Chapter 1

Introduction

By way of introduction, in this chapter we outline the origin of thermodynamics and its pres-
ent scope. We also review a number of familiar, but basic, scientific concepts essential to the
subject:

∙ Dimensions and units of measure

∙ Force and pressure
∙ Temperature
∙ Work and heat
∙ Mechanical energy and its conservation

1.1  THE SCOPE OF THERMODYNAMICS

The science of thermodynamics was developed in the 19th century as a result of the need to
describe the basic operating principles of the newly invented steam engine and to provide a
basis for relating the work produced to the heat supplied. Thus the name itself denotes power
generated from heat. From the study of steam engines, there emerged two of the primary gen-
eralizations of science: the First and Second Laws of Thermodynamics. All of classical ther-
modynamics is implicit in these laws. Their statements are very simple, but their implications
are profound.
The First Law simply says that energy is conserved, meaning that it is neither created
nor destroyed. It provides no definition of energy that is both general and precise. No help
comes from its common informal use where the word has imprecise meanings. However, in
scientific and engineering contexts, energy is recognized as appearing in various forms, use-
ful because each form has mathematical definition as a function of some recognizable and
measurable characteristics of the real world. Thus kinetic energy is defined as a function of
velocity, and gravitational potential energy as a function of elevation.
Conservation implies the transformation of one form of energy into another. Windmills
have long operated to transform the kinetic energy of the wind into work that is used to raise

1
2 CHAPTER 1.  Introduction

water from land lying below sea level. The overall effect is to convert the kinetic energy of the
wind into potential energy of water. Wind energy is now more widely converted to electrical
energy. Similarly, the potential energy of water has long been transformed into work used to
grind grain or saw lumber. Hydroelectric plants are now a significant source of electrical power.
The Second Law is more difficult to comprehend because it depends on entropy, a word
and concept not in everyday use. Its consequences in daily life are significant with respect to
environmental conservation and efficient use of energy. Formal treatment is postponed until
we have laid a proper foundation.
The two laws of thermodynamics have no proof in a mathematical sense. However, they
are universally observed to be obeyed. An enormous volume of experimental evidence demon-
strates their validity. Thus, thermodynamics shares with mechanics and electromagnetism a
basis in primitive laws.
These laws lead, through mathematical deduction, to a network of equations that find
application in all branches of science and engineering. Included are calculation of heat and
work requirements for physical, chemical, and biological processes, and the determination of
equilibrium conditions for chemical reactions and for the transfer of chemical species between
phases. Practical application of these equations almost always requires information on the
properties of materials. Thus, the study and application of thermodynamics is inextricably
linked with the tabulation, correlation, and prediction of properties of substances. Fig. 1.1
illustrates schematically how the two laws of thermodynamics are combined with information
on material properties to yield useful analyses of, and predictions about, physical, chemical,
and biological systems. It also notes the chapters of this text that treat each component.

Systematic and
Laws of Thermodynamics generalized
The First Law: The Second Law: understanding
Total energy is Total entropy only Useful predictions
conserved increases of the equilibrium state
(Chapter 2) (Chapter 5) and properties
Mathematical

+
of physical, chemical,
formalism and and biological systems
generalization (Chapters 12, 13, 14, 15)
Property Data, Correlations, and Models (Chapters 6, 10)
Engineering analysis
Pressure-Volume- Energy needed to of the efficiencies and
Temperature change temperature, performance limits of
relationships phase, or composition physical, chemical, and
(Chapter 3) (Chapter 4, 11) biological processes
(Chapters 7, 8, 9, 16)

Figure 1.1: Schematic illustrating the combination of the laws of thermodynamics with data on material
properties to produce useful predictions and analyses.

Examples of questions that can be answered on the basis of the laws of thermodynamics
combined with property information include the following:

∙ How much energy is released when a liter of ethanol is burned (or metabolized)?
∙ What maximum flame temperature can be reached when ethanol is burned in air?
1.1.  The Scope of Thermodynamics 3

∙ What maximum fraction of the heat released in an ethanol flame can be converted to
electrical energy or work?
∙ How do the answers to the preceding two questions change if the ethanol is burned with
pure oxygen, rather than air?
∙ What is the maximum amount of electrical energy that can be produced when a liter of
ethanol is reacted with O2 to produce CO2 and water in a fuel cell?
∙ In the distillation of an ethanol/water mixture, how are the vapor and liquid composi-
tions related?
∙ When water and ethylene react at high pressure and temperature to produce ethanol,
what are the compositions of the phases that result?
∙ How much ethylene is contained in a high-pressure gas cylinder for given temperature,
pressure, and volume?
∙ When ethanol is added to a two-phase system containing toluene and water, how much
ethanol goes into each phase?
∙ If a water/ethanol mixture is partially frozen, what are the compositions of the liquid and
solid phases?
∙ What volume of solution results from mixing one liter of ethanol with one liter of water?
(It is not exactly 2 liters!)

The application of thermodynamics to any real problem starts with the specification of
a particular region of space or body of matter designated as the system. Everything outside
the system is called the surroundings. The system and surroundings interact through transfer
of material and energy across the system boundaries, but the system is the focus of attention.
Many different thermodynamic systems are of interest. A pure vapor such as steam is the
working medium of a power plant. A reacting mixture of fuel and air powers an internal-­
combustion engine. A vaporizing liquid provides refrigeration. Expanding gases in a nozzle
propel a rocket. The metabolism of food provides the nourishment for life.
Once a system has been selected, we must describe its state. There are two possible
points of view, the macroscopic and the microscopic. The former relates to quantities such
as composition, density, temperature, and pressure. These macroscopic coordinates require
no assumptions regarding the structure of matter. They are few in number, are suggested by
our sense perceptions, and are measured with relative ease. A macroscopic description thus
requires specification of a few fundamental measurable properties. The macroscopic point of
view, as adopted in classical thermodynamics, reveals nothing of the microscopic (molecular)
mechanisms of physical, chemical, or biological processes.
A microscopic description depends on the existence and behavior of molecules, is
not directly related to our sense perceptions, and treats quantities that cannot routinely be
directly measured. Nevertheless, it offers insight into material behavior and contributes to
evaluation of thermodynamic properties. Bridging the length and time scales between the
microscopic behavior of molecules and the macroscopic world is the subject of statistical
mechanics or statistical thermodynamics, which applies the laws of quantum mechanics and
classical mechanics to large ensembles of atoms, molecules, or other elementary objects to
predict and interpret macroscopic behavior. Although we make occasional reference to the
4 CHAPTER 1.  Introduction

molecular basis for observed material properties, the subject of statistical thermodynamics is
not treated in this book.1

