one
independent clause and one (or more) dependent clause(s).
A complex sentence may be constructed with adjecive
clause.
ASSESSMENT
A. Simple Sentence
1. What do you know about a sentence and a simple sentence?
2. Idenify the formula of the following simple sentences by underlining
the subjects with one line and the verb with two lines.

a. My name is Muhammad Kamil.
b. I was born and lived in Palangka Raya town.
c. My youngest brother and sisters visit me every month.
d. None of my brothers are married.
e. Titanic movie and Star Wars movie were played and entertained
audiences several years ago.
3. The following paragraph contains fragments. Idenify the fragments
and correct them by supplying the necessary subjects and verbs:
As you go through the front door of my dream house, you irst enter
the living room. Has a huge picture window opening on a garden.
There two disinct areas within this room. One area contains an
overstufed, loppy sofa with three pieces that join together. The
other area, a 60” television screen and all the component parts
of the latest stereo equipment.
4. Write simple sentences using the following verbs. Underline the
subject(s) once and the verb(s) twice.
a. (struted)
b. (teased and lirted)
c. (loves)
d. (Rohana and I)
e. (comes and goes)
B. Compound Sentence
1. Decide which of the following sentences are compound sentences
and which are simple sentences. Write CS or SS on the line at the
let. Then add commas to the compound sentences.
a. A long ime ago, high in the Alps, an old man lived with his
goat, Blanchete. (SS)
b. She was a wonderful white goat and was very kind to her
master, Monsieur Seguin.
c. They had lived together for many years.
d. Blanchete was always fastened to a tree.
e. She was oten sad and someimes she didn't eat her food.
f. Every day, she looked at the big mountains and dreamed of
being free to explore them.

g. One day, she asked her master for more freedom.
h. "You can ie me with a longer rope or you can build a special
enclosure for me," said Blanchete.
i. At irst, he ied her with a longer rope. but Blanchete was
sill sad.
j. A few days later, he built a special enclosure.
k. For a while, Blanchete was very happy about this decision
but soon the enclosure seemed very small in front of the big
mountains.
l. One summer morning, Blanchete decided to leave for the
mountains so she jumped out of the enclosure and ran
away.
m. "I am free," she said.
n. She ate many varieies of plants and enjoyed meeing new
friends.
o. All day, she ran in the Alps.
p. Finally, the sun set behind the hills.
2. For each set of sentences, make a compound sentence or a simple
sentence with two verbs. Use the coordinaing conjuncion and,
but, or, or so to join the sentences. Punctuate carefully. There may
be more than one way .to combine some of the sentences.
a. It became very dark. Faim was suddenly afraid.
b. She heard a noise. She decided to go back to her
enclosure.
c. She walked for a long ime. She couldn't ind the road.
d. Finally, she became very ired. She tried to rest. Her fear prevented
her from sleeping. (Combine all three sentences.)
e. Suddenly, a wolf appeared. The wolf looked at her hungrily.
f. She shouted for help. No one heard her.
g. The wolf ate Blanchete. The poor old man never saw his litle
goat again.
h. Blanchete wanted to be free. Freedom can be dangerous
when we disobey.
3. Join the two sentences in each of the following pairs by using
a comma and one of these coordinaing conjuncions: yet, for,
nor.

a. Muslims do not drink alcohol. They do not eat pork.
b. Some Chrisians do not work on Sunday. Sunday is their day
to worship.
c. People who believe in the Hindu religion do not eat beef.
They believe that cows are sacred.
d. Muslim men are permited to have four wives. Few of them
have more than one.
e. Buddhist monks do not marry. They do not own property.
4. Write your own compound sentences using the following conjuncive
adverbs to relate the two independent clauses: then, however, for
example, also, nevertheless, therefore, moreover. Use commas as
necessary.
C. Complex Sentence
1. Idenify the parts of the following complex sentence.
Step 1 Underline independent clauses with a solid line and dependent
clauses with a broken line.
Step 2 Circle the subordinators.
Step 3 Add a comma if necessary.
a. Whenever astronauts leave Earth’s atmosphere they experience
weightlessness.
b. Astronauts oten feel seasick when they irst experience
weightlessness.
c. Astronauts must exercise on special machines while they are
orbiing Earth in their spacecrat.
d. When the irst Russian cosmonauts exited their spacecrat,
they had to be carried because they could not walk.
e. The students were silent as the teacher handed out the
test.
f. The students worked on the test problems unil the teacher
told them to stop.
g. As soon as the teacher told them to stop wriing they put
down their pencils.
h. Ater the teacher collected the tests she dismissed the
class.

i. Before she let she promised to post their scores where
students could view them.
j. Since noise can change the heart rate and increase blood
pressure it is harmful to the body.
k. Loud noise is especially harmful as it damages the ear
drums.
l. Rock musicians and construcion workers can lose their nearing
because they are exposed to loud noise over long periods of
ime.
2. Write six complex sentences of your own. Use a diferent subordinator
in each sentence. Write three sentences with the dependent clause
irst, and three sentences with the independent clause irst.
3. Write complex sentences with adjecive clauses on your own.
Deine each of the following words with a sentence that contains
an adjecive clause. Use the words in parentheses to build your
deiniion. Look up the words you don’t know in a dicionary. All
your sentences will be necessary.
a. fortune teller (a person)
A fortune teller is a person who can see into the future.
b. coach (a person)
________________________________________
c. travel agents (people)
________________________________________
d. MP3 players (devices)
________________________________________
e. fork (a utensil)
________________________________________
f. chopsicks (utensils)
________________________________________
g. (day/ime)
_________________________________________
(Write in a special day or period of several days in your
culture.)

PARAGRAPH
Paragraph Writing
Unit
Paragraph
2 Structure
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
are able to
1. Idenify paragraph in a passage
2. Idenify the structure of a paragraph
3. Deine the meaning of paragraph
4. Write a simple paragraph
DESCRIPTION
This unit discusses: (1) the deiniion of a paragraph,
and (2) the structure of a paragraph.
CONCEPT MAP
Idenify Deiniion of The Structure

Paragraph Paragraph of a Paragraph
RELEVANCY
This unit discusses the deiniion of a paragraph and
the structure of a paragraph. The discussion in this unit
is as a basis of the discussion on the next units: unity and
coherence. To learn the unity and coherence of paragraph
that will be learnt in the next unit, students must irstly
31
understand the concept of paragraph and the structure of a paragraph. The
knowledge about paragraph is also as foundaion in learning paragraph
wriing, which will be given in the next units.
KEYWORDS
Paragraph
Paragraph structure
THE DEFINITION OF PARAGRAPH

Well, students, when we start wriing, we should know about the
paragraph, its form, its structure, its body, and its qualiies, because
most wriing is divided into paragraphs. Paragraph let the readers know
where idea ends and another begins. The purposes of paragraph are to
give informaion, to explain something, to tell a story, and to convince
someone that our idea is right. The following are the deiniions of
paragraph.
A paragraph is a set of related sentences that work together to
express or develop an idea (Trimmer & Sommer, 1984:193). A paragraph
is a series of sentences developing one topic (Warriner, 1973:388). A
paragraph is a group of sentences dealing with a single topic or idea
(Litell, 1985:127). Moreover, Bailey (2011:78) states that a paragraph
is a group of sentences that deal with single topic.
THE STRUCTURES OF A PARAGRAPH

A paragraph has, at least, three major structural parts: a topic
sentence, supporing sentences, and a concluding sentence.
Topic Sentence
A topic sentence is a clear statement that gives the main idea.
Here are two hints for wriing a good topic sentence. First, get the
reader’s atenion. Second, avoid unnecessary word. A topic sentence
is a sentence that states the main idea of the paragraph. It should be
carefully worded to express a limited main idea. It helps us focus our
idea and helps the readers understand the main idea quickly. It also
funcions control the content of the paragraph.

A topic sentence does not always have to come at the beginning
of the paragraph. It can come at the middle or at the end. It is the most
important sentence in the paragraph. Usually, it consists of a complete
sentence that contains a subject, a verb, and usually a complement, and
express a complete thought.
A topic sentence contains both the topic and the controlling idea.
A topic is basically the subject of the paragraph. It is what the paragraph
is about. The controlling idea is the central idea that is developed in a
paragraph. The controlling idea limits or restricts the informaion that
can be included in a paragraph. It is the summary of all the informaion,
which is contained in its paragraph. In a paragraph the controlling idea
must be completely developed and explained. Finally, we can conclude
that the topic sentence is the sentence that expresses the main idea
of the paragraph (D’Angelo, 1980:330). The controlling idea makes a
speciic comment about the topic, which indicates what the rest of
the paragraph will say about the topic. It limits or controls the topic to
the speciic aspect of the topic to be discussed in the space of a single
paragraph.
Supporing Sentences
Supporing sentences are the sentences that give more informaion
about the topic sentence. They develop the topic sentence. They also
called development sentences. All the sentences must be related to
the topic sentence. They explain the topic sentence by giving reasons,
illustraion, examples, facts, staisics, and quotaion.
There are at least two kinds of the supporing sentences. First, a
major support sentence. It develop the controlling idea of a paragraph
by telling the reader something new or diferent about the idea. It
directly supports the controlling idea by making the idea more easily
understood. Second, a minor support sentence develops its major support
sentence and helps its major support sentence develop the controlling
idea. It directly supports its major support sentence by making it more
easily understood. Besides, it directly supports the controlling idea of
the paragraph by helping its major support sentence to make the idea
more easily understood (Hamid et al., 1986:3.57).

Concluding Sentence
Usually, a paragraph ends with a conclusion or summary. A conclusion
is a judgment based on the evidence and must be logical. The last sentence
of a paragraph is concluding sentence. It does not add new informaion
to the paragraph. It repeats the main idea or idea using slightly diferent
word. It signals the end of the paragraph and summarizes the important
point briely. Someimes we use an end-of- paragraph signals as follows:
in conclusion, in summary, inally, and so on.
A good concluding sentence brings a paragraph to a smooth close. It
may give a summary of the main idea or state the topic sentence again.
A concluding sentence also gives a inal comment on the topic and leaves
the reader with the most important idea to think about.
There are at least two diferent types of concluding sentence. First,
paraphrases the topic sentence: i.e. the concluding sentence repeats the
main idea of the topic sentence in diferent words. Second, summarizes
the two main points of the paragraph, which are not speciically stated
in the topic sentence.
There are some steps for building the paragraph. First, selecing
the topic. Second, wriing a general statement (topic sentence) about
the topic. Third, joing down possible details about the topic. Fourth,
developing those details into supporing sentences. Fith, reading the
whole paragraph and make whatever changes we feel will improve our
wriing (Ezor & Lewis, 1984:29). Here is a model of paragraph.
How to Pick the Perfect Class Schedule
When you study in Islamic college, you should know how to select
the perfect schedule. By following a few simple procedures, you can
begin any semester with the right courses at the most convenient
imes. First, you must ind the right courses. These are the ones that
combine the least amount of work with the fewest tests and the most
lenient professors. Second, when you have accumulated lists of essay
instructors and subjects, you can begin to block out ime periods. The
ideal schedule will vary according your individual needs. Finally, you
must outsmart the registraion process.

You want your ideal schedule to pass through oicial channels
untouched. The main way to do this is to register earlier. By following
these suggesions, any students can pick the perfect class schedule.
College can thus become a nonirritaing, almost pleasant acivity that
disrupts your real life as litle as possible.
SUMMARY
A paragraph is a series of closely related sentences discusses

one single idea. These sentences adequately develop the central or
controlling idea of the paragraph. The central or controlling idea,
usually stated in a topic sentence, is necessarily related to the purpose
of the whole composiion.
A well- writen paragraph has several disinguishing characterisics:
clearly stated or implied topic sentence, adequate development,
unity, coherence, and an appropriate organizaional strategy. The
body of the paragraph develops the main idea with paricular facts,
details, and examples.
A good paragraph has a topic sentence, supporing sentences,
and a concluding sentence and it has three essenial funcions such
as to develop the controlling idea stated in the topic sentence, to
break material into logical unit, and to create physical breaks on the
pages, which usually assist the reader.
ASSESSMENT
Answer the quesions.
1. What is meant by paragraph?
2. What is a topic sentence?
3. What is supporing sentences?
4. What is a concluding sentence?
5. What is meant by a controlling idea?