1.2  INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS

Descriptions of thermodynamic states depend on the fundamental dimensions of science,

of which length, time, mass, temperature, and amount of substance are of greatest interest
here. These dimensions are primitives, recognized through our sensory perceptions, and
are not definable in terms of anything simpler. Their use, however, requires the definition
of arbitrary scales of measure, divided into specific units of size. Primary units have been
set by international agreement, and are codified as the International System of Units (abbre-
viated SI, for Système International).2  This is the primary system of units used throughout
this book.
The second, symbol s, the SI unit of time, is the duration of 9,192,631,770 cycles of
radiation associated with a specified transition of the cesium atom. The meter, symbol m,
is the fundamental unit of length, defined as the distance light travels in a vacuum during
1/299,792,458 of a second. The kilogram, symbol kg, is the basic unit of mass, defined as the
mass of a platinum/iridium cylinder kept at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures
at Sèvres, France.3 (The gram, symbol g, is 0.001 kg.) Temperature is a characteristic dimen-
sion of thermodynamics, and is measured on the Kelvin scale, as described in Sec. 1.4. The
mole, symbol mol, is defined as the amount of a substance represented by as many elementary
entities (e.g., molecules) as there are atoms in 0.012 kg of carbon-12.
The SI unit of force is the newton, symbol N, derived from Newton’s second law, which
expresses force F as the product of mass m and acceleration a: F = ma. Thus, a newton is the
force that, when applied to a mass of 1 kg, produces an acceleration of 1 m·s−2, and is there-
fore a unit representing 1 kg·m·s−2. This illustrates a key feature of the SI system, namely, that
derived units always reduce to combinations of primary units. Pressure P (Sec. 1.5), defined
as the normal force exerted by a fluid on a unit area of surface, is expressed in pascals, sym-
bol Pa. With force in newtons and area in square meters, 1 Pa is equivalent to 1 N·m−2 or
1 kg·m−1·s−2. Essential to thermodynamics is the derived unit for energy, the joule, symbol J,
defined as 1 N·m or 1 kg·m2·s−2.
Multiples and decimal fractions of SI units are designated by prefixes, with symbol abbre-
viations, as listed in Table 1.1. Common examples of their use are the centimeter, 1 cm = 10−2 m,
the kilopascal, 1 kPa = 103 Pa, and the kilojoule, 1 kJ = 103 J.

1Many introductory texts on statistical thermodynamics are available. The interested reader is referred to Molec-

ular Driving Forces: Statistical Thermodynamics in Chemistry & Biology, by K. A. Dill and S. Bromberg, Garland
Science, 2010, and many books referenced therein.
2In-depth information on the SI is provided by the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) online

at http://physics.nist.gov/cuu/Units/index.html.
3At the time of this writing, the International Committee on Weights and Measures has recommended changes that

would eliminate the need for a standard reference kilogram and would base all units, including mass, on fundamental
physical constants.
1.2.  International System of Units 5

Table 1.1: Prefixes for SI Units

Multiple Prefix Symbol

10−15 femto f
10−12 pico p
10−9 nano n
10−6 micro μ
10−3 milli m
10−2 centi c
102 hecto h
103 kilo k
106 mega M
109 giga G
1012 tera T
1015 peta P

Two widely used units in engineering that are not part of SI, but are acceptable for use
with it, are the bar, a pressure unit equal to 102 kPa, and the liter, a volume unit equal to 103 cm3.
The bar closely approximates atmospheric pressure. Other acceptable units are the minute,
symbol min; hour, symbol h; day, symbol d; and the metric ton, symbol t; equal to 103 kg.
Weight properly refers to the force of gravity on a body, expressed in newtons, and not
to its mass, expressed in kilograms. Force and mass are, of course, directly related through
Newton’s law, with a body’s weight defined as its mass times the local acceleration of gravity.
The comparison of masses by a balance is called “weighing” because it also compares gravi-
tational forces. A spring scale provides correct mass readings only when used in the gravita-
tional field of its calibration.
Although the SI is well established throughout most of the world, use of the U.S.
­Customary system of units persists in daily commerce in the United States. Even in science
and engineering, conversion to SI is incomplete, though globalization is a major incentive.
U.S. Customary units are related to SI units by fixed conversion factors. Those units most
likely to be useful are defined in Appendix A. Conversion factors are listed in Table A.1.

Example 1.1
An astronaut weighs 730 N in Houston, Texas, where the local acceleration of gravity
is g = 9.792 m·s−2. What are the astronaut’s mass and weight on the moon, where
g = 1.67 m·s−2?

Solution 1.1
By Newton’s law, with acceleration equal to the acceleration of gravity, g,
F 730 N
m = ​__
​    ​  = ​__________
  = 74.55​ N·m​​ −1​·​s​ 2​​
  ​  
g 9.792 ​m·s​​ −2​
6 CHAPTER 1.  Introduction

Because 1 N = 1 kg·m·s−2,

​
m = 74.55 kg​
This mass of the astronaut is independent of location, but weight depends on the
local acceleration of gravity. Thus on the moon the astronaut’s weight is:

F(moon) = m × g(moon) = 74.55 kg × ​1.67 m·s​​ −2​​
​

or
​F(​ ​moon​)​  = 124.5​ kg·m·s​​ −2​  = 124.5 N​​
​

1.3  MEASURES OF AMOUNT OR SIZE

Three measures of amount or size of a homogeneous material are in common use:

∙ Mass, m    ∙ Number of moles, n    ∙ Total volume, V t

These measures for a specific system are in direct proportion to one another. Mass
may be divided by the molar mass ℳ (formerly called molecular weight) to yield number of
moles:
m
​ n = ​ __  ​    
  or    m = ℳn​
ℳ
Total volume, representing the size of a system, is a defined quantity given as the prod-
uct of three lengths. It may be divided by the mass or number of moles of the system to yield
specific or molar volume:

​V​ t​
∙ Specific volume: ​V ≡ ​__
   ​    or   ​V​ t​ = mV​
m

​V​ t​
∙ Molar volume: ​V ≡ ​__
   ​    or   ​V​ t​ = nV​
n

Specific or molar density is defined as the reciprocal of specific or molar volume: ρ ≡ V −1.
These quantities (V and ρ) are independent of the size of a system, and are examples
of intensive thermodynamic variables. For a given state of matter (solid, liquid, or gas) they
are functions of temperature, pressure, and composition, additional quantities independent of
system size. Throughout this text, the same symbols will generally be used for both molar and
specific quantities. Most equations of thermodynamics apply to both, and when distinction is
necessary, it can be made based on the context. The alternative of introducing separate nota-
tion for each leads to an even greater proliferation of variables than is already inherent in the
study of chemical thermodynamics.
1.4. Temperature 7

1.4 TEMPERATURE

The notion of temperature, based on sensory perception of heat and cold, needs no expla-
nation. It is a matter of common experience. However, giving temperature a scientific role
requires a scale that affixes numbers to the perception of hot and cold. This scale must also
extend far beyond the range of temperatures of everyday experience and perception. Estab-
lishing such a scale and devising measuring instruments based on this scale has a long and
intriguing history. A simple instrument is the common liquid-in-glass thermometer, wherein
the liquid expands when heated. Thus a uniform tube, partially filled with mercury, alcohol, or
some other fluid, and connected to a bulb containing a larger amount of fluid, indicates degree
of hotness by the length of the fluid column.
The scale requires definition and the instrument requires calibration. The Celsius4 scale
was established early and remains in common use throughout most of the world. Its scale is
defined by fixing zero as the ice point (freezing point of water saturated with air at standard
atmospheric pressure) and 100 as the steam point (boiling point of pure water at standard
atmospheric pressure). Thus a thermometer when immersed in an ice bath is marked zero and
when immersed in boiling water is marked 100. Dividing the length between these marks into
100 equal spaces, called degrees, provides a scale, which may be extended with equal spaces
below zero and above 100.
Scientific and industrial practice depends on the International Temperature Scale of
1990 (ITS−90).5 This is the Kelvin scale, based on assigned values of temperature for a num-
ber of reproducible fixed points, that is, states of pure substances like the ice and steam points,
and on standard instruments calibrated at these temperatures. Interpolation between the fixed-
point temperatures is provided by formulas that establish the relation between readings of
the standard instruments and values on ITS-90. The platinum-resistance thermometer is an
example of a standard instrument; it is used for temperatures from −259.35°C (the triple point
of hydrogen) to 961.78°C (the freezing point of silver).
The Kelvin scale, which we indicate with the symbol T, provides SI temperatures. An
absolute scale, it is based on the concept of a lower limit of temperature, called absolute zero.
Its unit is the kelvin, symbol K. Celsius temperatures, with symbol t, are defined in relation to
Kelvin temperatures:
​
t° C = T  K − 273.15​
The unit of Celsius temperature is the degree Celsius, °C, which is equal in size to the
kelvin.6 However, temperatures on the Celsius scale are 273.15 degrees lower than on the
Kelvin scale. Thus absolute zero on the Celsius scale occurs at −273.15°C. Kelvin temperatures

4Anders Celsius, Swedish astronomer (1701–1744). See: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anders_Celsius.

5The English-language text describing ITS-90 is given by H. Preston-Thomas, Metrologia, vol. 27, pp. 3–10, 1990.

It is also available at http://www.its-90.com/its-90.html.

6Note that neither the word degree nor the degree sign is used for temperatures in kelvins, and that the word kelvin

as a unit is not capitalized.

8 CHAPTER 1.  Introduction

are used in thermodynamic calculations. Celsius temperatures can only be used in thermody-
namic calculations involving temperature differences, which are of course the same in both
degrees Celsius and kelvins.

1.5 PRESSURE

The primary standard for pressure measurement is the dead-weight gauge in which a known
force is balanced by fluid pressure acting on a piston of known area: P ≡ F/A. The basic design is
shown in Fig. 1.2. Objects of known mass (“weights”) are placed on the pan until the pressure of
the oil, which tends to make the piston rise, is just balanced by the force of gravity on the piston
and all that it supports. With this force given by Newton’s law, the pressure exerted by the oil is:
F mg
P = ​__
​    ​ = ​___
     ​​
A A
where m is the mass of the piston, pan, and “weights”; g is the local acceleration of gravity;
and A is the cross-sectional area of the piston. This formula yields gauge pressures, the differ-
ence between the pressure of interest and the pressure of the surrounding atmosphere. They
are converted to absolute pressures by addition of the local barometric pressure. Gauges in
common use, such as Bourdon gauges, are calibrated by comparison with dead-weight gauges.
Absolute pressures are used in thermodynamic calculations.

Weight

Pan
Piston

Cylinder
Figure 1.2: 
Dead-weight gauge.
Oil

To pressure
source

Because a vertical column of fluid under the influence of gravity exerts a pressure at its
base in direct proportion to its height, pressure may be expressed as the equivalent height of a
fluid column. This is the basis for the use of manometers for pressure measurement. Conver-
sion of height to force per unit area follows from Newton’s law applied to the force of gravity
1.5. Pressure 9

acting on the mass of fluid in the column. The mass is given by: m = Ahρ, where A is the
cross-sectional area of the column, h is its height, and ρ is the fluid density. Therefore,
F mg _____ Ahρg
P = ​__
​    ​ = ​___
     ​ = ​     ​​  
A A A
Thus,
​
P = hρg​ (1.1)
The pressure to which a fluid height corresponds is determined by the density of the fluid
(which depends on its identity and temperature) and the local acceleration of gravity.
A unit of pressure in common use (but not an SI unit) is the standard atmosphere, rep-
resenting the average pressure exerted by the earth’s atmosphere at sea level, and defined as
101.325 kPa.

Example 1.2
A dead-weight gauge with a piston diameter of 1 cm is used for the accurate measure-
ment of pressure. If a mass of 6.14 kg (including piston and pan) brings it into balance,
and if g = 9.82 m·s−2, what is the gauge pressure being measured? For a barometric
pressure of 0.997 bar, what is the absolute pressure?