6. Browse the Internet. Find a model of paragraph. Analyze the
paragraph by determining the topic sentence, the supporing
sentences, and the concluding sentence.
7. Write a paragraph about 100-150 words. The topic is The Happiest
Event in My Life. Your paragraph should cover: a topic sentence,
supporing sentences, and a concluding sentence
36
PARAGRAPH
Paragraph Writing
Unit
Unity and
3 Coherence
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
are able to
1. Idenify unity of a paragraph in a passage
2. Idenify coherence of a paragraph in a passage
3. Deine meaning of unity and coherence paragraph
4. Write a simple paragraph having unity and
coherence
DESCRIPTION
This unit discusses: (1) the unity of a paragraph, and
(2) the coherence of a paragraph.
CONCEPT MAP
Elements of a
Unity Coherence
Paragraph
RELEVANCY
This unit discusses the elements of a paragraph: unity
and coherence. The discussion in this unit is as a basis of
the discussion on the next units: prewriing strategies. To
learn prewriing strategies in paragraph wriing that will be
37
learnt in the next unit, students must irstly understand the concept of
unity and coherence of a paragraph. The knowledge of paragraph unity
and paragraph coherence is also as foundaion in learning paragraph
wriing, which will be given in the next units.
KEYWORDS
Elements of a paragraph
Unity
Coherence
THE UNITY
Okay class, the previous meeing discussed the structure of a
paragraph covering: a topic sentence, supporing sentences, and a
concluding sentence. Today, we are going to discuss the other elements
of a paragraph. In addiion to the structure of a paragraph, a good
paragraph should have unity and coherence.
Well, do you know unity? Let’s discuss it. Unity means that the
ideas of the supporing sentences are all clearly connected to the main
idea expressed in the topic sentence. In the other word, all the details
are relevant to the one controlling idea. Unity in a paragraph requires
consistent development of the idea that our paragraph intends to explain.
The paragraph as a whole should focus on that idea. The best way to
keep our paragraph uniied is to be sure of what we intended to do.
One way to make our intenion clear is to begin with a topic sentence.
By beginning paragraph with a topic sentence we immediately signal to
our reader the main idea that we will develop in that paragraph. On the
other hand, we cannot include any informaion that does not directly
support the topic sentence.
THE COHERENCE
Literally, the word coherence means, “sicking together”. A paragraph
is coherent when the sentences are woven together in such a way that
our reader can move easily from one sentence to the next and read the
paragraph as an integrated whole (Trimmer & Sommer, 1984:20). A
paragraph coheres –holds together - when the sentences are arranged

in a clear, logical order, and when the sentences are related like links in
a chain (Fawcet & Sandberg, 1988:2). A coherence paragraph contains
sentences that are logically arranged and low smoothly. The connecions
between sentences are made in three ways, called cohesive elements
such as: repeiion of key words, use a reference word (a word referring
to another word), use of a transiion word (a word that acts a bridge
between sentences).
Model of a Good Paragraph

The following is an example of good paragraph
My Father
My father was a master of Islamic storyteller. He could tell a ine

old story of the prophets that made my feeling very impressive and
aroused my spirit. He could tell about the struggle of the prophets
that made me feel very peaceful, and be grateful for own life. He could
tell stories of the history of Adam and Eva, the history of Moses, the
history of Noah and Abraham. He also could tell a story of the history
of Islam’s growth in Islamic states all over the world. His memory
detailed every event of ten or twenty years or more before, just as
if it happened yesterday. All in all he was good at it (Adapted from
Litell, 1985:127).
This is a well-organized and well-writen paragraph. In the beginning

of the sentence, the writer states, my father was a master of Islamic
storyteller. In the remaining sentences, the writer supports that idea
by describing the many kinds of Islamic stories that his father told. The
following is further explanaion.
Topic : My father
Controlling idea : A master of Islamic storyteller.
Supporing sentences :
a. He could tell a ine old story of the prophets.
b. He could tell a story about the struggle of the prophets.

c. He could tell a story of the history of Adam and Eva, Moses, Noah,
and Abraham.
d. He could tell a story of the history of Islam’s growth in Islamic states
all over the world.
Concluding sentence: All in all, he was good at it.
Unity :All supporing sentences are clearly connected to the
topic sentence.
Coherence :The sentences above are arranged in a clear and a
logical order.
Completeness :It provides a complete explanaion to make the readers
understand.
Order :The paragraph above follows a consistent order. All
sentences are writen in past forms.
SUMMARY
A good paragraph should have unity and coherence.

Unity means that the ideas of the supporing sentences are all
clearly connected to the main idea expressed in the topic sentence.
The best way to keep our paragraph uniied is to be sure of what we
intended to do. One way to make our intenion clear is to begin with
a topic sentence.
Coherence means, “sicking together”. A paragraph is coherent
when the sentences are woven together in such a way that our reader
can move easily from one sentence to the next and read the paragraph
as an integrated whole.
A paragraph coheres –holds together - when the sentences are
arranged in a clear, logical order, and when the sentences are related
like links in a chain. A coherent paragraph contains sentences that
are logically arranged and low smoothly

ASSESSMENT
1. What does unity mean?
2. What does coherence mean?
3. Browse the Internet. Find a model of paragraph. Analyze the unity
and coherence of the paragraph.
4. Write a paragraph about 100-150 words. Your paragraph should
require: unity and coherence. The topic is How to Study in College
Level.

42
PARAGRAPH
Paragraph Writing
Unit
Paragraph
4 Writing
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
are able to
1. Idenify paragraph structure
2. Make topic sentence
3. Develop supporing sentences
4. Make concluding sentence
5. Develop sentences into a paragraph
DESCRIPTION
In this unit it will be discussed (1) recognizing paragraph,
(2) how to make topic sentence, (3) how to develop supporing
sentences, (4) how to make concluding sentence, and (5)
how to develop sentences into a paragraph.
CONCEPT MAP
Recognize Make Topic Develop

Paragraph Sentence Supporing
Sentences
Develop Make
Sentences into Concluding
Paragraph Sentence
43
RELEVANCY
units. To learn how to write paragraph through the process of wriing
that will be discussed in the next unit; you should understand the
concept of paragraph wriing such as recognizing paragraph, making topic
sentence, develop supporing sentences, making concluding sentence,
and developing sentences into a paragraph. The knowledge of paragraph
wriing is also as foundaion in learning how to develop paragraph in
various types of paragraph that will be provided in the next units.
KEYWORDS
Paragraph wriing
Topic sentence
Supporing sentences
Concluding sentence
Paragraph development
RECOGNIZING PARAGRAPH
Do you sill remember with the discussion of paragraph in the
previous unit? Let’s remind you all about it. A paragraph is a group of
related sentences that develops one main idea, which is the topic of the
paragraph. A paragraph can be as short as one sentence or as long as
ten sentences. The number of sentences is unimportant; however, the
paragraph should be long enough to develop the main idea clearly.
The following is a model of paragraph structure. It contents all of
the elements of good paragraph. Let’s read it carefully.

Model 1: Paragraph Structure
Gold
Gold, a precious metal, is prized for two important characterisics.

First of all, gold has a lustrous beauty that is resistant to corrosion.
Therefore, it is suitable for jewelry, coins, and ornamental purposes.
Gold never needs to be polished and will remain beauiful forever.
For example, a Macedonian coin remains as untarnished today as the
day it was minted twenty-three centuries ago. Another important
characterisic of gold is its usefulness to industry and science. For many
years, it has been used in hundreds of industrials applicaions. The most
recent use of gold is in astronauts’ suits. Astronauts wear gold-plated
heat shields for protecion outside the spaceship. In conclusion, gold
is treasured not only for its beauty, but also for its uility.
To build up a good paragraph you should recognize the elements

of paragraph. Let’s discuss it. There are two elements to develop a
paragraph, main element and addiional element.
Main Elements of Paragraph

A paragraph has three structural parts – a topic sentence, supporing
sentences, and a concluding sentence. They are named the main element.
The topic sentence tells what topic the paragraph is going to discuss.
The supporing sentences give details about the topic. Meanwhile, the
concluding sentence summarizes the main points or restates the topic
sentence in diferent words.
Let’s see the following diagram of a paragraph. A paragraph is like
a sandwich. The topic sentence and concluding sentences are the two
pieces of bread enclosing the meat – the supporing sentences.
Topic Sentence
Supporting Sentences
Concluding Sentence

33
Addiional Elements of Paragraph
In addiion to the three structural parts of a paragraph in the
previous discussion, a good paragraph also has the elements of unity
and coherence. Let’s discuss it.
Unity means what you discuss only one main idea in a paragraph.
The main idea is stated in the topic sentence, and then every supporing
sentence develops that idea. If, for instance, you introduce in your topic
sentence that you are going to discuss two important characterisics of
gold, discuss only those. Do not discuss anything else such as the price
of gold, the history of gold, or gold mining.
Coherence means that your paragraph is easy to read and understand
because (1) your supporing sentences are in some kind of logical order,
and (2) your ideas are connected by the use of appropriate transiion
signals. For example, the model of paragraph about gold, there are two
main supporing ideas, those are, gold is beauiful and gold is useful. Each
of these supporing ideas is discussed, one ater the other, and an example
is given for each one. This is one kind of logical order. Furthermore, the
relaionship between the ideas is clearly shown by using appropriate
transiion signals (words and phrases) such as “irst of all,” “another
important characterisics,” “for example,” and “in conclusion.”
All in all, a well-writen paragraph contains ive elements: the irst
three elements are called main elements (topic sentence, supporing
sentences, and concluding sentence), and the last two elements are
called addiional elements (unity and coherence).
Exercise 1
Let’s discuss the following quesions.
1. What do you know about paragraph?
2. What are the components of paragraph?
3. Observe the model of paragraph (Model 1), and then idenify
a. the topic sentence of the paragraph
b. the supporing sentences of the paragraph
c. the concluding sentence of the paragraph,
4. Is the model of paragraph unity and coherence? If yes, how do you
know about it?

HOW TO MAKE TOPIC SENTENCE
Now, let’s talk about how to make topic sentence as one of the
main elements of a good paragraph.
Do you sill remember about topic sentence that was discussed
in the previous unit? Let’s discuss it to remind you. A topic sentence is
the most important sentence in a paragraph. It briely indicates what
the paragraph is going to discuss. For this reason, the topic sentence
is helpful guide to both the writer and the reader. The writer can see
what informaion to include and exclude. Meanwhile, the reader can
see what the paragraph is going to be about and is therefore beter
prepared to understand it.
Every good paragraph has a topic sentence, which clearly states the
topic and the controlling idea of the paragraph. It is a complete sentence
and is usually (but not always) the irst sentence in the paragraph.
Tips to Make a Topic Sentence

There are three important points you remember when you make
a topic sentence. Let’s discuss them.
1. It should be a complete sentence

A topic sentence is a complete sentence; that is, it contains a subject,
a verb, and (usually) a complement. Let’s see the Table.
Topic Sentences Not Topic Sentences

(Complete Sentences) (Not Complete Sentences)
1. Driving on freeways requires skills 5. Driving on freeways.
and alertness.
2. Gold has ive characterisics. 6. The characterisics of
3. Living in college dormitory gives gold.
several advantages. 7. The advantages of living
4. Registering for college will be a in college dormitory.
new experience for students. 8. How to register for
college.

Example:
No. 1. Driving on freeways requires skills and alertness. (Topic sentence)
S V O
No. 5. Driving on freeways. (Not topic sentence)
2. It should contain a topic and a controlling idea

A topic sentence should have two parts–a topic and a controlling
idea. The topic names the subject of the paragraph, while the controlling
idea tells what the paragraph will say about the topic. It is called controlling
idea because it controls or limits the topic to a very speciic point or
points to be discussed in the space of a single paragraph.
Example:
1). Driving on freeways requires skills and alertness.
topic controlling idea
2). Gold has ive characterisics.

3). Living in college dormitory gives several advantages.

4). Registering for college will be a new experience for students .

5). Some marriages are a union of two families.

3. It should give only the main idea, not too speciic and not too
general
A topic sentence gives only the main idea; therefore, it is the most
general statement in the paragraph. It does not give any speciic details.
However, a topic sentence is neither too general nor too speciic.

Example:
1). Marriage is an event in a person’s life. (Too general)
→ Why? Because there is no speciic controlling idea. The
reader has no idea what the paragraph will say about marriage
except that it happens.
2). The average age for people in the United States to marry in
the year 2000 was 25 for a woman and 27 for a man.
(Too speciic)
→ Why? Because it gives details that should come later in
the paragraph.
3). The average age for people in the United States to marry has
changed in the past 100 years. (Good)
→ Why? Because it gives the reader a hint that the paragraph
will discuss changes in the ages when people marry.
A good topic sentence tells something about the contents of the
paragraph but none of the details.
The Posiion of the Topic Sentence

The topic sentence may be the irst or last sentence in a paragraph.
It is usually the irst sentence of the paragraph. Experienced writers
someimes put topic sentence at the end, but the best place is usually
right at the beginning. At the beginning of a paragraph it gives readers an
idea of what they will read. This helps them understand the paragraph
more easily.
The topic sentence may also be the irst and last sentence in a
paragraph–“Sandwich style.” A “sandwich-style” paragraph is especially
helpful to your readers if the paragraph is very long. It also serves as a
concluding sentence.
Let’s observe the following model of paragraphs. Noice the
diferent posiions for the topic sentence in each paragraph. The topic
sentences are underlined.

Model 2: The Posiion of Topic Sentence
The topic sentence is in the irst sentence.
Hurricanes
Hurricanes, which are also called cyclones, exert tremendous

power. These violent storms are oten a hundred miles in diameter,
and their winds can reach velociies or speeds of seventy-ive miles
per hour or more. Furthermore, the strong winds and heavy rainfall
that accompany them can completely destroy a small town in a
couple of hours. The energy that is released by a hurricane in one
day exceeds the total energy consumed by humankind throughout
the world in one year.
The topic sentence is in the last sentence.
Famous School “Failures”
Albert Einstein, one of the world’s geniuses, failed his university

entrance examinaions on his irst atempt. William Faulkner, one of
the America’s noted writers, never inished college because he could
not pass his English courses. Sir Winston Churchill, who is considered
one of the masters of English language, had to have special tutoring
in English during elementary school. These few examples show that
failure in school does not always predict failure in life.

The topic sentence is in the irst and last sentence (as conclusion)
Synonyms
Synonyms, words that have the same basic meaning, do not

always have the same emoional meaning. For example, the words
“singy” and “frugal” both mean “careful with money.” However, to
call a person singy is an insult, while the word frugal has a much
more posiive connotaion or implied meaning. Similarly, a person
wants to be slender but not skinny, and aggressive, but not pushy.
Therefore, you should be careful in choosing words because many
so-called synonyms are not synonymous at all.
Developing Topic Sentence from General Topic

Do you know how to develop topic sentence? Let’s discuss how to
do it. Imagine that you are given the (general) topic “Friends” to write
a paragraph about. “Friends” is too large topic for a paragraph, so you
need to narrow it to smaller topic. One way to do this is to use the Idea
Lising Technique (ILT). (Idea Lising Technique is one of the techniques
you can use to get ideas. It is a prewriing technique in which you write
the topic at the top of a piece of paper and then quickly make a list of
the words or phrases that come into your mind. Don’t stop to wonder if
an idea is good or not. Write it down! Keep on wriing unil the low of
ideas stops). The Idea Lising Technique (ILT) is completely discussed
in Unit 8.
Well, now let’s get ideas through ILT. Let’s follow the following
steps:
Step 1:
Make a list of every word or phrase that comes into your mind
about the word “Friends” (words or phrases related to that topic).
Your list might look like this:
Friends
kinds of friends friends from school
new friends casual friends
old friends how to make friends?

best friend what is a friend?
childhood friends
Step 2:
Choose one of the smaller topics (one of the items from your list).
For instance, you might choose “What is a friend?”
Step 3:
Make a second list of words or phrases related to the smaller topic
“What is a friend?” while thinking about that topic. Your list might
look like this:
What is a Friend?
have fun with is loyal
hang out with can depend on
play sports with ask device
share secrets help each other
can trust enjoy the same aciviies
share problems like the same movies, sports
Step 4:
Choose the words or phrases you have listed. Any of those ideas
(words or phrases) can be the controlling ideas for your topic
sentences. For instance, you might choose:
Have fun with
Can trust
Enjoy the same aciviies
Step 5:
Make topic sentences using the words or phrases you have chosen.
Your topic sentences might be as follows:
A friend is a person you have fun with
A friend is someone you can trust
A friend is a person who enjoys the same aciviies
Exercise 2
1. Write a topic sentence for each of the following topics. Remember
the three important points to make a topic sentence.
a. The efect(s) of television on children.
b. The efect(s) of smoking on a person’s health.

c. The beneits of living at college dormitory.
d. The characterisics of Islamic college.
e. The importance of a college educaion for your ield of
study.
2. Choose one of the general topics suggested. Develop your topic
sentences using Idea Lising Technique (ILT) as discussed.
a. Educaion
b. Sport
HOW TO DEVELOP SUPPORTING SENTENCES

Okay class, you have already made topic sentence. Now, let’s discuss
how to develop supporing sentences.
Do you sill remember what supporing sentences are? It has
already been discussed in the previous unit. Okay, let’s remind you
about it. Supporing sentences develop the topic sentence. That is, they
explain the topic sentence by giving more informaion such as reasons,
examples, facts, staisics, and quotaions. Supporing point sentences
list the main points of the paragraph.
As you know, supporing sentences are the “meat” of a paragraph.
They not only provide the details that prove the truth of your topic
sentence, but they also make your wriing rich and interesing. The various
supporing sentences depend on the kind of text you will produce. Thus,
they agree with the context of the text type.
For example, in a descripive paragraph, the more details you include,
the more clearly your readers will imagine what you are describing. Your
details should appeal to the ive senses. They should tell your readers
how something looks, smells, sounds, feels, and tastes. You also write
about colors, sizes, shapes, odors, noises, and textures.
Tips to Develop Supporing Sentences

How do you develop supporing sentences? To develop supporing
sentences you can use examples. Giving examples is one of the ways to
provide more informaion about the topic sentence. Examples illustrate
the supporing point sentences. Examples are good support because
they are speciic; they make your meaning very clear.

How to give examples? To give examples you can use the signal
phrases. They can introduce examples. At the beginning of a sentence,
use For example or For instance, followed by a comma. In front of an
example is just word or phrase (not an enire sentence). Also, in the
middle of sentences you can use the preposiional phrase such as, not
followed by a comma. Let’s see the table below.
Signal Phrases for Examples

Followed by a Comma Examples
For example For example, the bride oten wears
a long holoku (wedding dress), and
the groom wears a long-sleeved
white shirt and pants with a red
For Instance sash around his waist.
For instance, there may be noisy
irecrackers, a Chinese way of
keeping bad spirits away.
Not Followed by a Comma
such as The bride’s lei is tradiionally made
of white lowers such as pikake
(jasmine), and the groom’s is made
of green maile leaves.
Exercise 3
1. Fill in the blanks with addiional supporing sentences for a topic
sentence. Add as many supporing points or details as you can by
giving example.
Topic sentence:
Owning a small car has several advantages
1. Supporing point sentence:
A small car is easier to park
Example:
Example:

Example:
Example:
Example:
Example:
Example:
Example:
2. Give supporing sentences for the following topic sentences. Do

it as example no. 1.
a. To keep your teeth healthy and your smile bright, do the
following things.
b. Consider these four factors when planning a family
vacaion.
c. A good friend has three important qualiies.
d. Avoid studying for a big test by taking the following
acions.
e. A college educaion is important for these reasons.

HOW TO MAKE CONCLUDING SENTENCE
Ater learning how to make topic sentence and supporing sentences,
now you should also learn how to write a concluding sentence so that
you have a good conclusion of your paragraph. Do you sill recognize
what a concluding sentence is? A concluding sentence signals the end
of the paragraph and reminds the reader of the main idea or leaves
the reader with important points to remember. A concluding sentence
is not absolutely necessary, but it is very oten helpful to the reader
because it signals the end of the paragraph and reminds the reader of
your important points.
In short, a concluding sentence serves three purposes. (1) It signals
the end of the paragraph. It is shown from the use of end-of-paragraph
signals such as in conclusion, in summary, inally, etc. (2) It summarizes the
main points of the paragraph. (3) It gives a inal comment on your topic
and leaves the reader with the most important ideas to think about.
Tips to Write a Concluding Sentence

How do you write a concluding sentence? To write a good concluding
sentence there are three ips to help you. Here are those ips:
1. Begin with a conclusion signal

Most conclusion signals have commas ater them; others do not.
Let’s see the example of using conclusion signals in the table.
Conclusion Signals
Followed by a Comma Examples
All in all, All in all, Japanese food is both
In brief, beauiful to look at and delicious
In conclusion, to eat.

Indeed, Indeed, many U.S. ciies and
In short, regions have a special food for
In summary, everyone to enjoy.
To conclude,
To summarize,
To sum up,
Not Followed by a Comma
It is clear that … You can see that fad diets do
These examples show that … not work and may even damage
You can see that … a dieter’s health.
2. Remind your reader of the main idea by one of the following

methods
Method 1 (Paraphrasing):
Repeat the idea in the topic sentence in diferent words. Do not
just copy the topic sentence.
Example:
Topic Sentence: Successful bidding on eBay requires paience and
strategy.
→ In brief, wait paiently and place your bid with precision iming,
and you will be the winning bidder every ime. (Concluding
Sentence)
Method 2 (Summarizing):
Summarize the main point or points of the paragraph.
→ In conclusion, follow the steps I have outlined, and you will be the
winning bidder every ime. (Concluding Sentence)
3. Never end a paragraph by introducing a new idea.

Example:
→ In conclusion, you can spend a lot of money on eBay.
(It is not concluding sentence because it introduces a new
idea)

Types of Concluding Sentence
The following models demonstrate two diferent kinds of concluding
sentences. The irst type is that it paraphrases the topic sentence. The
concluding sentence repeats the main idea of the topic sentence in
diferent words. The second one is that it summarizes the main points
of the paragraph. Those points are not speciically stated in the topic
sentence.
Model 3: Two Types of Concluding Sentence

It paraphrases the topic sentence
Synonyms
Synonyms, words that have the same basic meaning, do not
always have the same emoional meaning. For example, the words
“singy” and “frugal” both mean “careful with money.” However, to
call a person singy is an insult, while the word frugal has a much
more posiive connotaion or implied meaning. Similarly, a person
wants to be slender but not skinny, and aggressive, but not pushy.
Therefore, you should be careful in choosing words because many
so-called synonyms are not synonymous at all.
It summarizes the main points of the paragraph
Gold
Gold, a precious metal, is prized for two important characterisics.
First of all, gold has a lustrous beauty that is resistant to corrosion.
Therefore, it is suitable for jewelry, coins, and ornamental purposes.
Gold never needs to be polished and will remain beauiful forever.
For example, a Macedonian coin remains as untarnished today as the
day it was minted twenty-three centuries ago. Another important
characterisic of gold is its usefulness to industry and science. For many
years, it has been used in hundreds of industrials applicaions. The most
recent use of gold is in astronauts’ suits. Astronauts wear gold-plated
heat shields for protecion outside the spaceship. In conclusion, gold
is treasured not only for its beauty, but also for its uility.

Exercise 4
Write concluding sentence of the paragraphs below through the
following steps:
Step 1 → Underline the topic sentence in each paragraph.
Step 2 → Determine the main idea of each paragraph.
Step 3 → Add a good concluding sentence to each. You may either
paraphrase the topic sentence or summarize the main points.
Step 4 → Begin each concluding sentence with a conclusion signal.
Paragraph 1
You can reduce gas consumpion in your car by careful driving

and good maintenance. Do not speed. Gas consumpion is about 10
percent higher at 60 miles per hour than at 50 miles per hour and
even greater at higher speeds. Avoid fast stops and starts because
they wear your ires out in addiion to using a lot of gas. Check your
ire pressure oten because underinlated ires reduce gas mileage
considerably. Get your car turned up regularly because an ineiciently
operaing engine results in ineicient fuel consumpion.
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________

Paragraph 2
There are two major diferences between the European and

American university systems. In European universiies, students are
not required to atend classes. In fact, professors in Germany generally
do not know the names of the students enrolled in their courses. In
the United States, however, students are required to atend all classes
and may be punished if they do not. Furthermore, in the European
system, there is usually just one comprehensive examinaion at the
end of the students’ enire four or ive years of study. In the American
system, on the other hand, there are usually numerous quizzes,
tests, and homework assignments, and there is almost always a inal
examinaion in each course at the end of the semester. __________
______________________________________________ _________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
___________________________________
HOW TO DEVELOP SENTENCES INTO A PARAGRAPH

Okay class, you have already understood how to make topic sentence,
develop supporing sentences, and make concluding sentence. Now, let’s
learn how to develop sentences into a good paragraph.
As you know that to develop a good paragraph, you should master
the structure of paragraph such as topic sentence, supporing sentences,
and concluding sentences. Also, you must understand the other elements
of paragraph such as unity and coherence before you implement it in
wriing pracice.
Addiionally, since paragraph wriing is never a one-step acion, it
will be an ongoing creaive act. Therefore, when you irst write something,
you have already been thinking about what to say and how to say it. Then
ater you have inished wriing, you read over what you have writen

and make changes and correcions. You write and revise and write and
revise again unil you are saisied that your wriing expresses exactly
what you want to say.
The paragraph development should be through the wriing process.
The process of wriing has roughly four steps. In the irst step, you create
ideas. In the second step, you organize the ideas. In the third step, you
write a rough drat. In the inal step, you polish your rough drat by
ediing it and making revisions. For the detailed discussion of the wriing
process you should follow the discussion in the next unit.
SUMMARY
There are three important points when making a topic sentence:

It should be a complete sentence, it should contain a topic and a
controlling idea, and it should give only the main idea, not too
speciic and not too general.
The posiion of the topic sentence may be in the irst sentence, in
the last sentence, or in the irst and last sentence (as conclusion).
To develop supporing sentences you can use examples. Giving
examples is one of the ways to provide more informaion about the
topic sentence because examples illustrate the supporing point
sentences, and they are good supports because they are speciic;
they make your meaning very clear.
Tips to write a concluding sentence are: Begin with a conclusion
signal, remind your reader of the main idea by one of the methods
(paraphrasing or summarizing), and never end a paragraph by
introducing a new idea.
To develop a good paragraph, writers should master the
structure of paragraph such as topic sentence, supporing sentences,
and concluding sentences. Also, it should be through the process of
wriing.

ASSESSMENT
Write a paragraph 150 to 200 words long by following the steps
below:
Step 1 Choose one of the general topic provided
a. University
b. Family
c. Health
Step 2 Develop your topic sentences using Idea Lising technique (ILT)
as in the discussion (in Exercise 2).
Step 3 Give supporing sentences for your topic sentences by making
diagram as in Exercise 3
Step 4 Develop your sentences into a good paragraph.
Step 5 Write a concluding sentence of your paragraph. You may
either paraphrase the topic sentence or summarize the main
points. Do not forget to begin your concluding sentence with
a conclusion signal.
62
PARAGRAPH
Paragraph Writing
Unit
Writing
5 Process
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
are able to
1. Deine wriing process
2. Idenify stages of the wriing process
3. Idenify prewriing techniques
4. Idenify techniques of revising and ediing
5. Write a paragraph through wriing process
DESCRIPTION
In this unit it will be discussed (1) deiniion of wriing
process, (2) stages of the wriing process, (3) prewriing
techniques, and (4) revising and ediing techniques.
CONCEPT MAP
Deine Wriing Stages of Prewriing

the Wriing
Process Techniques
Process
Write a Paragraph Techniques

through Wriing of Revising
Process and Ediing
63
RELEVANCY
units. To learn how to write paragraph through the process of wriing; you
should understand the concept of process of wriing such as prewriing,
drating, revising, and ediing. The knowledge of wriing process is also
as foundaion in learning how to develop paragraph in various types of
paragraph that will be provided in the next units.
KEYWORDS
Wriing process
Stages of wriing process
Prewriing
Drating
Revising
Ediing
THE DEFINITION OF WRITING PROCESS

The wriing process refers to everything writer do, from the moment
they start thinking about what to write, unil the inal copy is completed.
The focus in the wriing process is on what students think and do as they
write (Tompkins & Hoskisson, 1995:210). Learning to use the wriing
process is necessary because the wriing process is a tool. The students
need opportuniies to learn to use the wriing process.
About the wriing process, Ur (1996:168) summarizes on it and its
implicaions for teaching. First, diferent writers may produce equally good
results through widely diferent process. It means that teachers should
suggest and make available various possible strategies and encourage
each student to search for personal efecive one.
Second, wriing is a messy business. Most students progress
through a number of unidy drats before reaching a inal version. It is
helpful if teachers encourage students to work through a number of
revisions and to accept messy drats as a posiive, even essenial, stage
in wriing. Also, teachers should treat early drats as transiion stages
to be criicized but not formally assessed.