Solution 1.2
The force exerted by gravity on the piston, pan, and “weights” is:

F = mg = 6.14 kg × 9.82 ​m·s​​ −2​ = 60.295 N​
​

F 60.295
Gauge pressure = ​__
​    ​ = ​__________
      ​ = 7.677 × ​10​​ 5​ N·​m​ −2​ = 767.7 kPa​
A ​(​1⁄ 4  ​)​(π)​(​0.01​)​ 2​

The absolute pressure is therefore:

P = 7.677 × ​10​​ 5​ + 0.997 × ​10​​ 5​ = 8.674 × ​10​​ 5​ ​N·m​​ −2​​
​

or
​
P = 867.4 kPa​

Example 1.3
At 27°C the reading on a manometer filled with mercury is 60.5 cm. The local
­acceleration of gravity is 9.784 m·s−2. To what pressure does this height of mercury
correspond?
10 CHAPTER 1.  Introduction

Solution 1.3
As discussed above, and summarized in Eq. (1.1): P = hρg. At 27°C the density of
mercury is 13.53 g·cm−3. Then,

P = 60.5 cm × 13.53 ​g·cm​​ −3​ × 9.784 ​m·s​​ −2​ = 8009 ​g·m·s​​ −2​·​cm​​ −2​
      
​ ​​​    
​  = 8.009 ​kg·m·s​​ −2​·​cm​​ −2​ = 8.009 ​N·cm​​ −2​  ​​​
​ = 0.8009 × ​10​​ 5​ ​N·m​​ −2​ = 0.8009 bar = 80.09 kPa

1.6 WORK

Work, W, is performed whenever a force acts through a distance. By its definition, the quantity
of work is given by the equation:

​
dW = F dl​ (1.2)

where F is the component of force acting along the line of the displacement dl. The SI
unit of work is the newton·meter or joule, symbol J. When integrated, Eq. (1.2) yields the
work of a finite process. By convention, work is regarded as positive when the displace-
ment is in the same direction as the applied force and negative when they are in opposite
directions.
Work is done when pressure acts on a surface and displaces a volume of fluid. An exam-
ple is the movement of a piston in a cylinder so as to cause compression or expansion of a fluid
contained in the cylinder. The force exerted by the piston on the fluid is equal to the product
of the piston area and the pressure of the fluid. The displacement of the piston is equal to the
total volume change of the fluid divided by the area of the piston. Equation (1.2) therefore
becomes:

​V​ t​
dW = −PA d ​__
​    ​  = −P d​V​ t​​ (1.3)
A

Integration yields:

W = −​   ​  ​P ​ d​V​ t​​
​V​2t ​​ 

∫ ​V​1t ​ 
​ (1.4)

The minus signs in these equations are made necessary by the sign convention adopted for
work. When the piston moves into the cylinder so as to compress the fluid, the applied force
and its displacement are in the same direction; the work is therefore positive. The minus sign
is required because the volume change is negative. For an expansion process, the applied force
and its displacement are in opposite directions. The volume change in this case is positive, and
the minus sign is again required to make the work negative.
1.7. Energy 11

2
P2

Figure 1.3: Diagram showing a P vs. V t path.

P

P1 1
0
V2t V1t
t
V

Equation (1.4) expresses the work done by a finite compression or expansion process.7
Figure 1.3 shows a path for compression of a gas from point 1, initial volume ​V​1t ​ at pressure P1,
to point 2, volume ​V​2t ​ at pressure P2. This path relates the pressure at any point of the process
to the volume. The work required is given by Eq. (1.4) and is proportional to the area under
the curve of Fig. 1.3.

1.7 ENERGY

The general principle of conservation of energy was established about 1850. The germ of this
principle as it applies to mechanics was implicit in the work of Galileo (1564–1642) and Isaac
Newton (1642–1726). Indeed, it follows directly from Newton’s second law of motion once
work is defined as the product of force and displacement.

Kinetic Energy
When a body of mass m, acted upon by a force F, is displaced a distance dl during a differ-
ential interval of time dt, the work done is given by Eq. (1.2). In combination with Newton’s
second law this equation becomes:

​
dW = ma dl​

By definition the acceleration is a ≡ du/dt, where u is the velocity of the body. Thus,
du dl
dW = m ​___
​    ​  dl = m ​__
   ​ du​
dt dt

Because the definition of velocity is u ≡ dl/dt, this expression for work reduces to:

​
dW = mu du​
7However, as explained in Sec. 2.6, there are important limitations on its use.
12 CHAPTER 1.  Introduction

Integration for a finite change in velocity from u1 to u2 gives:

(2 2)
W = m​   ​  ​u ​ du = m​​ ___
​u​ 2​
​u​  2​​  ​u​  2​​ 
∫ ​u​ 1​
​ ​​  2 ​  − ​ ___1 ​ ​ ​​​

or

( 2 )
m​u​  22​​  ____ m​u​  2​​  m​u​ 2​
W = ​ _____
​  ​    − ​   ​ 1  = Δ​​ _
​      ​  ​​ (1.5)
2 2
Each of the quantities _​ 12 ​ m​u​ 2​in Eq. (1.5) is a kinetic energy, a term introduced by Lord Kelvin8
in 1856. Thus, by definition,
1
​E​ K​ ≡ ​__
​    ​m​u​ 2​​ (1.6)
2
Equation (1.5) shows that the work done on a body in accelerating it from an initial velocity u1
to a final velocity u2 is equal to the change in kinetic energy of the body. Conversely, if a moving
body is decelerated by the action of a resisting force, the work done by the body is equal to its
change in kinetic energy. With mass in kilograms and velocity in meters/second, kinetic energy
EK is in joules, where 1 J = 1 kg⋅m2⋅s−2 = 1 N⋅m. In accord with Eq. (1.5), this is the unit of work.