Third, wriing is potenially saisfying. If students are wriing on topic
about which they feel they have something worthwhile or interesing
to say, the process of wriing can be absorbing and enjoyable. If it is
worked through to a inal product, most students feel pride in their
work and want it to be read.
Last, they learn to write through wriing. Teachers are suggested
to get their students to write a lot, thinking as they do so and learning
from their own wriing experience.
THE STAGES OF WRITING PROCESS

Every wriing specialist gives a diferent version of the stages
of the wriing process. Gebhard, (2000:226) introduces the stages of
wriing such as prewriing, drating, revising, and ediing. The following
describes briely those four stages. The understanding of each process
is enhanced by other writers.
Prewriing Stage
The irst stage is prewriing. It is a preparaion to write and the
geing-ready-to-write stage which is like a warming-up for the athletes
(Tompkins & Hoskisson, 1995:211). Oshima & Hogue (2007:16) deine;
prewriing is a way to get ideas. In this step, writers choose a topic and
collect ideas to explain the topic. Likewise, Glencoe (2001:43) states that
prewriing begins the moment writers start to collect ideas. During this
acivity, they explore ideas for wriing topics.
Furthermore, Tompkins & Hoskisson (1995:211) suggest that in the
prewriing stage, students should choose a topic; consider their purpose,
form and audience; use informal wriing strategies to generate and
organize ideas; and write a collaboraive composiion. The teacher's role
in this stage is making plans for the wriing project, providing necessary
background experiences, and arranging for rehearsal aciviies.
Techniques Suggested in Prewriing Stage

There are some techniques or ways a teacher can do in the
prewriing stage. Gebhard (2000:227) suggests that the techniques of
prewriing can be through brainstorming, clustering or word mapping,

strategic quesioning, sketching, free wriing, exploring the senses,
interviewing, and informaion gathering. Similarly, Oshima & Hogue
(2007:16) menion that the techniques of prewriing are such as lising,
free wriing, and clustering. Those techniques menioned are used as
ways to get ideas for wriing.
Drating Stage
The second stage is drating. This stage is the ime to pour out ideas,
with litle concern about spelling, punctuaion, and other mechanical errors
(Tompkins & Hoskisson, 1995:212). Ater the students have generated
ideas, they need to write them down on paper without worrying about
mechanics or neatness (Roe et al., 1995; Gebhard, 2000:228).
Drating involves developing the prewriing notes into connected
sentences and paragraphs (Glencoe, 2001:43). In this way, the students
atempt to produce their irst drat to capture their essay’s meaning and
get it down on paper. By so doing, they actually use their irst drat to
formulate a working introducion and to organize their ideas.
Addiionally, Roe et al. (1995) suggest that in the midst of drating
a paper, peer and teacher conferences about the wriing may take place.
Informal teacher conferences may occur as the teacher circulates among
the students to see how work is progressing. Peer conferences are for
the purpose of asking for help with some part of the wriing that is giving
them trouble. They may read their wriing to one or more peers and say
something about it. In short, by providing opportuniies for students to
talk with their teacher and their classmate, it hopefully gives feedback
while they write their drats.
Revising Stage
The third stage is revising. The word revision means «seeing again»,
and in this stage students «resee» their wriings again with the help of
classmates and teacher (Tompkins & Hoskisson, 1995:213). Revising is to
make the wriing clearer and more interesing to the readers (Glencoe,
2001:44).
Ater wriing the irst drat of a composiion, students rethink and
rewrite the irst drat, forming the second drat. This rethinking may take

the form of reorganizing what has been writen in the irst drat. In this
stage, Gebhard (2000:228) suggests that students should reine ideas
and they can consider revision of the content and organizaion of their
ideas. Someimes the ideas are added or omited, so that a clear, more
coherent drat is formed.
Aciviies Suggested in Revision Stage

There are some aciviies suggested in the revision stage. Tompkins
& Hoskisson (1995:216) suggest three aciviies; they are rereading the
rough drat, sharing the rough drat in a wriing group and revising in
the basis of feedback from the wriing group.
On the irst acivity, rereading the rough drat, the writer himself
reads his/her drat as a reader, not as a writer who knows what he or she
intended to say. In sharing the rough drat in a wriing group acivity, the
students meet in wriing groups to share their composiions with small
groups of classmates. The members of the group read their friend>s drat
and ofer some compliments and suggesions. Ater having a feedback
from friends, student can revise or rewrite his/her drat by adding words,
subsituing sentences, moving phrases, and so forth.
Ediing Stage
The fourth stage is ediing. Ediing is puing the piece of wriing
into its inal form. It is the process in which the students begin to look
at correctness (Stone, 1990:18). Tompkins & Hoskisson (1995:217)
state that ediing stage primarily focuses on the content of students>
wriing. Ater the content of the wriing is set, they focus on ediing/
proofreading and polish their wriing by correcing errors in spelling,
grammar, and punctuaion (Glencoe, 2001:44). By so doing, the wriing
is opimally readable.
Similarly, Harmer (2004:5) says that ater writers have produced
the second drat they then read it to see where it works and where it
does not. Meaning that probably the order of the informaion is not
clear, perhaps the way something writen is ambiguous or confusing
so that the students may make changes to have individual words and
grammaical accuracy.

Techniques Suggested in Ediing Stage
The technique of ediing suggested by Stone (1990:19) is through
partner ediing. The procedure of partner ediing is the students edit
their own wriings while being coached by a teammate. Ater they have
been trained in ediing their papers, they work through each round twice.
Partner 1 reads for errors while Partner 2 coaches, and then Partner 2
reads while Partner 1 coaches.
Another procedure of one-on-one ediing or ediing partners is as
follows; students exchange papers and read their partner>s paper silently.
On the back of each paper, each editor writes something he or she liked
about the paper, suggesions for changes, and a list of misspelled words.
The editor makes punctuaion correcion directly in the text. The editor
then discusses the posiive comment and suggesion with the writer. If
the partners cannot agree on the changes, they ask the third students.
Then if agreement sill cannot be reached, they ask the teacher.
Hansen & Liu (2005:1) suggested the use of peer response in revising
and ediing stages as well. Peer response someimes referred to as ‘peer
review’, ‘peer ediing’, or ‘peer feedback’ can be deined as the ‘use of
learners as sources of informaion, and interacion between each other’.
Peer response is an integral part of most wriing classes.
Since a great number of studies carried out by L2 researchers
have dealt with the implementaion of peer review and its ability to
improve student drats, Hansen & Liu (2005) found that peer response,
comments, or feedback can lead to meaningful revisions. Revisions based
on peer comments can be beter in vocabulary, organizaion and content.
Respected teachers and wriing theorist have fostered peer response in
wriing class as a way to encourage students to write and revise.
The process steps of applying peer response in group should
follow the stages of the wriing process–prewriing, drating, revising,
and ediing (Smalley et al., 2001:3). It only focuses on the revising and
ediing stages in which peer response group is applied ater conducing
prewriing and drating aciviies.
The process steps begin with assigning the students to do wriing
task through the wriing process. It is iniiated with prewriing aciviies
followed by outlining, and then wriing their irst drats inside or outside

class. They are required to bring their drats to the next class for peer
response. The procedure of implemening peer response in the wriing
class is adapted from Tang & Tithecot (1999:24-25) as shown in the
following Table.
The Procedures of Peer Response Group
No Steps
1 Teacher groups students in a group of 3 or 4.
2 Teacher divides the ime equally for peer response acivity to
each group member.
3 Writer (student writer) tells group members how they may best
help him/her give response to his/her drat.
4 Writer reads his/her drat aloud while peers (group members)
listen atenively without interrupion.
5 On the irst reading, peers do not make any comments or take
notes. They just listen and try to understand what the writer is
saying.
6 Ater the irst reading is completed, teacher shares peer response
sheet (adapted from Smalley et al. (2001:101).
7 Writer reads the drat again, fairly slowly.
8 On the second reading, peers take few minutes to write one
or two sentences on the space in peer response sheet staring
their general impression of the paragraph’s strong and confusing
points.
9 Ater the second reading is completed, peers take turns giving
response (feedback/comments) by answering quesions in peer
response sheet. The drat is handed in for the peers’ review.
10 Peers discuss their responses with the writer.
11 Peers submit their response to the writer.
12 Repeat this process of item number 3 ill 11 for each member
of the group.
13 Writer revises his/her drat based on the peers’ feedback as home
assignment (submited in the following meeing)

SUMMARY
The wriing process refers to everything writer do, from the

moment they start thinking about what to write, unil the inal copy
is completed. The focus in the wriing process is on what students
think and do as they write.
Every wriing specialist gives a diferent version of the stages of
wriing process. Gebhard, (2000:226) introduces the stages of wriing
such as prewriing, drating, revising, and ediing.
Prewriing is a way to get ideas. In this step, writers choose a
topic and collect ideas to explain the topic.
The techniques of prewriing can be through brainstorming,
clustering or word mapping, strategic quesioning, sketching, free wriing,
exploring the senses, interviewing, and informaion gathering.
Drating stage is the ime to pour out ideas, with litle concern
about spelling, punctuaion, and other mechanical errors.
In revising stage students «resee» their wriings again with the
help of classmates and teacher.
Ediing is puing the piece of wriing into its inal form. It is the
process in which the students begin to look at correctness.
It is suggested to use peer response in revising and ediing stages
as well. Peer response someimes referred to as ‘peer review’, ‘peer
ediing’, or ‘peer feedback’ can be deined as the ‘use of learners as
sources of informaion, and interacion between each other’.
Peer response, comments, or feedback can lead to meaningful
revisions. Revisions based on peer comments can be beter in
vocabulary, organizaion and content.
ASSESSMENT
1. Answer the following quesions.
a. What do you know about the wriing process?
b. What are the stages of wriing process?
c. What is prewriing stage?
d. What are the techniques in prewriing stage?

e. What is drating stage?
f. What are the stages of revising and ediing?
g. What are the techniques in the stages of revising and
ediing?
2. Choose a person who has made a diference in the world in your
life. Write a paragraph of about 100-150 words long about this
person. Follow the steps in the process of wriing:
Step 1 Do prewriing acivity to get ideas using
one of the prewriing techniques.
Step 2 Write irst drat (rough drat) in drating stage.
Step 3 Revise and edit your irst drat using one of the revising/
ediing techniques that have been suggested.
Step 4 Write a inal version.

72
PARAGRAPH
Paragraph Writing
Unit
Prewriting
6 Strategies
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
are able to:
1. Idenify the model of prewriing strategy
2. Menion some models of prewriing strategy
3. Apply one of the models of prewriing strategy
DESCRIPTION
This unit discusses: (1) the model of prewriing
strategy, (2) WH-quesions, (3) free wriing, (4) clustering,
and (5) brainstorming.
CONCEPT MAP
Prewriing WH-
Free Wriing
Strategies quesions
Brainstorming Clustering
73
RELEVANCY
This unit discusses some models of prewriing strategies: WH-
quesions, free wriing, clustering, and brainstorming. This material will
help students generate ideas before wriing. It helps students write the
irst drat before wriing the inal drat. The discussion in this unit is as a
basis of the discussion on the next units: narraive paragraph. To learn
the narraive paragraph, students must be familiar with some models
of pre wriing strategies. The knowledge about pre wriing strategy is
also as foundaion in learning paragraph wriing, which will be given in
the next units.
KEYWORDS
Prewriing strategies
WH-quesions
Free wriing
Clustering
Brainstorming
THE PREWRITING STRATEGIES

The previous meeing discussed unity and coherence of a paragraph.
This meeing will discuss some models of prewriing strategy. Prewriing
deals with a series of strategies designed to ind, gather and produce
informaion about a certain topic in wriing. Prewriing is the irst stage
of the wriing process and the point at which we discover and explore
our iniial ideas about a subject. Prewriing helps us to get our ideas on
paper, though not usually in an organized form, and brainstorm thoughts
that might eventually make their way into our wriing.
In prewriing stage, writers take ime to think about the topic and
generate ideas. They also spend some ime focusing and planning the
piece of wriing. In the prewriing stage, a writer decides the interesing
topic. Prewriing covers a wide variety of aciviies called invenion
techniques. According to Smalley, there are four prewriing techniques
that the writers can use to generate ideas as they begin to write, namely:
brainstorming, free wriing, WH-quesions, and clustering.

WH-quesions
It is also called journalisic quesions or strategic quesioning. When
newspaper reporters write aricles, they try to answer the following
quesions in the irst sentence of the report: who, what, when, where,
why and someimes how. Strategic quesioning lets the writers consider
the topic through a series of quesions. Here, the writers answer a set
of quesions designed to guide the wriing, such as “What do you want
to write about?” ”What is your goal?” “What do you need to ind out?”
Here, writers are given chances to consider what they know and need
to learn about the wriing topic.
Free Wriing
Free wriing is wriing without stopping. It means wriing whatever
comes to mind without worrying about whether the ideas are good
or the grammar is correct. The purpose is so free up the writer’s mind
to let it make associaions and connecions. In free wriing, students
write nonstop on a topic for a set ime. They stop to read and consider
what they wrote and then write nonstop again for another set amount
of ime.
Free wriing is wriing freely without stopping, leing thoughts
low without regarding to connecion and direcion whether an idea
makes sense or not. Free wriing provides writers with chances to put
ideas into wriing. Here, a writer can write freely whatever comes to his
mind. The writer can write freely, staring with a blank sheet and a pen
and leing thoughts low without worrying about grammar and word
choice. It is a way of releasing and simulaing the power of thought and
imaginaion. In free wriing, the writers write without stopping, which
means wriing whatever comes to the writers’ mind without worrying
about whether the ideas are grammaical or not. Furthermore, they
explain that when they write, the writers should pay atenion the
following things: do not interrupt the low ideas, write the ideas as
they come, do not censor any thoughts or insights, do not go back and
reread, and do not cross anything.

Clustering
Clustering or word mapping is a prewriing technique of making
a visual map of ideas. In clustering, the writers use a key word placed
in the center of a page, then, jot down all the free associaions. Here,
the writers’ associaions are clustered together and stem of the central
word. Clustering frees writers from following a strictly linear sequence.
It may allow writers to think more creaively and make new associaions.
To use this technique, writers can begin with a topic circled in the middle
of a sheet of paper, and, then, draw a line out from the circle and write
an idea associated with the topic.
Clustering is also called Cluster mapping or idea webbing. It is a
great way to show relaionships between ideas. Cluster mapping is also
part idea generaion and part organizaion, so students will know exactly
how to group their ideas once they are ready to write.
Brainstorming
Brainstorming, also called lising, is a good technique to generate
ideas and to get informaion that a writer needs. It is a sudden insight
or connecion. In brainstorming, students call out as many associaions
as possible while the teacher jots them down. There ive steps of
brainstorming process in wriing, as follows:
1. Brainstorm list. In this step, the writer quickly makes a list of every
word, every phrase, every ideas that comes into the writer’s mind
about the topic. Write every thought down. Don’t worry if it is
correct or not. The goal is to list as much as possible as quickly as
possible. Here is the brainstorming list for model of paragraph on
choosing a college or university can be diicult.
Choosing a University Can be Diicult

choose pay aford the fees
select tuiion fees locaion
college living expenses environment
university living cost safe and quiet
future career ofer part ime job

job scholarships department
curriculum cheap classmate
modern expensive friendly
up to date facility near
lecturers laboratory far
professor research equipment
qualiiy library park area
sport swimming pool
2. Edit brainstorming list. The second step is to edit the brainstorming

list. In this step, the writer includes in the inal paragraph and what
he/she want to omit by combining ideas that belong together,
crossing out words that repeat the same ideas, and crossing out
that are not directly related to the main ideas. Here is the model of
the edited brainstorming list for paragraph on choosing a college
or university can be diicult.
Choosing a College or University Can be Diicult

choose pay aford the fees
select tuiion fees locaion
college living expenses environment
university living cost safe and quiet
future career ofer part ime job
job scholarships department
curriculum cheap classmate
modern expensive friendly
up to date facility near
lecturers laboratory far
professor research equipment
qualiiy library park area
sport swimming pool
3. Organize the list. The third step is to put the list in order. Here, the
steps should be in ime order. What happens irst? Second? Third?
Last? Noice that each step is given a capital leter (A, B, C, etc.).

Here is the model of the organize list for paragraph on choosing
a college or university can be diicult.
List in Time Order

A. Prepare you well for your future career.
B. The professors must be highly qualiied and respected in their
ields.
C. Afordability.
D. Pay the tuiion fees and living expenses.
E. The environment should be safe and quiet to facilitate
studying.
F. There should be possibiliies near the school for part ime or
summer jobs in your major, so you can get some pracical work
experience
4. Making an outline. The fourth step is to add itle and give a topic
sentence. Here, the itle is centered at the top. The topic sentence
is placed below the itle and the ive steps listed under the topic
sentence and have capital leters (A, B, C, and so on. Here is the
model of the outline for paragraph on choosing a college or
university can be diicult.

It is not easy to choose the appropriate college or university.
There are several consideraion to be taken.
A. Prepare you well for your future career.
B. The professors must be highly qualiied and respected in their
ields.
C. Afordability.
D. Pay the tuiion fees and living expenses.
E. The environment should be safe and quiet to facilitate
studying.
F. There should be possibiliies near the school for part ime or
summer jobs in your major, so you can get some pracical work
experience.

5. Wriing the paragraph. The last step is to write the paragraph
based on the outline made. Here is the model of paragraph on
choosing a college or university can be diicult. .

It is not easy to choose the appropriate college or university.
There are several consideraion to be taken. The most diicult part
is inding a university that prepares you well for your future career.
In order to get a good
job, the curriculum that is taught must be thorough and up-to-
date. In addiion, the professors must be highly qualiied and respected
in their ields. Another diiculty in choosing a university or college
is afordability. You need to be able to pay the tuiion fees and living
expenses. Some insituions might be able to ofer you scholarships
if you cannot aford the fees. A good locaion is also very important
when choosing a school. The environment should be safe and quiet
to facilitate studying. Moreover, there should be possibiliies near
the school for part ime or summer jobs in your major, so you can
get some pracical work experience. You should consider all of these
points carefully so you can choose the most appropriate college or
university for you.
SUMMARY
Prewriing is important in wriing process. There are many

prewriing strategies that can be applied in wriing process. They are
brainstorming, free wriing, WH-quesions, and clustering.
In WH-quesions, writers are given chances to consider what
they know and need to learn about the wriing topic.
Free wriing is wriing without stopping. It means wriing
whatever comes to mind without worrying about whether the ideas
are good or the grammar is correct.
Clustering or word mapping is a prewriing technique of making
a visual map of ideas. In clustering, the writers use a key word placed
in the center of a page, then, jot down all the free associaions.
Brainstorming also called lising, is a good technique to generate
ideas and to get informaion that a writer needs. It is a sudden insight
or connecion.

ASSESSMENT
1. What is meant by prewriing aciviies?
2. What is free wriing?
3. What is clustering?
4. What is brainstorming?
5. What does WH-quesion mean in pre wriing strategies?
6. Browse the Internet. Find a model of clustering technique.
7. Write a paragraph about 100-150 words long through the process
of wriing. The topic is The Beloved Person in My Life.
80
PARAGRAPH
Paragraph Writing
Unit
Mind
7 Mapping
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
are able to
1. Deine Mind Mapping technique
2. Idenify the steps of Mind Mapping technique
3. Apply MindMaple sotware in Mind Mapping
technique
4. Write a paragraph using Mind Mapping technique
DESCRIPTION
This unit discusses: (1) mind mapping, and (2) mind
maple sotware.
CONCEPT MAP
Generaing Mind
ideas mapping MindMaple
RELEVANCY
This unit discusses the mind mapping strategies in
prewriing technique. The discussion in this unit is as a basis
of the discussion on pre wriing strategies. To learn pre
wriing strategies, students must understand the concept
81
of mind mapping strategies. The knowledge about mind maple sotware
is also as foundaion in learning mind mapping as prewriing technique
in paragraph wriing.
KEYWORDS
Mind Mapping
MindMaple Sotware
THE DEFINITION OF MIND MAPPING

Mind mapping is a simple technique for drawing informaion in
diagrams, instead of wriing it in sentences. The diagrams always take
the same basic format of a tree, with a single staring point in the middle
that branches out, and divides again and again. The tree is made up of
words or short sentences connected by lines. The lines that connect the
words are part of the meaning.
In addiion, mind map generally presents informaion connected
with the central topic, in the form of keywords, images (symbols) and a
color that can be learned and remembered quickly and eiciently.
Mind map is a group of words which circles drawn around them
and lines connecing them to other words. Mind Mapping is a way to
organize and present the concepts, ideas, tasks or other informaion
in the form of a radial diagram - hierarchical non - linear . Mind Map is
generally present informaion that is connected with the central topic, in
the form of keywords, images, symbols and a color that can be learned
and remembered informaion quickly and eiciently.
Mind mapping involves wriing down a central idea and thinking up
new and related ideas which radiate out from the centre. By focussing on
key ideas and then looking for branches out and connecions between
the ideas, the writers are mapping knowledge in a manner which will
help them understand and remember new informaion. The informaion
presented in Mind Map should focus on the important parts, and can
encourage people to explore and collaborate larger.
Mind Map consists of three main components: (1) Central topic,
subject or focus the mind which will developed, and placed as a " tree "
. (2) Main Topic, second-ier level of thinking as part of the Central Topic

and placed as a "branch" that circles the "tree". (3) Sub Topics, third
-ier level of the mind as part of the branch and placed as a "branch".
Creaing a mind map is simple. The writer starts by wriing the
subject in the middle and coninue by adding related thoughts. The next
step is to create connecions between these thoughts and add some
visual support (i.e. images, colours and other formaing) so that he/she
can highlight and easier disinguish between diferent topics. The inal
and most important step is how the writer structures them.
THE MINDMAPLE
MindMaple is a mind mapping sotware developed by MindMaple Inc.
MindMaple was designed to be a versaile tool for project management,
brainstorming, managing schedules, creaing visual presentaions,
sharing ideas, and other purposes. MindMaple sotware is designed to
help individuals organize ideas and concepts by represening them as
visual topics and subtopics related by lines or arrows.
MindMaple uses a “drawing interface” designed to be more
intuiive than the interfaces of other mind mapping sotware products.
MindMaple is one of Mind Mapping sotware. It is an ideal tool for
planning presentaions or meeings. Instead of using diferent slides,
which lets user focuses on only one idea at a ime, MindMaple allows
user to integrate all informaion into a single mind map. This enables
user to zoom in to discuss a detailed idea while maintaining a connecion
to the larger point.

Model of Mind Map using MindMaple Sotware
Here is a model of Mind Map resulted from MindMaple
sotware.
In wriing class, Mind Mapping using MindMaple sotware can be

implemented through the following procedures: (1) Staring from the
center to determine the Central Topic (specify “ tree “), made in the form
of blank paper landscape, accompanied by color images . (2) Determining
Main Topic (specify "branch") as an important part of the Central Topic.
(3) Deining Sub Topics as "branches" are taken from the Main Topic. (4)
Creaive use of images, symbols, codes, and dimensions throughout our
mind map. (5) Wherever possible use of single keywords (maximum of 2
words), with uppercase or lowercase. (6) Using curved lines to connect
between the central topics and sub-topics. For visual simulaion, using
diferent colors and thickness for each groove relaionship. (7) Developing
Mind Map in the style of our own.
There are some beneits of using MindMaple in prewriing strategies:
(1) Mind mapping sotware such as MindMaple allows us to easily create,
edit, and share mind maps in a cloud based plaform. This means that
mind maps are always stored safely on servers and can be accessed
from anywhere in the world on muliple devices. (2) MindMaple is fast
and easy to operate both for the teacher and students. (3) Another big
advantage of using MindMaple sotware is being to make unlimited
84
PARAGRAPH
Paragraph Writing
changes and then the ability to review all these changes and revert to
a prior revision. (4) MindMaple sotware is good for planning, creaing
content, brainstorming, structuring data, organizing, and taking notes.
Using Mind Mapping sotware in the wriing class is a successful way to
support students’ exploraion and presentaion of ideas. It is a useful
focus for students to organize their thoughts and to present informaion
clearly and atracively. Here is a model of Mind Map.
Model of Mind Map on How to Mind Map (World Leaks, 2014)
85
SUMMARY
Mind mapping is a simple technique for drawing informaion

in diagrams, instead of wriing it in sentences. The diagrams always
take the same basic format of a tree, with a single staring point in
the middle that branches out, and divides again and again. The tree
is made up of words or short sentences connected by lines. The lines
that connect the words are part of the meaning.
MindMaple is a mind mapping sotware developed by MindMaple
Inc. MindMaple was designed to be a versaile tool for project
management, brainstorming, managing schedules, creaing visual
presentaions, sharing ideas, and other purposes. Mind mapping
sotware is designed to help individuals organize ideas and concepts
by represening them as visual topics and subtopics related by lines
or arrows.
ASSESSMENT
1. What is meant by mind mapping?
2. What are the steps to mind map the ideas?
3. Download one of mind mapping sotware in the Internet.
4. Study mind mapping sotware.
5. Make a mind map using mind maple sotware of your topic before
wriing the paragraph?
6. Write a paragraph about 100-150 words. The topic is about Academic
Life.
86
PARAGRAPH
Paragraph Writing
Unit
Idea
8 Listing
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
are able to
1. Deine idea lising.
2. Idenify the steps of idea lising.
3. Apply idea lising to explore innovaive idea.
4. Implement idea lising in wriing class.
5. Write a paragraph using idea lising.
DESCRIPTION
In this unit it will be discussed (1) deiniion of idea
lising, (2) how to explore innovaive idea using Idea Lising
technique, and (3) how to implement Idea Lising technique
in wriing class.
CONCEPT MAP
Explore Implement
Steps of
Deine Innovaive Idea Lising
Idea
Idea Lising Lising
Idea using in Wriing
Idea Lising Class
87
RELEVANCY
units. To learn how to write paragraph through the wriing process,
you should understand the concept of Idea Lising technique used in
prewriing stage. The knowledge of Idea Lising is also as foundaion in
learning the process of wriing in paragraph wriing.
KEYWORDS
Idea lising
Prewriing acivity
Innovaive idea
THE DEFINITION OF IDEA LISTING

Do you know idea lising? Do you know prewriing technique? Idea
lising is one of the prewriing techniques. Let’s discuss it.
Idea Lising Technique (ILT) is a fastest way to collect the ideas of
their various discussions (Kaner et al., 2007). Through the acivity of
this technique, writers have more ime to go into depth on topics of
interest. It will draw out a wide range of thoughts on given topic and
help writers to rapidly idenify many aspects the topic even when they
are just beginning to think about it. By lising ideas, the writers can see
the breadth of their thinking. They are likely encouraged to create or
discover as many as they can. That is why it is very helpful when they
want to generate the ideas for the target topic.
Kaner et al. (2007) add that generaing ideas through lising is to
generate a list of innovaive soluions or ideas to a diicult problems or
topics. When a problem or topic is more complicated than it generally
appeared, using idea lising is an alternaive way to solve it. Students can
start soring out the topics, and prioriizing the elements they want to
tackle irst. Thus, idea lising is oten an important irst step in reducing
the complexity of a diicult task.
According to Oshima & Hogue (2007:16), idea lising is a prewriing
technique. It, one of the prewriing techniques, is a way to get ideas in
which writers write the topic at the top of a piece of paper and they
quickly make a list of the words or phrases coming into their mind.