Potential Energy
When a body of mass m is raised from an initial elevation z1 to a final elevation z2, an upward
force at least equal to the weight of the body is exerted on it, and this force moves through the
distance z2 − z1. Because the weight of the body is the force of gravity on it, the minimum
force required is given by Newton’s law:
​
F = ma = mg​
where g is the local acceleration of gravity. The minimum work required to raise the body is
the product of this force and the change in elevation:
​
W = F(​z​ 2​ − ​z​ 1​) = mg(​z​ 2​ − ​z​ 1​)​
or
​
W = m​z​ 2​g − m​z​ 1​g = mgΔz​ (1.7)
We see from Eq. (1.7) that work done on a body in raising it is equal to the change in the quan-
tity mzg. Conversely, if a body is lowered against a resisting force equal to its weight, the work
done by the body is equal to the change in the quantity mzg. Each of the quantities mzg in
Eq. (1.7) is a potential energy.9 Thus, by definition,
​
​E​ P​ = mzg​ (1.8)
8Lord Kelvin, or William Thomson (1824–1907), was an English physicist who, along with the German phys-

icist Rudolf Clausius (1822–1888), laid the foundations for the modern science of thermodynamics. See http://en
.­wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Thomson,_1st_Baron_Kelvin. See also http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf_Clausius.
9This term was proposed in 1853 by the Scottish engineer William Rankine (1820–1872). See http://en.wikipedia

.org/wiki/William_John_Macquorn_Rankine.
1.7. Energy 13

With mass in kg, elevation in m, and the acceleration of gravity in m·s−2, EP is in joules,
where 1 J = 1 kg⋅m2⋅s−2 = 1 N⋅m. In accord with Eq. (1.7), this is the unit of work.

Energy Conservation
The utility of the energy-conservation principle was alluded to in Sec. 1.1. The definitions of
kinetic energy and gravitational potential energy of the preceding section provide for limited
quantitative applications. Equation (1.5) shows that the work done on an accelerating body
produces a change in its kinetic energy:

( 2 )
m​u​ 2​
W = Δ​E​ K​ = Δ​​ _
​ ​      ​  ​​

Similarly, Eq. (1.7) shows that the work done on a body in elevating it produces a change
in its potential energy:
W = ​E​ P​ = Δ​​(​mzg​)​​
​
One simple consequence of these definitions is that an elevated body, allowed to fall
freely (i.e., without friction or other resistance), gains in kinetic energy what it loses in poten-
tial energy. Mathematically,
​
Δ​E​ K​ + Δ​E​ P​ = 0​
or
m​u​  22​​  ____ m​u​  21​​ 
​​ ____
 ​    − ​   ​    + m​z​ 2​g − m​z​ 1​g = 0​
2 2
The validity of this equation has been confirmed by countless experiments. Thus the develop-
ment of the concept of energy led logically to the principle of its conservation for all purely
mechanical processes, that is, processes without friction or heat transfer.
Other forms of mechanical energy are recognized. Among the most obvious is potential
energy of configuration. When a spring is compressed, work is done by an external force.
Because the spring can later perform this work against a resisting force, it possesses potential
energy of configuration. Energy of the same form exists in a stretched rubber band or in a bar
of metal deformed in the elastic region.
The generality of the principle of conservation of energy in mechanics is increased if we
look upon work itself as a form of energy. This is clearly permissible because both kinetic- and
potential-energy changes are equal to the work done in producing them [Eqs. (1.5) and (1.7)].
However, work is energy in transit and is never regarded as residing in a body. When work is done
and does not appear simultaneously as work elsewhere, it is converted into another form of energy.
With the body or assemblage on which attention is focused as the system and all else as
the surroundings, work represents energy transferred from the surroundings to the system, or the
reverse. It is only during this transfer that the form of energy known as work exists. In contrast,
kinetic and potential energy reside with the system. Their values, however, are measured with
reference to the surroundings; that is, kinetic energy depends on velocity with respect to the
surroundings, and potential energy depends on elevation with respect to a datum level. Changes in
kinetic and potential energy do not depend on these reference conditions, provided they are fixed.
14 CHAPTER 1.  Introduction

Example 1.4
An elevator with a mass of 2500 kg rests at a level 10 m above the base of an eleva-
tor shaft. It is raised to 100 m above the base of the shaft, where the cable holding
it breaks. The elevator falls freely to the base of the shaft and strikes a strong spring.
The spring is designed to bring the elevator to rest and, by means of a catch arrange-
ment, to hold the elevator at the position of maximum spring compression. Assuming
the entire process to be frictionless, and taking g = 9.8 m⋅s−2, calculate:
(a) The potential energy of the elevator in its initial position relative to its base.
(b) The work done in raising the elevator.
(c) The potential energy of the elevator in its highest position.
(d) The velocity and kinetic energy of the elevator just before it strikes the spring.
(e) The potential energy of the compressed spring.
(f) The energy of the system consisting of the elevator and spring (1) at the start
of  the process, (2) when the elevator reaches its maximum height, (3) just
before the elevator strikes the spring, (4) after the elevator has come to rest.

Solution 1.4
Let subscript 1 denote the initial state; subscript 2, the state when the elevator is at
its greatest elevation; and subscript 3, the state just before the elevator strikes the
spring, as indicated in the figure.

State 2

100 m

State 1
State 3

10 m

(a) Potential energy is defined by Eq. (1.8):

​ E​ ​P​  ​ ​ = m​z​ 1​g = 2500 kg × 10 m × 9.8​ m·s​​ −2​

​​ 1      ​​ ​
= 245,000 ​kg·m​​ 2​⋅​s​ −2​ = 245,000 J
1.7. Energy 15

(b) Work is computed by Eq. (1.7). Units are as in the preceding calculation:
​W = mg​(​z​ 2​ − ​z​ 1)​ ​ = ​(​2500​)(​ ​9.8​)​(​100 − 10​)​
​​       ​​
       = 2,205,000 J

(c) Again by Eq. (1.8),

​E​ ​P​ 2​ ​ = m​z​ 2​g = ​(​2500​)​(​100​)​(​9.8​)​ = 2,450,000 J​​
​

Note that W​ ​=​ ​E​ ​P​ 2​​​ ​−

​ ​  ​E​ ​P​ 1​​.​

(d) The sum of the kinetic- and potential-energy changes during the process from
state 2 to state 3 is zero; that is,

​Δ​E​ ​K​ 2→3​​ + Δ​E​ ​P​ 2→3​​ = 0​    or  ​  ​E​ ​K​ 3​​ − ​E​ ​K​ 2​​ + ​E​ ​P​ 3​​ − ​E​ ​P​ 2​​ = 0​​

​

However, ​E​ ​K​ 2​​ and ​E​ ​P​ 3​​ are zero; hence ​E​ ​K​ 3​​ = ​E​ ​P​ 2​​ = 2,450,000 J.
  With ​E​ ​K​ 3​​ = ​_ 12 ​ m​u​  23​​​ 

2​E​ ​K​  ​​ _____________ 2 × 2,450,000 ​kg·m​​ 2​⋅​s​ −2​

2 × 2,450,000 J _____________________
​​u​  23​ ​  = ​____
    3  ​  = ​  
    ​  
= ​         ​ = 1960 ​​m​ 2​·​s​ −2​​
m 2500 kg 2500 kg

and
​u​ 3​ = 44.272 ​m·s​​ −1​​
​
(e) The changes in the potential energy of the spring and the kinetic energy of the
elevator must sum to zero:
​Δ​E​ P ​(​spring​)​ + Δ​E​ K​(​elevator​)​ = 0​​
​

The initial potential energy of the spring and the final kinetic energy of the eleva-
tor are zero; therefore, the final potential energy of the spring equals the kinetic
energy of the elevator just before it strikes the spring. Thus the final potential
energy of the spring is 2,450,000 J.
( f ) With the elevator and spring as the system, the initial energy is the poten-
tial energy of the elevator, or 245,000 J. The only energy change of the system
occurs when work is done in raising the elevator. This amounts to 2,205,000 J,
and the energy of the system when the elevator is at maximum height is 245,000 +
2,205,000 = 2,450,000 J. Subsequent changes occur entirely within the system,
without interaction with the surroundings, and the total energy of the system
remains constant at 2,450,000 J. It merely changes from potential energy of posi-
tion (elevation) of the elevator to kinetic energy of the elevator to potential energy
of configuration of the spring.
  This example illustrates the conservation of mechanical energy. However, the
entire process is assumed to occur without friction, and the results obtained are
exact only for such an idealized process.
16 CHAPTER 1.  Introduction

Example 1.5
A team from Engineers Without Borders constructs a system to supply water to a
mountainside village located 1800 m above sea level from a spring in the valley below
at 1500 m above sea level.
(a) When the pipe from the spring to the village is full of water, but no water is flow-
ing, what is the pressure difference between the end of the pipe at the spring
and the end of the pipe in the village?
(b) What is the change in gravitational potential energy of a liter of water when it is
pumped from the spring to the village?
(c) What is the minimum amount of work required to pump a liter of water from the
spring to the village?

Solution 1.5
(a) Take the density of water as 1000 kg⋅m−3 and the acceleration of gravity as
9.8 m⋅s−2. By Eq. (1.1):
P = hρg = 300 m × 1000 ​kg·m​​ −3​ × 9.8 ​m·s​​ −2​ = 29.4 × ​10​​ 5​ ​kg·m​​ −1​⋅​s​ −2​​
​
Whence ​
​P = 29.4 bar​  or​   2940 kPa​​
(b) The mass of a liter of water is approximately 1 kg, and its potential-energy
change is:
Δ​E​ P​ = Δ(mzg) = mgΔz = 1 kg × 9.8 ​m·s​​ −2​ × 300 m = 2940 N·m = 2940 J​
​

(c) The minimum amount of work required to lift each liter of water through an
elevation change of 300 m equals the potential-energy change of the water. It is
a minimum value because it takes no account of fluid friction that results from
finite-velocity pipe flow.

1.8 HEAT

At the time when the principle of conservation of mechanical energy emerged, heat was
considered an indestructible fluid called caloric. This concept was firmly entrenched, and
it limited the application of energy conservation to frictionless mechanical processes. Such
a limitation is now long gone. Heat, like work, is recognized as energy in transit. A simple
example is the braking of an automobile. When its speed is reduced by the application of
brakes, heat generated by friction is transferred to the surroundings in an amount equal to the
change in kinetic energy of the vehicle.10
10Many modern electric or hybrid cars employ regenerative braking, a process through which some of the kinetic

energy of the vehicle is converted to electrical energy and stored in a battery or capacitor for later use, rather than
simply being transferred to the surroundings as heat.
1.9. Synopsis 17

We know from experience that a hot object brought into contact with a cold object
becomes cooler, whereas the cold object becomes warmer. A reasonable view is that some-
thing is transferred from the hot object to the cold one, and we call that something heat Q.11
Thus we say that heat always flows from a higher temperature to a lower one. This leads to the
concept of temperature as the driving force for the transfer of energy as heat. When no tem-
perature difference exists, no spontaneous heat transfer occurs, a condition of thermal equilib-
rium. In the thermodynamic sense, heat is never regarded as being stored within a body. Like
work, it exists only as energy in transit from one body to another; in thermodynamics, from
system to surroundings. When energy in the form of heat is added to a system, it is stored not
as heat but as kinetic and potential energy of the atoms and molecules making up the system.
A kitchen refrigerator running on electrical energy must transfer this energy to the
surroundings as heat. This may seem counterintuitive, as the interior of the refrigerator is
maintained at temperatures below that of the surroundings, resulting in heat transfer into the
refrigerator. But hidden from view (usually) is a heat exchanger that transfers heat to the sur-
roundings in an amount equal to the sum of the electrical energy supplied to the refrigerator
and the heat transfer into the refrigerator. Thus the net result is heating of the kitchen. A room
air conditioner, operating in the same way, extracts heat from the room, but the heat exchanger
is external, exhausting heat to the outside air, thus cooling the room.
In spite of the transient nature of heat, it is often viewed in relation to its effect on the
system from which or to which it is transferred. Until about 1930 the definitions of units of
heat were based on temperature changes of a unit mass of water. Thus the calorie was defined
as that quantity of heat which, when transferred to one gram of water, raised its temperature
one degree Celsius.12 With heat now understood to be a form of energy, its SI unit is the joule.
The SI unit of power is the watt, symbol W, defined as an energy rate of one joule per second.
The tables of Appendix A provide relevant conversion factors.

1.9 SYNOPSIS

After studying this chapter, including the end-of-chapter problems, one should be able to:

∙ Describe qualitatively the scope and structure of thermodynamics

∙ Solve problems involving the pressure exerted by a column of fluid
∙ Solve problems involving conservation of mechanical energy
∙ Use SI units and convert from U.S. Customary to SI units
∙ Apply the concept of work as the transfer of energy accompanying the action of a force
through a distance, and by extension to the action of pressure (force per area) acting
through a volume (distance times area)

11An equally reasonable view would regard something called cool as being transferred from the cold object to the

hot one.
12A unit reflecting the caloric theory of heat, but not in use with the SI system. The calorie used by nutritionists to

measure the energy content of food is 1000 times larger.

18 CHAPTER 1.  Introduction

1.10 PROBLEMS

Electric current is the fundamental SI electrical dimension, with the ampere (A) as

1.1.
its unit. Determine units for the following quantities as combinations of fundamental
SI units.

(a) Electric power

(b) Electric charge
(c) Electric potential difference
(d) Electric resistance
(e) Electric capacitance

Liquid/vapor saturation pressure Psat is often represented as a function of temperature

1.2.
by the Antoine equation, which can be written in the form:
b
​log​ 10​P​ sat​ /​(​torr​)​ = a − ​______
​      ​​  
t∕°C + c
Here, parameters a, b, and c are substance-specific constants. Suppose this equation is
to be rewritten in the equivalent form:
B
ln ​P​ sat​ /kPa = A − ​______
​      ​​  
T∕K + C
Show how the parameters in the two equations are related.

Table B.2 in Appendix B provides parameters for computing the vapor pressure of many
1.3.
substances by the Antoine equation (see Prob. 1.2). For one of these substances, prepare
two plots of Psat versus T over the range of temperature for which the parameters are valid.
One plot should present Psat on a linear scale and the other should present Psat on a
log scale.

At what absolute temperature do the Celsius and Fahrenheit temperature scales give
1.4.
the same numerical value? What is the value?

The SI unit of luminous intensity is the candela (abbreviated cd), which is a primary
1.5.
unit. The derived SI unit of luminous flux is the lumen (abbreviated lm). These are
based on the sensitivity of the human eye to light. Light sources are often evaluated
based on their luminous efficacy, which is defined as the luminous flux divided by the
power consumed and is measured in lm⋅W−1. In a physical or online store, find man-
ufacturer’s specifications for representative incandescent, halogen, high-temperature-
discharge, LED, and fluorescent lamps of similar luminous flux and compare their
luminous efficacy.

Pressures up to 3000 bar are measured with a dead-weight gauge. The piston diameter
1.6.
is 4 mm. What is the approximate mass in kg of the weights required?

Pressures up to 3000(atm) are measured with a dead-weight gauge. The piston diame-
1.7.
ter is 0.17(in). What is the approximate mass in (lbm) of the weights required?
1.10. Problems 19

The reading on a mercury manometer at 25°C (open to the atmosphere at one end)
1.8.
is 56.38 cm. The local acceleration of gravity is 9.832 m·s−2. Atmospheric pressure
is 101.78 kPa. What is the absolute pressure in kPa being measured? The density of
mercury at 25°C is 13.534 g·cm−3.

The reading on a mercury manometer at 70(°F) (open to the atmosphere at one end) is
1.9.
25.62(in). The local acceleration of gravity is 32.243(ft)·(s)−2. Atmospheric pressure
is 29.86(in Hg). What is the absolute pressure in (psia) being measured? The density
of mercury at 70(°F) is 13.543 g·cm−3.

1.10. An absolute pressure gauge is submerged 50 m (1979 inches) below the surface of
the ocean and reads P = 6.064 bar. This is P = 2434(inches of H2O), according to the
unit conversions built into a particular calculator. Explain the apparent discrepancy
between the pressure measurement and the actual depth of submersion.

1.11. Liquids that boil at relatively low temperatures are often stored as liquids under their
vapor pressures, which at ambient temperature can be quite large. Thus, n-butane
stored as a liquid/vapor system is at a pressure of 2.581 bar for a temperature of 300 K.
Large-scale storage (>50 m3) of this kind is sometimes done in spherical tanks. Sug-
gest two reasons why.

1.12. The first accurate measurements of the properties of high-pressure gases were made
by E. H. Amagat in France between 1869 and 1893. Before developing the dead-
weight gauge, he worked in a mineshaft and used a mercury manometer for measure-
ments of pressure to more than 400 bar. Estimate the height of manometer required.

1.13. An instrument to measure the acceleration of gravity on Mars is constructed of a

spring from which is suspended a mass of 0.40 kg. At a place on earth where the local
acceleration of gravity is 9.81 m·s−2, the spring extends 1.08 cm. When the instrument
­package is landed on Mars, it radios the information that the spring is extended 0.40 cm.
What is the Martian acceleration of gravity?

1.14. The variation of fluid pressure with height is described by the differential equation:
dP
​ ​ ___ ​  = −ρg​
dz
Here, ρ is specific density and g is the local acceleration of gravity. For an ideal gas, ρ =
ℳP/RT, where ℳ is molar mass and R is the universal gas constant. Modeling the
atmosphere as an isothermal column of ideal gas at 10°C, estimate the ambient pres-
sure in Denver, where z = 1(mile) relative to sea level. For air, take ℳ = 29 g·mol−1;
values of R are given in App. A.

1.15. A group of engineers has landed on the moon, and they wish to determine the mass
of some rocks. They have a spring scale calibrated to read pounds mass at a location
where the acceleration of gravity is 32.186(ft)(s)−2. One of the moon rocks gives a
reading of 18.76 on this scale. What is its mass? What is its weight on the moon? Take
g(moon) = 5.32(ft)(s)−2.
20 CHAPTER 1.  Introduction

1.16. In medical contexts, blood pressure is often given simply as numbers without units.

(a) In taking blood pressure, what physical quantity is actually being measured?
(b) What are the units in which blood pressure is typically reported?
(c) Is the reported blood pressure an absolute pressure or a gauge pressure?
(d) Suppose an ambitious zookeeper measures the blood pressure of a standing adult
male giraffe (18 feet tall) in its front leg, just above the hoof, and in its neck, just
below the jaw. By about how much are the two readings expected to differ?
(e) What happens to the blood pressure in a giraffe’s neck when it stoops to drink?
(f) What adaptations do giraffes have that allow them to accommodate pressure dif-
ferences related to their height?

1.17. A 70 W outdoor security light burns, on average, 10 hours a day. A new bulb costs
$5.00, and the lifetime is about 1000 hours. If electricity costs $0.10 per kW·h, what is
the yearly price of “security,” per light?

1.18. A gas is confined in a 1.25(ft) diameter cylinder by a piston, on which rests a weight.
The mass of the piston and weight together is 250(lbm). The local acceleration of grav-
ity is 32.169(ft)(s)−2, and atmospheric pressure is 30.12(in Hg).

(a) What is the force in (lbf) exerted on the gas by the atmosphere, the piston, and the
weight, assuming no friction between the piston and cylinder?
(b) What is the pressure of the gas in (psia)?
(c) If the gas in the cylinder is heated, it expands, pushing the piston and weight
upward. If the piston and weight are raised 1.7(ft), what is the work done by the
gas in (ft)(lbf)? What is the change in potential energy of the piston and weight?

1.19. A gas is confined in a 0.47 m diameter cylinder by a piston, on which rests a weight.
The mass of the piston and weight together is 150 kg. The local acceleration of gravity
is 9.813 m·s−2, and atmospheric pressure is 101.57 kPa.

(a) What is the force in newtons exerted on the gas by the atmosphere, the piston, and
the weight, assuming no friction between the piston and cylinder?
(b) What is the pressure of the gas in kPa?
(c) If the gas in the cylinder is heated, it expands, pushing the piston and weight
upward. If the piston and weight are raised 0.83 m, what is the work done by the
gas in kJ? What is the change in potential energy of the piston and weight?

1.20. Verify that the SI unit of kinetic and potential energy is the joule.

1.21. An automobile having a mass of 1250 kg is traveling at 40 m·s−1. What is its kinetic
energy in kJ? How much work must be done to bring it to a stop?

1.22. The turbines in a hydroelectric plant are fed by water falling from a 50 m height.
Assuming 91% efficiency for conversion of potential to electrical energy, and 8% loss
1.10. Problems 21

of the resulting power in transmission, what is the mass flow rate of water required to
power a 200 W light bulb?

1.23. A wind turbine with a rotor diameter of 77 m produces 1.5 MW of electrical power
at a wind speed of 12 m⋅s−1. What fraction of the kinetic energy of the air passing
through the turbine is converted to electrical power? You may assume a density of
1.25 kg⋅m−3 for air at the operating conditions.

1.24. The annual average insolation (energy of sunlight per unit area) striking a fixed
solar panel in Buffalo, New York, is 200 W⋅m−2, while in Phoenix, Arizona, it is
270 W⋅m−2. In each location, the solar panel converts 15% of the incident energy into
­electricity. Average annual electricity use in Buffalo is 6000 kW⋅h at an average cost of
$0.15 kW⋅h, while in Phoenix it is 11,000 kW⋅h at a cost of $0.09 kW⋅h.

(a) In each city, what area of solar panel is needed to meet the average electrical needs
of a residence?
(b) In each city, what is the current average annual cost of electricity?
(c) If the solar panel has a lifetime of 20 years, what price per square meter of solar
panel can be justified in each location? Assume that future increases in electricity
prices offset the cost of borrowing funds for the initial purchase, so that you need
not consider the time value of money in this analysis.

1.25. Following is a list of approximate conversion factors, useful for “back-of-the-­envelope”

estimates. None of them is exact, but most are accurate to within about ±10%. Use
Table A.1 (App. A) to establish the exact conversions.

∙ 1(atm) ≈ 1 bar
∙ 1(Btu) ≈ 1 kJ
∙ 1(hp) ≈ 0.75 kW
∙ 1(inch) ≈ 2.5 cm
∙ 1(lbm) ≈ 0.5 kg
∙ 1(mile) ≈ 1.6 km
∙ 1(quart) ≈ 1 liter
∙ 1(yard) ≈ 1 m

Add your own items to the list. The idea is to keep the conversion factors simple and
easy to remember.

1.26. Consider the following proposal for a decimal calendar. The fundamental unit is the
decimal year (Yr), equal to the number of conventional (SI) seconds required for the
earth to complete a circuit of the sun. Other units are defined in the following table.
Develop, where possible, factors for converting decimal calendar units to conventional
calendar units. Discuss pros and cons of the proposal.
22 CHAPTER 1.  Introduction

Decimal Calendar Unit Symbol Definition

Second Sc 10−6 Yr
Minute Mn 10−5 Yr
Hour Hr 10−4 Yr
Day Dy 10−3 Yr
Week Wk 10−2 Yr
Month Mo 10−1 Yr
Year Yr

1.27. Energy costs vary greatly with energy source: coal @ $35.00/ton, gasoline @ a pump
price of $2.75/gal, and electricity @ $0.100/kW·h. Conventional practice is to put these
on a common basis by expressing them in $⋅GJ−1. For this purpose, assume gross heat-
ing values of 29 MJ⋅kg−1 for coal and 37 GJ⋅m−3 for gasoline.

(a) Rank order the three energy sources with respect to energy cost in $⋅GJ−1.
(b) Explain the large disparity in the numerical results of part (a). Discuss the advan-
tages and disadvantages of the three energy sources.

1.28. Chemical-plant equipment costs rarely vary in proportion to size. In the simplest case,
cost C varies with size S according to the allometric equation
​
C = α Sβ​
The size exponent β is typically between 0 and 1. For a wide variety of equipment
types it is approximately 0.6.

(a) For 0 < β < 1, show that cost per unit size decreases with increasing size. (“Econ-
omy of scale.”)
(b) Consider the case of a spherical storage tank. The size is commonly measured by
internal volume ​V​it​ ​. Show why one might expect that β = 2/3. On what parameters
or properties would you expect quantity α to depend?

1.29. A laboratory reports the following vapor-pressure (Psat) data for a particular organic
chemical:

t∕°C Psat∕kPa
−18.5 3.18
−9.5 5.48
0.2 9.45
11.8 16.9
23.1 28.2
32.7 41.9
44.4 66.6
52.1 89.5
63.3 129.
75.5 187.
1.10. Problems 23

Correlate the data by fitting them to the Antoine equation:

B
ln  ​P​ sat​∕kPa = A − ​______
​      ​​  
T∕K + C
That is, find numerical values of parameters A, B, and C by an appropriate regression
procedure. Discuss the comparison of correlated with experimental values. What is
the predicted normal boiling point (i.e. temperature at which the vapor pressure is
1(atm)) of this chemical?