Through this acivity the writers collect ideas to explain the topic they
have. Addiionally, this technique is a way to narrow general topic to
a smaller one by lising every word or phrase coming into their mind
(Oshima & Hogue, 2007:43).
Furthermore, Kaner in Rebori & Havercamp (2007:3) indicates that
ILT is a technique students may use to facilitate discussions for generaing
innovaive ideas for wriing. This technique helps them search for a
beter understanding of a topic by eliciing diverse smaller topics and
ideas on the given topic (Rebori & Havercamp, 2007:3). Moreover, idea
lising can be useful to help students either generate topics or create
main points and key details (Faigley, 2005).
Referring to the advantage of ILT, Rebori & Havercamp (2007:3)
then state that this is a helpful technique for a wide range of learners
challenge. For example, it can be used when a learner is discussing new
topic, or has polarized ideas on a topic. The ILT may also be employed
when learner feels that a topic appears to be overwhelming. Thus, it
produces a wide range of ideas and is paricularly helpful when a learner
needs to break down a complex or general topic into easily understood
smaller components of the topic.
To sum up, ILT means a process of exploring ideas, knowledge, or
informaion in the form of conceptual or a long list. The ILT refers to
a way of generaing ideas for the target topic in wriing in which this
technique is implemented in prewriing stage. Prewriing stage encourages
the generaion of ideas (Brown, 2001:348), and it is a way of organizing
students' thoughts and beginning to put the informaion they have (English
Works Online, 2002). In addiion, as indicated by Graves in Widiai &
Widayai (1997:14), students can produce creaive and interesing texts
when teachers allow them ime and opportunity. Among other things, it
is for generaing ideas. In fact, the generaion of ideas is very necessarily
conducted before students are going to write.
How to Explore Innovaive Idea using Idea Lising

Okay class, you have already known idea lising as a prewriing
technique. Now, how to explore innovaive idea using idea lising? Let’s
talk about it.

The following is an example of how to explore innovaive idea
through the process of lising idea shown by Oshima & Hogue (2007:16).
The wriing assignment is to write a paragraph a person who has made
diference in the world, in the community, or in the writer’s life. It is
shown an example of ideas listed which is produced through Idea Lising
Technique (ILT).
First, the writer made a list of people who have made a diference.
Then he decided which person to write about and circled his choice.
A Person Who Has Made a Diference
Albert Einstein Bill Gates

Mother Teresa Aunt Sarah
Marin Luther King, Jr. Mr. Jakobsen (high school counselor)
Cesar Chavez Grandfather
Next the writer started e new list. He wrote his chosen topic,
Grandfather, at the top of new piece of paper and started wriing words
and phrases that came into mind about his grandfather.
Grandfather
uneducated (high school? eighth grade? started hospital in town – only

farmer hospital in big area
worked hard first farmer to terrace his land – now
every one does it
helped his community improved farming techniques in his area
started community hospital smart
respected in community read about new things
went to church every week terracing helps prevent soil erosion
got up early listened to experts
worked late thought things over
was the first person in town to buy a car made me laugh when I was little
forward-thinking

The writer then looked at his second list and decided to write
about how his grandfather helped his community. He circled that idea.
Then he thought about how his grandfather helped his community. He
circled two ideas and marked them A and B. The writer also crossed out
anything that did not belong to these two ideas.
Grandfather
uneducated (high school? eighth grade? started hospital in town – only

farmer hospital in big area
worked hard first farmer to terrace his land – now
every one does it
helpedhiscommunity A improvedfarmingtechniquesinhisarea
B
started community hospital smart
respected in community read about new things
went to church every week terracing helps prevent soil erosion
got up early listened to experts
worked late thought things over
was the first person in town to buy a car made me laugh when i was little
forward-thinking
How to Implement Idea Lising in Wriing Class

Now, how to implement idea lising in wriing class? Let’s discuss
it. In relaion to the implementaion of Idea Lising Technique (ILT) in
wriing class, the uilizaion of ILT can be through the procedure. The
procedures of ILT for wriing aciviies involve the applicaion of the wriing
stages adapted from Gebhard (2000:235), those are, prewriing, drating,
revising, and ediing. The focus of ILT implementaion is paricularly
on prewriing stage. The prewriing acivity focuses on implemening
ILT in generaing ideas. Prewriing is a preparaion to write and the
geing-ready-to-write stage which is like a warming-up for the athletes
(Tompkins & Hoskisson, 1995:211).

The following is the development of teaching procedures of the
ILT implementaion in wriing class, focused on wriing an expository
paragraph. The process steps are as follows.
First, writers are led to a topic by some quesions as brainstorming.
Writers are given an alloted ime to respond to the quesion; however,
when necessary, it is important that they remain lexible in taking
addiional ime. They should be able to complete steps one through
seven within 15 to 30 minutes (Rebori & Havercamp, 2007:3).
Second, writers are paricipated in generaing ideas through ILT. To
do so, they are provided a model of an expository paragraph, in groups
of three, a group member to be facilitator to lead the process. Writers
analyze the paragraph for focusing on the wriing task of wriing an
expository paragraph. The use of ILT in prewriing stage enables students
to get ideas because it is similar to the techniques – ways to get started
– used in prewriing stage such as brainstorming, clustering, strategic
quesioning, sketching, free wriing, exploring the senses, interviewing,
and informaion gathering (Gebhard, 2000:227).
Third, by using a large sheet of paper (A4), it is suggested to arrange
a large sheet of paper (i.e., wall paper, A4 paper, lip chart), writers oten
produce more ideas than they expect, thus a suicient amount of larger
paper is required (Rebori & Havercamp, 2007:3). Writers are involved in
their group aciviies and follow the rules which include – all ideas count
even the “crazy” ones and no side conversaions during the aciviies.
Fourth, writers explore and share ideas of a general topic to be
smaller ones or sub topics (in words and phrases), and list them on the
paper as the irst list. If writers begin to discuss ideas while they are sill
being listed, the facilitator should remain them of the ground rule that
side conversaions are not allowed (Rebori & Havercamp, 2007:3). In
addiion, writers should be reminded that the ime will be up, so they
might produce addiional ideas. It is suggested that near compleion of
generaing ideas, the teacher announces to students that “Approximately
two minutes remain for generaing ideas.” Someimes this announcement
may produce addiional ideas (Rebori & Havercamp, 2007:3).
Ater that, writers read the ideas listed and discuss them for clarity
and grouping in categories, and then rearrange the ideas based on the

categories. Then writers choose one of the items listed in the categories
to be a smaller topic to write an expository paragraph.
Finally, writers generate ideas of the sub topic that have been
decided in words or phrases, and list them on the paper as the second
list to easily write suitable topic sentence for an expository paragraph.
Any of these ideas can be the controlling idea in their topic sentence,
while some others can be supporing sentences. Writers are reminded
that the ime will be up, so they might produce addiional ideas.
Ater that, to organize their ideas generated using ILT, writers make a
paragraph outline for an expository paragraph. Then writers write irst
drat in drating stage, do revision in revising stage, edit their wriing,
and write a inal version.
SUMMARY
Idea Lising Technique (ILT) is a fastest way to collect the ideas

of their various discussions.
Generaing ideas through lising is to generate a list of innovaive
soluions or ideas to a diicult problems or topics.
Idea lising is a prewriing technique. It, one of the prewriing
techniques, is a way to get ideas in which writers write the topic at
the top of a piece of paper and they quickly make a list of the words
or phrases coming into their mind. Through this acivity the writers
collect ideas to explain the topic they have.
To explore innovaive idea can be through the process of lising
idea.
In relaion to the implementaion of Idea Lising Technique (ILT)
in wriing class, the uilizaion of ILT can be through the procedure.
The procedures of ILT for wriing aciviies involve the applicaion of
the wriing stages, those are, prewriing, drating, revising, and ediing.
The focus of ILT implementaion is paricularly on prewriing stage.

ASSESSMENT
Answer the following quesions.
1. What is meant by idea lising?
2. What are the steps to generate ideas using idea lising
technique?
3. How do you explore innovaive ideas using idea lising?
4. Write a paragraph about 100-150 words long. Get ideas using
Idea Lising Technique (ILT) in prewriing acivity. The topic of
your paragraph is about Life in Dormitory (Ma’had Al-Jami’ah IAIN
Palangka Raya).
94
PARAGRAPH
Paragraph Writing
Unit
Narrative
9 Paragraph
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
are able to
1. Idenify the narraive paragraph.
2. Idenify the transiional signals used in narraive
paragraph
3. Write a narraive paragraph
DESCRIPTION
This unit discusses: (1) the narraive paragraph, (2)
chronological order, and (3) transiional signals in narraive
paragraph.
CONCEPT MAP
Types of Narraive Chronological

Paragraph Paragraph Order
Transiional
Signals
95
RELEVANCY
This unit discusses narraive paragraph. This material will help
students idenify one type of paragraph. It helps students write an event
chronologically. To learn the types of paragraph, students must learn
the narraive paragraph. The knowledge about narraive paragraph is
also as foundaion in learning paragraph wriing.
KEYWORDS
Narraive paragraph
Chronological order
Transiional signals
THE NARRATIVE PARAGRAPH

OK class, today, we are going to discuss the narraive paragraph. Do
you sill remember what paragraph is? Narraion is that kind of discourse
which answers the quesion: ’’ what happened?” It is concerned with
imes, acions, and events in moion (Warriner, 1986:461). Narraive
paragraph tells a story by relaing a series of events in ime order.
Narraion includes all wriing that provides an account of an event or a
series of events (Eschholz & Rosa, 1993:55).
A narraion is also a type of wriing in which the details or the ideas
in a sequence of events or the steps of the process are arranged on the
basis of ime. The details are arranged in chronological order. Here, the
transiional words or phrases expressing ime such as: soon, immediately,
aterwards, as soon as, are commonly used. The use of these devices
gives the readers a clear picture of the sequence of events. A narraion
is concerned with ime. A series of events move through ime, and what
connects these events is a plot or sequence: a beginning and middle
and an end (Warriner, 1986:461).
Narraive paragraph is used when we want to recount an event
or an experience or to tell a miniature story. We relate the events in
straight chronological order (Hairston, 1986:212). It can be stated that
a narraive paragraph is one of four basic types of prose, which tells a
story by relaing a series of events in chronological order. To narrate is to
tell a story, to tell what happened. In addiion, there are several points

about efecive narraive paragraphs. First, a good narraive paragraph
must include all the signiicant events. Second, it does not bring up un-
signiicance points. Third, it follows a logical ime sequence. Fourth, it
does not drag on; its pace is brisk. Fith, it usually has a point that can
be drawn from the story.
The following is the example of a narraive paragraph writen in
the irst person point of view:
The Day I Almost Drowned
When I was twelve years old, I almost drowned in the river near
my village. One Sunday morning, my cousin, Ahmad, and I were
playing with a rat. Suddenly he let go and the rat started to drit
out to river. It was a windy day as I swam toward the rat. The wind
took it out further and further. Soon I was out to far. Everyone was
screaming, but I could not hear them. Suddenly, an old isherman
saw me and came out to rescue me. When I got back to the river, my
mother and Ahmad both were crying. Finally, we all thanked the old
isherman who had saved me from drowning.
Chronological Order
It refers to the ime sequence of the story. Many writers prefer
to narrate a sequence chronologically; that is, as it actually occurred,
staring at the beginning and stopping at the end. Others choose to
recognize ime in lashbacks. Here, the end of the story might be told
irst, with the beginning and middle added on to make the ending
understandable. And there are other ways we can recognize ime. We
can build to a climax by crowding more incidents into a shorter and
shorter period of ime.
Transiion Signals
Transiions of words, phrases, or sentences are all important in
narraion. We are familiar with such ordering expressions as irst, second,
third, inally, later, next, last, etc. We can use them to direct the traic in

our stories. When we use lashbacks, we need words and phrases like:
earlier, all at once, and so on.
A good narraive paragraph, at least, has four essenial features.
The irst is context; we make clear when the acion happened, where it
happened, and to whom. The second is point of view: we establish and
maintain a consistent relaionship to the acion. The third is selecion of
details. We should carefully choose what to include, focusing on those
acions and details that are most important to the story. The fourth is
organizaion of the events of the narraive in an appropriate sequence,
oten a strict chronologically with a clear beginning, middle and end
(Eschholz & Rosa, 1993:56).
Below are checklists of the narraive paragraph:

 Are the events in chronological order?
 Are there transiional words and phrases?
 Are there enough details to bring the characters to life?
 Is the seing described clearly?
 Is the point of view consistent?
 Is there dialogue? Is it always clear which character is thinking our
speaking the words?
 Is the opening paragraph interesing?
 Does the story end smoothly?
The following are some steps to write the narraive paragraph:

 Relate an experience- real or imagined- in a logical sequence or
series of events.
 Decide which point of view will best tell the experience.
 Idenify the purpose of the narraion: to inform people, amusing
them, or scare them. The purpose will determine the tone of the
paragraph.
 Write down the topic sentence. Make a speciic point that is stated
or strongly implied.
 List the physical and mental events that relate to the experience.
 Write the paragraph carefully.
 Read over the paragraph and revise it to make it smooth and
interesing story.

SUMMARY
A narraive paragraph is one of four basic types of prose, which

tells a story by relaing a series of events in chronological order. To
narrate is to tell a story, to tell what happened.
There are several points about efecive narraive paragraphs.
First, a good narraive paragraph must include all the signiicant
events. Second, it does not bring up un-signiicance points. Third, it
follows a logical ime sequence. Fourth, it usually has a point that
can be drawn from the story.
ASSESSMENT
1. What is meant by narraive paragraph?
2. What are transiional signals used in narraive paragraph?
3. Browse the Internet. Find a model of narraive paragraph. Analyze
the paragraph.
4. Write a narraive paragraph about 100-150 words. The topic is
The Day I Passed the Entrance Test at IAIN Palangka Raya.

100
PARAGRAPH
Paragraph Writing
Unit
Descriptive
10 Paragraph
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
are able to
1. Idenify the descripive paragraph.
2. Idenify the transiional signals used in descripive
paragraph
3. Write a descripive paragraph
DESCRIPTION
This unit discusses: (1) the descripive paragraph,
(2) spaial order, and (3) transiional signals in descripive
paragraph.
CONCEPT MAP
Types of Descripive Spaial

Paragraph Paragraph Order
Transiional
Signals
101
RELEVANCY
This unit discusses descripive paragraph. This material will help
students idenify one type of paragraph. It helps students write a place,
thing or a person. To learn the types of paragraph, students must learn
the descripive paragraph. The knowledge about descripive paragraph
is also as foundaion in learning paragraph wriing.
KEYWORDS
Descripive paragraph
Spaial order
Transiional signals
THE DESCRIPTIVE PARAGRAPH

Last week, we discussed narraive paragraph. Today, we are going
to learn about descripive paragraph. The descripive paragraph is
one of four basic types of prose. It tells how a person, place or thing is
perceived by the ive senses. Descripive wriing appeals to our senses
(sight, smell, sound, hear, taste) in order to evoke the concreteness
of experience and percepion. A descripion is a verbal picture of a
person, place or object (Langan, 1984:111). Descripion evokes images
and impressions. It can allow a reader to experience something new; it
can renew a reader’s appreciaion of the familiar (Clouse, 1986:12). A
descripive paragraph creates a vivid picture. Vivid means “clearly and
lively” (Warriner & Laws, 1973:367).
A descripion is a type of wriing in which the ideas are arranged on
the basis of space or locaion, such as in the descripion of a person, a
landscape, a building, and so on. The order of the details in this type of
paragraph is called descripive order (Hamid et al., 1986:511). They are
also arranged in spaial order. Spaial order describes details in relaion
to one another. Wriing details in spaial order is important to describe
the size, shape, or appearance of something.
In the descripive paragraph, we also use space order. Space order
means that we fell about things in terms of their posiion or order. The
details might be in order from top to botom, right to let, outside to
inside, near to distant, ceiling to loor and so on. Space order is good

to describe the posiion of something. The details, paricularly in visual
descripions, are usually organized in spaial order. It means that we
present details from their posiion of order. With spaial order, the
details are presented in a sequence that duplicates the order in which
a viewer might noice them. This method is useful in organizing sensory
details, primarily visual ones.
When we need to clarify the order, we use the types of transiional
devices below:
Direcions
Let below down into across
right center above past a head
up through behind toward away from
against around in front of in back of backward
Distance
irst foreground background halfway approximately
last leading to between distant on the edge of
beyond next to close to long about ten miles
for near short in the center of
Area of Space
Outside inside interior exterior park
lawn garden ield plain hillside
hall stage alley
A descripive paragraph points a word picture that appeals to a

reader’s sense. The clariicaion of the word picture depends on carefully
selected words and precise details (Litell, 1985:163). To describe means
to use concrete sensory details to create images that make it possible
for the reader to experience what we did (Wiener, 1984:35). Sensory
details are words and phrases that recall sights, sounds, smells, tastes,
and textures to our mind. Descripion is also a way of picturing images
verbally in speech or wriing and of arranging those images in some kind
of logical or associaional patern (D’Angelo, 1980:117).

A good descripive paragraph makes the reader see, hear, as
otherwise experience something (Warriner, 1973:378). When we describe
something, we try to give the reader a mental picture of it. To create
a clear mental picture, we oten describe features connected with the
ive senses. A good descripion includes references to the senses: sight,
sound, taste, smell and touch. Descripion can be found in almost any
kind of wriing, but it is frequently found in books of travel, history books,
guide books, geography books, scieniic aricles, and so on.
The following are useful adjecives for descripive wriing:
For sight
Size : big, small, medium-sized, huge, iny, giganic, tall, short, thick,
etc.
Shape : round, square, triangular, rectangular, conical, oval, linear,
doted.
Color : red, white, brown, blue, green, orange, pink, violet, gold, silver,
and so forth.
For the other senses
Sound : loud, sot, harmonious, harsh, pleasant, unpleasant, groan.
Taste : sweet, sour, salty, biter, delicious, tasty, tasteless, cool, warm.
Touch : rough, smooth, slippery, hard, sunny, squeeze, hot.
Smell : strong, fragrant, scented, sharp, hard.
The following are points to remember about descripion:
 Descripive detail is chosen on the basis of the writer’s impression
of the subject, purpose, and audience.
 The writer of descripion relies heavily on concrete sensory
details.
 Descripive details can be arranged in progressive, spaial, and
chronological order.
 A good descripive paragraph is so complete and vivid that readers
are compelled to see an exact picture as created by the paragraph
(Kiefer, 1983:51).
 The central idea stated in the topic sentence of a descripive
paragraph is oten the central impression that the details of the
descripion will reinforce.
 A good descripive paragraph begins with careful observaion of
details.

 In describing a place, look for a chance to view it from a paricular
posiion, ixed or moving. For example, if we are going to describe
a lunchroom, describe a lunchroom as it looks to a person coming
through the door, geing the line for food, and then moving to
table.
 Appeal to all the senses: sight, hearing, smell, taste, and touch.
 Make comparisons by means of igures of speech.
 Use the language that makes our picture comes to life.
The Descripion of a Person

Describing a person is diferent from describing a place or a thing.
The writer’s purpose is to capture the essence of a person by going
beyond physical characterisics (Litell, 1986:166). The important parts
of a descripion of a person are appearance, background, personality,
aciviies, and interests.
Here, we present a physical descripion that reveal inner qualiies as
well. A descripion of a person may almost make the readers think that
they know that person. When we are describing a person, a progressive
arrangement is oten the most useful. We can move from the most to
least telling feature, or move from least to most, and on progressively
to the next important feature (Clouse, 1986:133).
The following are some useful words and phrases to describe a
person:
Facial Expressions Facial Shapes Eyes Voice

scowl round beady booming
frown broad smiling rasping
smirk narrow snapping squeaky
worried heart-shaped lashing harsh
pained moon-shaped empty growling
vivacious angular staring deep
peaceful oval bulging melodious

Mouth Eyebrows Other Expressions
full-lipped thick crow’s feet
thin-lipped arched knited brow
sensuous neatly plucked protruding forehead
The following is a paragraph describing a person:
Farid is My Best Friend
Of all my classmates, the one that I ind most interesing is Farid,

a charming boy from a village. First of all, he looks diferent from
other students in my college. He stands about 170 cenimeters tall,
lanky and thin, narrow in the hip and shoulders. Farid’s face is one
of the unique, I have ever seen. He has black hair and has recently
grown a mustache and beard. Surprisingly his mustache and beard
are a much darker color than his curly hair. His chin is square with a
small clet in the center. He’s got a very thin mouth that it almost like
a single pencil line, always turned up into a smile. His long nose is
thin, and turns under a bit, of center, just above the mustache. His
small hazel eyes are set deep into his head. His eyebrows are thick and
bushy. His black hair is curly and wiry. His whole structure is bowed
and when he walks he takes long easy steps swinging his arms back
and forth. Farid is very friendly with everyone and quite talkaive.
He can ind it easy to make friends. He also loves reading so much.
He never forgets to pray ive imes a day in the big mosque near his
house. Every night, he recites the Qur’an and always prays in the
midnight. All in all, Farid is someone I will remember for a long ime,
and I hope he will always be my best friend forever.
The Descripion of a Place

When we describe a place, we irst focus on a speciic area, which
may be large or small. The descripion must be organized that the
reader can vividly imagine the place being described. We, then, briely
menion its surrounding context, and inally we give details about the
place itself. The arrangement of the details in a descripive paragraph

depends on the subject. The selecion and the descripion of the details
depend on the writer’s purpose. It is necessary to have a point of view
in such descripions, that is, an imagined posiion from which the place
being looked at.
The following are useful words and phrases for describing a
place:
Posiion Direcion Distance
above north upper
below south lower
top east middle
botom west center
let northern border
right southern edge
to western near
in eastern nearby
in the distance southeast adjacent
in front of northwest facing
to the let southwest close to
A good descripion of a place can make a reader feel that he is
present at the place (Warriner & Laws, 1973:378). The following is a
paragraph describing a place:
The Supermarket
The supermarket is one of my best favorite places. I oten go

shopping there with my father on Saturday aternoon. I love the color of
vegetables- bright green, red, and orange, like a rainbow. And I like the
textures of the fruits: the smooth sainy feel of the apples, the prickly skin
of pineapples, and the fresh yellow of the mangoes. My father someimes
buys fresh bananas and apples. I listen to all the noise. People chater,
carts bump, and sales clerks call out prices. I watch people shiting from
one foot to the other, waiing their turn in the check- out line. Someimes
there is a person in front of the gate giving out free food samplers- pieces
of hot cheese pizza. It’ s like geing a free dinner. I know a lot of people
who hate shopping in supermarkets, but I have a good ime whenever
I go. The most atracive place that interests me in the supermarket is
the bookstore. I always spend at least two hours reading there. And
someimes I inally buy one of the best- seller books.

SUMMARY
Descripive paragraph is a type of wriing in which the ideas are

arranged on the basis of space or locaion, such as in the descripion
of a person, a landscape, a building, and so on.
The order of the details in this type of paragraph is called
descripive order. They are also arranged in spaial order.
Spaial order describes details in relaion to one another. Wriing
details in spaial order is important to describe the size, shape, or
appearance of something. In the descripive paragraph, we also use
space order.
Space order means that we fell about things in terms of their
posiion or order. The details might be in order from top to botom,
right to let, outside to inside, near to distant, ceiling to loor and so
on. Space order is good to describe the posiion of something.
ASSESSMENT
1. What is meant by descripive paragraph?
2. What are transiional signals used in descripive paragraph?
3. Browse the Internet. Find a model of descripive paragraph. Analyze
the paragraph.
4. Write a descripive paragraph about 100-150 words. The topic is
My Beloved Campus IAIN Palangka Raya.
108
PARAGRAPH
Paragraph Writing
Unit
Expository
11 Paragraph
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
are able to
1. Idenify the expository paragraph.
2. Idenify the development of the expository
paragraph.
3. Idenify the transiional signals used in expository
paragraph.
4. Write an expository paragraph.
DESCRIPTION
This unit discusses: (1) the expository paragraph,
(2) the development of the expository paragraph, and (3)
transiional signals in expository paragraph.
CONCEPT MAP
Types of Expository Development

of Expository
Paragraph Paragraph Paragraph
Transiional
Signals
109
RELEVANCY
This unit discusses expository paragraph. This material will help
students idenify one type of paragraph. It helps students write an
expository paragraph. To learn the types of paragraph, students must
learn the expository paragraph. The knowledge about expository paragraph
is also as foundaion in learning paragraph wriing.
KEYWORDS
Expository paragraph
Expository paragraph development
Transiional signals
THE EXPOSITORY PARAGRAPH

We have already discussed about narraive and descripive
paragraphs. Now, we are going to discuss the other types of paragraph:
expository paragraph. The expository paragraph is a paragraph that
presents a certain amount of informaion about a subject. In expository
paragraph, the writer provides informaion about a paricular subject.
The methods of development in expository includes: giving examples
or illustraion, supplying reasons, explaining a process, comparing and
contrasing, deining, and classifying (Langan, 1984:111). As we have
already known, all wriing presents some informaion.
In expository paragraph, the informaion is the main thing. The
purpose is to tell the reader something he may not know and to tell
him in a way that will understand (Warriner & Laws, 1973:415). The aim
of exposiion is to explain, to inform, or to give direcions. It is usually
arranged in ime order. A good expository paragraph consists of a group
of sentences aimed at explaining a single idea. It is important to know
how to construct an expository paragraph.
To produce a piece of wriing in expository paragraph, we should
learn how to construct an expository paragraph. First, we should learn
how to arrange a good topic sentence, that is, the central idea of the
paragraph. Second, we should consider the elements of a good paragraph,
such as: unity, coherence, order, emphasis, and completeness. Finally

we should learn how to develop the central idea by various methods
of development.
The following is an expository paragraph:
In a number of ways, the State Islamic Insitute of Palangka Raya

is making it easier for older students to atend college. For example,
the university now ofers courses on Thursdays, Fridays, and Saturdays
for older students. Classes on these days appeal to those students
who, because of work or family responsibiliies, cannot enroll in
the courses during the week. In addiion, many departments in the
university have begun to ofer credits for life experience, so students
with a good background in the world of work can complete their
degrees more quickly. Finally, the dean announced last month that
the university will soon open a day-care center for the children of
students who would atend the classes if they had a pleasant on safe
place to leave their children.
THE MODES OF DEVELOPMENT IN THE EXPOSITORY PARAGRAPH

The following are some common methods of development of the
expository paragraph as have been explained above.
Cause and Efect Patern

It is also called causal analysis. This patern of development is used
to explain why something happened and to explain the efects of some
happening (Marius & Wiener, 1988:113). Wriing that employs causal
analysis can be conined to analysis of either cause or efect or it can
combine the two. It can be thought of as a dynamic or progressive patern.
Why? Because it ranges over ime; it explains events by considering
their relaion to one another both sequenially and logically (Gould et.
al., 1989:138).
Process Analysis Patern

It is also another kind of progressive patern for thinking and
organizaion of paragraph. The process paragraph is used to explain how

to do something or how to make some something. There are at least
two things for describing a process. First, we explain step-by-step how
to do something. In this case, we give direcions. Second, we explain
how something is done or how it has come about.
Here, we ofer an explanaion of how something is done. For
example:
Hammill (1986) states three goals of individualized instrucion

in wriing composiion. The irst goal is to teach students at least
the minimum competencies that they will need to succeed in the
school curriculum. The second goal is to instruct them in those forms
of wriing in which ability will be required for success outside the
school. The third goal is to teach them to express their creaivity in
wriing composiion.
Comparison and Contrast Patern

It deals with similariies and diferences. This patern of development
is used to compare and to contrast two objects. Comparison requires
seeing two things simultaneously or seeing two aspects of a thing.
Comparison may include both similariies and diferences. The paragraph
is called a comparison paragraph when it describes similariies, and
it is called a contrast paragraph when it discusses diferences (Ezor &
Lewis, 1984: 254).
Classiicaion and Division Patern

It deals with systems of classes. To classify also means to group or
categorize. Classiicaion can be seen in relaion to the other paterns
of exposiion. It requires a close look at more than one thing or aspect
of a thing. It also requires the making of careful disincions and the
avoidance of oversimpliied explanaion. Classiicaion enables to organize
complicated informaion, to order masses of data, to divide and organize
experience in more than one way. This kind of patern is also used to
sort out things or people into groups of similar individuals.

Here is a model of classiicaion and division paragraph patern:
Studying for a Test
The ime of an Islamic college student spends studying for a test

can divided into three disinct phases. The phase one, runs from the
day the test is announced to approximately forty-eight hours before
the dreaded exam is passed out. During phase one, the student is
carefree, smiling and to helpless animals and children, and now actual
studying takes place. Phase two is entered two days prior to tesing.
It is someimes referred to as the “tomorrow” phase, and no actual
studying takes place. Phase three is entered twelve hours before “zero
hours”. This is the acute phase, characterized by nervous twitches,
and confused mental paterns. The student is shocked to discover
the imminent nature of the exam and the amount of material to be
studied. During this phase, the student will probably be unable to
sleep, and will study forever. This phase will not end unil the exam
is over.
Deiniion Patern
A deiniion paragraph is used to deine objects, ideas, terms, and
anything else that may be important to the topic. It tells what a thing
is (D’Angelo. 1980:336). A useful deiniion irst, ideniies something
as a member of a class of similar things; then it states how it difers
from everything else in its class. Simple, concrete objects may oten be
ideniied in a single sentence, if they require deiniion at all.
Illustraion or Exempliicaion Patern

This patern of development uses supporing examples to illustrate
a generalizaion. To illustrate means to clarify by providing an example,
a speciic instance of a point or general idea. In organizing a piece of
wriing illustraively, we will have to decide how many examples we
will need to make our point and how extensively to develop each. An
illustraion paragraph is used to develop a paragraph by providing: one,
two, or more examples to make more vivid and more exact.

TRANSITIONAL SIGNALS
In addiion, we should use exactly the transiional devices. Skill
in using the transiion expressions is very vital to coherent wriing.
Transiional expressions are words and phrases that point out the exact
relaion between one idea and another, one sentence and another.
Words like therefore, however, for example, and inally are signals that
guide the reader from sentence to sentence. Without them, even orderly
and well-writen paragraphs can be confusing and hard to follow. Well-
chosen transiional words can help to stress the purpose and order of
the paragraph. The following are various transiional expressions or
devices:
Purpose Transiional expressions
To add also beside for one thing
and beyond that what is more
and then irst in addiion
as well second moreover
To compare also as well both (neither)

Like wise similarly in the same way
To contrast although nevertheless on the contrary

but whereas on the other hand
however yet be that as it may
in contrast even though
To concede certainly of course granted that

no doubt to be sure
To emphasize above all especially in fact

indeed surely in paricular
most important
To illustrate for example one such as a case in point

for instance yet another as an illustraion

To place above beside nearby
below beyond on the far side
further here to the east
inside next to outside
To quality perhaps
To give reasons as because for

since
To show a result and so therefore because of this

thus so for this reason
hence as a result as a consequence
To summarize all in all inally in other words

in brief lastly on the whole
to sum up
To place in ime soon inally immediately

at last during ater a while
briely suddenly eventually
at present aterward currently
then recently meanwhile
To show similariies alike like in the same way

likewise similarly resemble
To give example ater all as an example certainly

For example for instance indeed
In fact it is true of course
To show cause and effect accordingly as a result consequently
therefore hence thus
because since

SUMMARY
The expository paragraph is a paragraph that presents a certain

amount of informaion about a subject. In expository paragraph, the
writer provides informaion about a paricular subject.
The methods of development in expository includes: giving
examples or illustraion, supplying reasons, explaining a process,
comparing and contrasing, deining, and classifying.
There are some transiional signals used in expository paragraph
such as: also, beside, for one thing, and, beyond that, what is more,
and then, irst, in addiion, as well, second, moreover, and so on.
ASSESSMENT
1. What is meant by expository paragraph?
2. What are transiional signals used in expository paragraph?
3. Browse the Internet. Find a model of expository paragraph. Analyze
the paragraph.
4. Write an expository paragraph about 100-150 words. The topic is
about The Disadvantages of Smoking Cigarete.
116
PARAGRAPH
Paragraph Writing
Unit
Persuasive
12 Paragraph
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
are able to
1. Idenify the persuasive paragraph.
2. Idenify the transiional signals used in persuasive
paragraph.
3. Write a persuasive paragraph.
DESCRIPTION
This unit discusses: (1) the persuasive paragraph,
(2) the development of persuasive paragraph, and (3)
transiional signals in persuasive paragraph.
CONCEPT MAP
Types of Persuasive Development of

Persuasive
Paragraph Paragraph Paragraph
Transiional
Signals
117
RELEVANCY
This unit discusses persuasive paragraph. This material will help
students idenify one type of paragraph. It helps students write a persuasive
paragraph. To learn the types of paragraph, students must learn the
persuasive paragraph. The knowledge about persuasive paragraph is
also as foundaion in learning paragraph wriing.
KEYWORDS
Persuasive paragraph
Development of persuasive paragraph
Transiional signals
THE PERSUASIVE PARAGRAPH

Do you sill remember the material discussed last weeks? Yeah,
we have already discussed about narraive, descripive, and expository
paragraphs. Now, we are going to discuss the last types of paragraph:
persuasive paragraph or argumentaive paragraph.
The persuasive paragraph is a special type of paragraph that gives
reasons. It is also called argumentaion. It usually contains a signal of
its purpose in the topic sentence. It may also contain words such as:
should or ought to, or words that express a judgment about a thing
or idea. The reasons in persuasive paragraph must be chosen and
organized carefully. Facts and staisics should provide strong support.
To persuade is to convince someone that a paricular opinion or point
of view is the right one.
The purpose of persuasion is to change someone’s mind (Fawcet
& Sandberg, 1988:130). It is an atempt to prove a point or defend
an opinion (Langan, 1984:111). It is also used to argue in favor of an
opinion. It is also used to encourage others to adopt our views, more
than just an explanaion of a subject. A persuasive paragraph atempts
to win people over to a paricular point of view or convince them to
take a paricular course of acion. Writers of persuasion must take care
in selecing the topic. They must be sure that their subject is in some
way controversial. Certainly the readers will be someone who disagrees
with us. So the purpose of our wriing is to convince the reader to agree

with us. Here, our persuasive details must be irmly rooted in reason,
logical, and reasonable.
The persuasive paragraph begins with an argumentaive point,
stated in a focused topic sentence, and follows through with evidence
aimed at the probable readers of the argument. To write a persuasive
topic sentence, we must take a posiion that we plan to persuade the
readers to agree with. Since persuasion must begin with the irst word of
a persuasive paragraph, the topic sentence states the writer’s posiion and
usually gives one reason why the writer holds that posiion. The posiion
must be, of course, one that the writer can defend in one paragraph,
and the reason helps to focus the paragraph (Kiefer, 1983:168).
A paragraph of persuasion is a special type of paragraph that gives
reasons. It usually contains a signal of its purpose in the topic sentence.
It may also contain words such as should or ought to or words that
express a judgment about things or ideas. The reason must be chosen
and organized carefully because the purpose is to persuade others.
The reasons are oten organized from the least important to the most
important. This helps to build strong support for the opinion (Litell,
1985:178). We use this patern of paragraph to develop a paragraph
when we want to explain something or to show why our opinion is a
good one.
THE VARIOUS METHODS TO DEVELOP PERSUASIVE PARAGRAPH

In addiion, there are various methods to develop persuasive
paragraph. Here are some more details:
Facts
Facts are simply statements of what is. They should appeal to the
reader’s mind, not just to the emoions. The source of facts should be
clear to the reader. We might look for supporing facts in appropriate
books and magazines.
Referring to an Authority
An authority is an expert, someone who can be relied on to give
unbiased facts and informaion. If we wish to convince our readers that

smoking is a dangerous habit, we might use one of the surgeon general’s
warnings that appear on every pack of cigaretes. For example: “Smoking
causes lung cancer, heart disease, emphysema, and may complicate
pregnancy.” The surgeon general is an excellent and knowledgeable
authority whose opinion on medical maters is considered valid and
unbiased.
Example
Example shows readers exactly what the main idea of the paragraph
means. An example should clearly relate to the argument and should
be typical enough to support it. We should avoid examples that are not
typical enough to support our general statement.
Predicing the Consequence

It helps the reader visualize what will occur if something does or
does not happen. We should avoid exaggeraing the consequences. To
convince the readers that conserving energy is a duty of every ciizen,
we might say, “If we do not conserve our resources, we may soon face
the ime when schools, colleges, and public buildings will be open only
half-days because they lack of heaing fuel.”
Answering the Opposiion

Answering possible criics shows that we are aware of the opposiion’s
argument and are able to respond to it. Here, we should avoid calling
the opposiion “ fool,” “dull,” “stubborn,” and so forth. Remember to
atack their ideas, not them. For example, if we wish to convince readers
that our candidate is the best on the ballot, we might say: “Some have
criicized him for running a law-key campaign, but he feels that the
issues and his stand on them should speak for them selves” (Fawcet &
Sandberg, 1988:133-134).

The following paragraph begins with an opinion and some reasons
to support the opinion.
Owning a Car
Should a person own a car? This is an important quesion. In

a large urban area, there are some good reasons for owning a car.
First, a car allows a person to move around freely. With a car, there
is no need to check a bus schedule or wait for a train. With a car, a
person can go to the mosque ive imes a day to pray and atend to
the meeing every week. Second, a car is a comfortable way to travel,
especially in the rainy season. In bad weather, the driver stays warm
and dry, while the bus driver might have to stand in the rain. Finally,
a driver usually saves in a car at night.
TRANSITIONAL SIGNALS
In a persuasive wriing, the writer’s purpose is to support an opinion,
to win over to the writer’s point of view. The following transiional
expressions are helpful in persuasive paragraph, as follows:
Give reason: irst, second, third, another, next, inally, because,
since, and so on.
Answer the opposiion: of course, some may say, nevertheless,
on the other hand, although.
Draw conclusion: therefore, thus, hence, consequently, and so
forth.

SUMMARY
The persuasive paragraph is a special type of paragraph that

gives reasons. It is also called argumentaion. It usually contains a
signal of its purpose in the topic sentence. It may also contain words
such as: should or ought to, or words that express a judgment about
a thing or idea. To persuade is to convince someone that a paricular
opinion or point of view is the right one.
The purpose of persuasion is to change someone’s mind. It
is an atempt to prove a point or defend an opinion. A persuasive
paragraph atempts to win people over to a paricular point of view
or convince them to take a paricular course of acion.
The following transiional expressions are helpful in persuasive
paragraph, as follows: irst, second, third, another, next, inally,
because, since, of course, some may say, nevertheless, on the other
hand, although, therefore, thus, hence, consequently, and so forth.
ASSESSMENT
1. What is meant by persuasive paragraph?
2. What are transiional signals used in persuasive paragraph?
3. Browse the Internet. Find a model of persuasive paragraph. Analyze
the paragraph.
4. Write a persuasive paragraph about 100-150 words. The topic
is about IAIN Palangka Raya must Become UIN Palangka Raya in
2020.
122
PARAGRAPH
Paragraph Writing
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Course Materials for Paragraph Writing

9 786021 033067 Santi Erliana | Rahmadi Nirwanto | Sabarun | M. Zaini Miftah

All rights reserved

First Published, 2014

Member of IKAPI Jawa Timur

This book is designed as course materials for paragraph wriing for

Palangka Raya, 30 December 2014

Unit 1 Building Sentences 1

Unit 2 Paragraph Structure 31

Unit 3 Unity and Coherence 37

Unit 4 Paragraph Wriing 43

vi Developing Sentences into Paragraph

Unit 5 Wriing Process 63

Unit 6 Prewriing Strategies 73

Unit 7 Mind Mapping 81

Developing Sentences into Paragraph vii

Unit 9 Narraive Paragraph 95

Unit 10 Descripive Paragraph 101

Unit 11 Expository Paragraph 109

viii Developing Sentences into Paragraph

Developing Sentences into Paragraph ix

Write Write Write

THE SIMPLE SENTENCES

2 Developing Sentences into Paragraph

Formula of Simple Sentence

Developing Sentences into Paragraph 3

4 Developing Sentences into Paragraph

THE COMPOUND SENTENCES

Developing Sentences into Paragraph 5

Compound Sentence using Coordinaing Conjuncion

6 Developing Sentences into Paragraph

Developing Sentences into Paragraph 7

Use a comma before a coordinaing conjuncion in compound

Compound Sentences Simple Sentences

8 Developing Sentences into Paragraph

This past Tuesday night, my husband and I were shopping at

Compound Sentence using Semicolon

Developing Sentences into Paragraph 9

Prevening Run-on Sentences

10 Developing Sentences into Paragraph

If anyone had told me three years ago that I would be spending

Developing Sentences into Paragraph 11

Compound Sentence with Conjuncive Adverbs

12 Developing Sentences into Paragraph

Developing Sentences into Paragraph 13

1. We had many things to talk about. The ime passed quickly.

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Anna let the party early because she was ired.

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Complex Sentence with Adjecive Clause

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Apposiives are very useful in wriing deiniions because they give

Fudge, a delicious chocolate candy, was invented as a result of a

In above sentence, a delicious chocolate candy is apposiive which

Apposiives can be necessary informaion or extra informaion.

In this sentence, Fairuz is an apposiive because Fairuz and my

Now, consider this sentence: