Thermodynamics

2
Biyani's Think Tank

Concept based notes
Thermodynamics
(B.Tech)
Shamendra
Asst. Professor Deptt. of Engineering Biyani International Institute of Engineering and Technology
Thermodynamics
Published by :
Think Tanks Biyani Group of Colleges
Concept & Copyright :
Biyani Shikshan Samiti

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Edition : 2011
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Preface
am glad to present this book, especially designed to serve the needs of the students. The
book has been written keeping in mind the general weakness in understanding the fundamental concepts of the topics. The book is self-explanatory and adopts the Teach Yourself style. It is based on question-answer pattern. The language of book is quite easy and understandable based on scientific approach. Any further improvement in the contents of the book by making corrections, omission and inclusion is keen to be achieved based on suggestions from the readers for which the author shall be obliged. I acknowledge special thanks to Mr. Rajeev Biyani, Chairman & Dr. Sanjay Biyani, Director (Acad.) Biyani Group of Colleges, who are the backbones and main concept provider and also have been constant source of motivation throughout this Endeavour. They played an active role in coordinating the various stages of this Endeavour and spearheaded the publishing work. I look forward to receiving valuable suggestions from professors of various educational institutions, other faculty members and students for improvement of the quality of the book. The reader may feel free to send in their comments and suggestions to the under mentioned address.
Thermodynamics
Chapter- 1
Introduction of Thermodynamics
Q-1 Ans Define Thermodynamics? Explain system and surrounding. Thermodynamics is the science that deals with heat and work and those properties of substance that bear a relation to heat and work. Thermodynamics deals with (a) energy conversion and (b) the direction of change. The principles of thermodynamics are summarized in the form of four laws known as zeroth, first, second, and the third laws of thermodynamics. The zeroth law of thermodynamics deals with thermal equilibrium and provides a means of measuring temperature. The first law of thermodynamics deals with the conservation of energy and introduces the concept of internal energy. The second law of thermodynamics dictates the limits on the conversion of heat into work and provides the yard stick to measure the performance of various processes. It also tells whether a particular process is feasible or not and specifies the direction in which a process will proceed. As a consequence it also introduces the concept of entropy. The third law defines the absolute zero of entropy. Macroscopic and Microscopic Approaches: Microscopic approach uses the statistical considerations and probability theory, where we deal with average for all particles under consideration. This is the approach used in the disciplines known as kinetic theory and statistical mechanics. In the macroscopic point of view, of classical thermodynamics, one is concerned with the time-averaged influence of many molecules that can be perceived by the senses and measured by the instruments. System: We introduce boundaries in our study called the system and surroundings.
The boundaries are set up in a way most conducive to understanding the energetics of what we're studying. Defining the system and surroundings is arbitrary, but it becomes important when we consider the exchange of energy between the system and surroundings. Two types of exchange can occur between system and surroundings: (1) energy exchange (heat, work, friction, radiation, etc.) and (2) matter exchange (movement of molecules across the boundary of the system and surroundings). Based on the types of exchange which take place or don't take place, we will define three types of systems: isolated systems: no exchange of matter or energy closed systems: no exchange of matter but some exchange of energy open systems: exchange of both matter and energy Control Volume control volume is defined as a volume which encloses the matter and the device inside a control surface. Every thing external to the control volume is the surroundings with the separation given by the control surface. The surface may be open or closed to mass flows and it may have flows from energy in terms of heat transfer and work across it. The boundaries may be moveable or stationary. In the case of a control surface that is closed to the mass flow, so that no mass can enter or escape the control volume, it is called a control mass containing same amount of matter at all times. Q-2 Define Property, Equilibrium and Process in terms of thermodynamics systems?
Ans: Property In thermodynamics a property is any characteristic of a system that is associated with the energy and can be quantitatively evaluated. The property of a system should have a definite value when the system is in a particular state.
Thermodynamics
Thermodynamic property is a point function. Properties like volume of a system that depend on the mass of a system are called extensive properties. Properties like pressure or temperature which do not depend on the system mass are called intensive properties. The ratio of extensive property to the mass of the system are called specific properties and therefore become intensive properties. Substance can be found in three states of physical aggregation namely, solid, liquid and vapor which are called its phases. If the system consists of mixture of different phases, the phases are separated from each other by phase boundary. The thermodynamic properties change abruptly at the phase boundary, even though the intensive properties like temperature and pressure are identical. Equilibrium When the property of a system is defined, it is understood that the system is in equilibrium. If a system is in thermal equilibrium, the temperature will be same throughout the system. If a system is in mechanical equilibrium, there is no tendency for the pressure to change. In a single phase system, if the concentration is uniform and there is no tendency for mass transfer or diffusion, the system is said to be in chemical equilibrium. A system which is simultaneously in thermal, mechanical, and chemical equilibrium is said to be in thermal equilibrium. Process A process is path followed by a system in reaching a given final state of equilibrium state starting from a specified initial state. An actual process occurs only when the equilibrium state does not exist. An ideal process can be defined in which the deviation from thermodynamic equilibrium is infinitesimal. All the states the system passes through during a quasi-equilibrium process may be considered equilibrium states. For non-equilibrium processes, we are limited to a description of the system before the process occurs and after the equilibrium is restored. Several processes are described by the fact that one property remains constant. The prefix iso- is used to describe such processes.
A process is said to be reversible if both the system and its surroundings can be restored to their respective initial states by reversing the direction of the process. reversible: if the process happens slow enough to be reversed. irreversible: if the process cannot be reversed (like most processes). isobaric: process done at constant pressure isochoric: process done at constant volume isothermal: process done at constant temperature adiabatic: process where q=0 cyclic: process where initial state = final state The basic units (SI Units) Mass---------kg. Mole------ The mole is the amount of substance that contains as many atoms (or molecules) as there are atoms in 0.012 kg of carbon-12. Lengthm. Time: second SI unit of temperature is Kelvin (abbreviated as K). The Kelvin is defined as the fraction of 1/273.16 of the thermodynamic temperature of the triple point of water. The relation between Kelvin and Celsius temperature is K = C + 273.15 (The triple point of water is at 0.01 C). Derived units: Force: 1 N = 1 kg m/s, pressure 1 Pa = 1 N/m2, 1 bar = 10 Pa, 1 atm. = 101325 Pa. In thermodynamics we are concerned with absolute pressure. Gauge pressure = absolute pressure atmospheric pressure. Ordinary vacuum gauge pressure = atmospheric pressure absolute pressure.
Q-3
Define Internal Energy, Work and Heat in terms of thermodynamics system.
Ans: Internal Energy The molecule as a whole can move in x, y and z directions with respective components of velocities and hence possesses kinetic energy. There can be rotation of molecule about its center of mass and than the kinetic energy associated with rotation is called rotational energy. In addition the bond length undergoes change and the energy associated with it is called vibrational energy. The electron move around the nucleus and they possess a certain energy that is called electron energy. The microscopic modes of energy are due to the internal structure of the matter and hence sum of all microscopic modes of energy is called the internal energy.
Thermodynamics
Bulk kinetic energy (KE) and potential energy (PE) are considered separately and the other energy of control mass as a single property (U). The total energy possessed by the body is given by: E = KE + PE + U Work Whenever a system interacts with its surroundings, it can exchange energy in two wayswork and heat. In mechanics, work is defined as the product of the force and the displacement in the direction of the force. Work done when a spring is compressed or extended: According to Hooke's law Spring force = - k (x x0) Where k is the spring constant, x0 is the equilibrium position, and x is the final position. The negative sign shows that the direction of the spring force is opposite the direction of the displacement from x0. The external force is equal in magnitude but opposite in sign to the spring force, so External force (force of your hands) = k (x x0). Now, we want to calculate the work done when we stretch the spring from position 1 to position 2. W = F dx = k (x x0) d(x-x0) = 1/2 k [(x2-x0)2 - (x1-x0)2] Work done when a volume is increased or decreased Consider a gas in a container with a movable piston on top. If the gas expands, the piston moves out and work is done by the system on the surroundings. Alternatively, if the gas inside contracts, the piston moves in and work is done by the surroundings on the system. Why would the gas inside contract or expand? It would if the external pressure, Pex, and the internal pressure, Pin, were different. To calculate the work done in moving the piston, we know that the force = pressure times area and then work equals pressure times area times distance or work equals pressure times the change in volume. So, W = the integral of (Pex) dV The differential work done (dW) associated with a differential displacement (dl) is given by dW = F dl For a piston cylinder assembly,
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dW = F dl = PA (dl) = P dV If the gas is allowed to expand reversibly from the initial pressure P to final pressure P, then the work done is given by W = p dV The integral represents the area under the curve on a pressure versus volume diagram. Therefore the work depends on the path followed and work is a path function and hence not a property of the system. The above expression does not represent work in the case of an irreversible process. The thermodynamic definition of work is Work is said to be done by a system on the surrounding if the sole effect external to the system could be reduced to the raising of a mass through a distance. Heat Heat like work, is a form of energy. The energy transfer between a system and its surroundings is called heat if it occurs by virtue of the temperature difference across the boundary. The two modes of energy transfer work and heat- depend on the choice of the system. Heat energy moves from a hotter body to a colder body upon contact of the two bodies. If two bodies at different temperatures are allowed to remain in contact, the system of two bodies will eventually reach a thermal equilibrium (they will have the same temperature A body never contains heat. Rather heat is a transient phenomenon and can be identified as it crosses the boundary. The State Postulate The state of the system is described by its properties. Once a sufficient number of properties are specified, the rest of the properties assume some values automatically. The number of properties required to fix a state of a system is given by the state postulate: The state of a simple compressible system is completely specified by two independent, intensive properties. The system is called a simple compressible system in the absence of electrical, magnetic, gravitational, motion, and surface tension effects. The state postulate requires that the two properties specified be independent to fix the state. Two properties are independent if one property can be varied while the other one is held constant.
Thermodynamics
11
Temperature and specific volume, for example, are always independent properties, and together they can fix the state of a simple compressible system. Thus, temperature and pressure are not sufficient to fix the state of a two-phase system. Otherwise an additional property needs to be specified for each effect that is significant. An additional property needs to be specified for each other effect that is significant Q-4 Ans: Explain zeroth law of thermodynamics ? Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics We cannot assign numerical values to temperatures based on our sensations alone. Furthermore, our senses may be misleading. Several properties of material changes with temperature in a repeatable and predictable way, and this forms the basis of accurate temperature measurement. The commonly used mercury-in-glass thermometer for example, is based on the expansion of mercury with temperature. Temperature is also measured by using several other temperature dependant properties. Two bodies (eg. Two copper blocks) in contact attain thermal equilibrium when the heat transfer between them stops. The equality of temperature is the only requirement for thermal equilibrium. The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics If two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with a third body, they are also in thermal equilibrium with each other.This obvious fact cannot be concluded from the other laws of thermodynamics, and it serves as a basis of temperature measurement By replacing the third body with a thermometer, the zeroth law can be restated two bodies are in thermal equilibrium if both have the same temperature reading even if they are not in contact The zeroth law was first formulated and labeled by R.H. Fowler in 1931. Q5 Define Temperature scale and find out the relation between various temperature scales?
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Ans: Temperature Scales All temperature scales are based on some easily reproducible states such as the freezing and boiling point of water, which are also called the ice-point and the steam-point respectively. A mixture of ice and water that is in equilibrium with air saturated with water vapour at 1atm pressure, is said to be at the ice-point, and a mixture of liquid water and water vapour (with no air) in equilibrium at 1atm is said to be at the steam-point. Celsius and Fahrenheit scales are based on these two points (although the value assigned to these two values are different) and are referred as two-point scales. In thermodynamics, it is very desirable to have a temperature scale that is independent of the properties of the substance or substances Such a temperature scale is called a thermodynamic temperature scale.(Kelvin in SI) Ideal gas temperature scale The temperatures on this scale are measured using a constant volume thermometer. Based on the principle that at low pressure, the temperature of the gas is proportional to its pressure at constant volume. The relationship between the temperature and pressure of the gas in the vessel can be expressed as T = a + b.P Where the values of the constants a and b for a gas thermometer are determined experimentally. Once a and b are known, the temperature of a medium can be calculated from the relation above by immersing the rigid vessel of the gas thermometer into the medium and measuring the gas pressure. Ideal gas temperature scale can be developed by measuring the pressures of the gas in the vessel at two reproducible points (such as the ice and steam points) and assigning suitable values to temperatures those two points. Considering that only one straight line passes through two fixed points on a plane, these two measurements are sufficient to determine the constants a and b in the above equation. If the ice and the steam points are assigned the values 0 and 100 respectively, then the gas temperature scale will be identical to the Celsius scale In this case, the value of the constant a (that corresponds to an absolute pressure of zero) is determined to be 273.150C when extrapolated. The equation reduces to T = bP, and thus we need to specify the temperature at only one point to define an absolute gas temperature scale.
Thermodynamics
13
Absolute gas temperature is identical to thermodynamic temperature in the temperature range in which the gas thermometer can be used We can view that thermodynamic temperature scale at this point as an absolute gas temperature scale that utilizes an ideal gas that always acts as a low-pressure gas regardless of the temperature. At the Tenth international conference on weights and measures in 1954, the Celsius scale has been redefined in terms of a single fixed point and the absolute temperature scale.
The triple point occurs at a fixed temperature and pressure for a specified substance. The selected single point is the triple point of water (the state in which all three phases of water coexist in equilibrium), which is assigned the value 0.01 C. As before the boiling point of water at 1 atm. Pressure is 100.0 C. Thus the new Celsius scale is essentially the same as the old one. On the Kelvin scale, the size of Kelvin unit is defined as the fraction of 1/273.16 of the thermodynamic temperature of the triple point of water, which is assigned a value of 273.16K. The ice point on Celsius and Kelvin are respectively 0 and 273.15 K.
Q.6
Consider as a system, the gas in the cylinder shown in the figure. The cylinder is fitted with a piston on which number of small weights is placed. The initial pressure is 200 kPa, and the initial volume of the gas is 0.04 m2. Let the gas in the cylinder be heated, and let the volume of the gas increase to 0.1 m3 while the pressure remains constant. Calculate the work done by the system during this process. Since the
2
Ans
W
1
P dV
pressure is constant, we conclude
from the above equation that

2
W W
P dV
1
P (V2
V1 ) 0.04) m3 12.0kJ
200 kPa* (0.1
14
P
2
cons tan t Vn
P V n1 1 Vn
2
n P 2V 2 Vn
PdV
1
cons tan t
1
dV Vn
n
cons tan t V11

n
V n
n
1 V
1 2 n
cons tan t 1 (V2 1 n P P V1 2V2 1 1 n 0.04 0. 1 P P V1 2V2 1 1 1.3 6.41k J

1.3
P 2V
P V 1 n
n 1
V11
P 2
200
60.77k Pa 60.77 * 0.1 200 * 0.04 1 1.3
Q.7 Ans
If
we
assume that the ideal-gas model is valid. We note that this is a polytropic process (PVn=const.) with exponent n = 1. For such a process,
2
W
1
P dV
P 1V1
dV V 1
P 1V1 ln 0.10 0.04
V2 V1 7.33kJ
200kPa* 0.04m3 * ln
Q.8 Ans
For the same system, let the weights be removed at such a rate that the expression PV1.3 = const. Again the final volume is 0.1 m3. Calculate the work. Consider the system and initial state as before, but let the piston be held by a pin so that the volume remains constant. In addition, let heat transfer take place from the cylinder so that the pressure drops to 100kPa. Calculate the work. Since dV = zero, the work is zero because there is no change in volume.
Thermodynamics
15
Q.9
Consider a piston cylinder arrangement as shown. The piston is loaded with a mass, mp, the outside atmospheric pressure P0, a linear spring and a single point force F1. The piston is restricted in its motion by lower and upper stops trapping the gas with a pressure P. For zero acceleration in a quasi-equilibrium process,
Ans The piston position for a relaxed spring is x0, which depends on how the spring is installed.
F F PA F F mp g P 0 A k k(x x0 ) F 1 The forces when the piston is between the stops are with the linear spring cons tan t
The force balance then gives the gas pressure by division with the area, A, as
P 0
mp g
k(x
x0 )
F /A
To illustrate the process in a P-V diagram, the distance x is converted to volume by division and multiplication with A:
P P0
mp g A
F1 A
k V V0 A2
C1 C2V
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This relation gives the pressure as a linear function of the volume with slope of C2=k/A2 The work in a quasi-equilibrium process, is
2
W
1
P dV 1 ` P 1 2
A rea under the curv e

` P V2 2
V1
With P`1 = P1 and P'2 = P2 subject to the constraint that
P m in
An larger work.
` ` P P 1 , 2
P m ax
part of the process with a pressure smaller that Pmin or than Pmax does not involve
Q-10 Explain Intensive and Extensive variables and also explain equation of State? Ans: Extensive variables: depend on the amount of substance present. Examples include the volume, energy, enthalpy, and heat capacity.
Thermodynamics
17
Intensive variables: do not depend on the amount of substance present. Examples include the temperature and pressure. Equations of State An equation of state is an equation which relates the variables of state (T, P, V, and n). It's particularly useful when you want to know the effect of a change in one of the variables of state Solids and Liquids: If the pressure on a solid or liquid is increased, the volume does not change much. If the temperature is increased, the volume doesn't change much either. Therefore, an appropriate equation of state describing such systems would be: V(T,P) = constant. Gases: In contrast, changing the pressure or temperature of a gas will have an easily observable effect on the volume of that gas. For an ideal gas (no intermolecular interactions and no molecular volume) n appropriate equation of state would be: V(T,P,n) = (nRT)/P. There are many equations of state describing real gases. These equations take in consideration molecular volume and interactions. The most well-known such equations is probably the Van der Waals equation. Ideal and real gases An ideal gas is one which follows the ideal gas equation of state, namely PV = (m/M) (MR) T = n Ru T The universal gas constant has a value of 8.314 J/mol K or kJ/kmol K and is related to the specific gas constant by the relation Ru = (R /M) The ideal gas equation of state can be derived from the kinetic theory of gases where the following assumptions are made: 1. The molecules are independent of each other. In other words, there are no attractive forces between the molecules. 2. The molecules do not occupy any volume. That is the volume occupied by the molecules is quite negligible compared to the volume available for motion of the molecules. The internal energy of an ideal gas is a function of temperature only and is independent of pressure and volume. That is, u= u(T) (u/P)T =0, (u /v)T = 0
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Q-11 Explain Enthalpy and Specific Heat ? Ans: Enthalpy and specific heat h = u+ Pv For an ideal gas u = u(T) only and PV = mRT and hence h = h(T) only. The specific heat at constant volume is defined as the amount of energy transferred as heat at constant volume, per unit mass of a system to raise its temperature by one degree. That is, Cv = (dq/dT)v The specific heat at constant pressure is defined as the energy transferred as heat at constant pressure, per unit mass of a substance to raise its temperature by one degree. That is Cp = (dq/dT)P For a constant pressure process dq = du + dw = du + Pdv = du+ Pdv +vdP(since dP=0 for a constant pressure process) Or dq= du+d(Pv) = d(U+ Pv) = dh or dq=dh CP = (h/T)P The ratio of specific heat () is given by = C P/Cv For mono-atomic ideal gases = 1.67 and for diatomic gases = 1.4. Relation between two specific heats: The two specific heats are related to each other. h= u + Pv or dh = du + d(Pv) For an ideal gas, the above equation reduces to dh = du + d(RT) = du + RdT or dh/dT = du/dT+R or CP = Cv+ R or CP Cv =R for an ideal gas. = CP /Cv or CP = R/(-1) and Cv = R/(-1)
Thermodynamics
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Q-12
Derive Van der Waals Equation of State ?
Ans: Real gases: The ideal gas law is only an approximation to the actual behavior of gases. At high densities, that is at high pressures and low temperatures, the behavior of actual or real gases deviate from that predicted by the ideal gas law. In general, at sufficiently low pressures or at low densities all gases behave like ideal gases. Van der Waals Equation of State An equation of state taking account the volume occupied by the molecules and the attractive forces between them. (P+a/v2 )(v-b) = RT where a and b are vander Waals constants. The equation is cubic in volume and in general there will be three values of v for given values of T and P. However in some range of values of P and T there is only one real value v. For T >Tc (critical temperature) there will be only one real value of v and for T< Tc there will be three real values. In Figure, the solid curve represents the value predicted by the van der Waals equation of state and the points represent the experimentally determined values. It can be observed that at temperatures greater than critical, there is only one real value of volume for a given P and T However at temperatures less than the critical, there are three real values of volume for a given value of P and T. The experimental values differ from those predicted by van der Waals equation of state in region 2345 if T<Tc. One can use the criterion that the critical isotherm (isotherm passing through the critical point) shows a point of inflexion. Stated mathematically (P/v)T=Tc= 0 and (2P/v2)T=Tc = 0 (P/v)T=Tc = -RTc/(vc b)2 + 2a/vc3 = 0 or RTc/(vc b)2 = 2a/vc3 (2P/v2)T=Tc = 2RTc/(vc-b)3 -6a/vc4 = 0
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or
2RTc/(vc-b)3 = 6a/vc4 Therefore 2/(vc b) = 3/vc or vc = 3b At the critical point, the van der Waals equation is given by Pc = RTc/(vc b) a/vc2 From these equations,a = 27R2Tc2/64 Pc and b = RTc/8Pc Compressibility Factor: The deviation from ideal behavior of a gas is expressed in terms of the compressibility factor Z, which is defined as the ratio of the actual volume to the volume predicted by the ideal gas law. Z = Actual volume/volume predicted byideal gas law = v/RT/P = Pv/RT For an ideal gas Pv = RT and hence Z = 1 at all temperatures and pressures. The experimental P-v-T data is used to prepare the compressibility chart. Reduced pressure, PR = P/Pc,Reduced temperature, TR = T/TcReduced volume, vR = v/vc Where Pc, Tc and vc denote the critical pressure, temperature and volume respectively. These equations state that the reduced property for a given state is the value of this property in this state divided by the value of this same property by at the critical point. The striking fact is that when such Z versus Pr diagrams are prepared for a number of different substances, all of them very nearly coincide, especially when the substances have simple, essentially spherical molecules. We need to know only critical temperature and critical pressure to use this basic generalized chart. In general it can be noted that idealized gas behavior for very low pressures as compared to critical) regardless of temperature. Furthermore, at high temperatures (greater than twice Tc), the ideal-gas model can be assumed to good accuracy to pressures as high as 4-5 times Pc. Q-13 Explain the first law analysis non-flow process ? Ans: First Law Analysis to Non-flow Processes Constant Volume process: Heating of gas enclosed in a rigid vessel: dU = dQ or U2- U1 , Q = m Cv (T2 T1) Shaft work done on a system at constant volume dU = dQ- dW = dQ (dWpdv + dWs) or dU = - dWs or -Ws = U2- U1 Constant volume process involving electrical w - Ws = U2- U1 For an adiabatic process the work is done is independent of path.
Thermodynamics
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Constant Pressure Process 1. 2. 3. 4. Reversible heating of a gas Phase Change at constant pressure(Rev.) Shaft work at constant pressure Electrical work at constant pressure W = P (V2 V1) dU = dQ-dW = dQ- PdV = dQ- d(PV) or, dQ = dU + d(PV) = d(U+ PV) = dH Q = H the heat interaction is equal to increase in enthalpy
Constant Temperature Process
dU = dQ-dW = dQ- PdV for an ideal gas u= u(T) then dU = 0 dQ = PdV = RT (dv/v) Q = W = RT ln (v2/ v1)
Reversible Adiabatic Process dU = -dW or W = - U This equation is true for reversible as well as irreversible process. Cv dT = -Pdv = -RT/v dv dT/T = -R/Cv dv/v R/Cv = - 1 dT/T = -( -1) dv/v T2/T1 = (v1/v2) ( -1) Tv( -1) = constant
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Also Pv = Constant using perfect gas relation
Chapter -2
First law of Thermodynamics

Q-1 Explain First law of Thermodynamics ? & also explain the consequence of first law. Ans: FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS The first law of thermodynamics is the thermodynamic expression of the conservation of energy. This law most simply stated by saying that energy can not be created or destroyed or that the energy of the universe is constant This law can be stated for a system (control mass) undergoing a cycle or for a change of state of a system. Stated for a system undergoing a cycle, the cyclic integral of the work is proportional to the cyclic integral of the heat. Mathematically stated, for a control mass undergoing a cyclic process such as in Joules experiment and for consistent set of units dQfrom system= dWon system or dQfrom system- dWon system = 0
Thermodynamics
23
The important thing to remember is that the first law states that the energy is conserved always. Sign convention The work done by a system on the surroundings is treated as a positive quantity. Similarly, energy transfer as heat to the system from the surroundings is assigned a positive sign. With the sign convention one can write, dQ = dW Consequences of the first law: Suppose a system is taken from state 1 to state 2 by the path 1-a-2 and is restored to the initial state by the path 2-b-1, then the system has undergone a cyclic process 1-a-2-b-1. If the system is restored to the initial state by path 2-c-1, then the system has undergone the cyclic change 1-a-2-c-1. Let us apply the first law of thermodynamics to the cyclic processes 1-a-2-b-1 and 1-a-2-c-1 to obtain 1-a-2dQ+ 2-b-1dQ - 1-a-2dW - 2-b-1dW =0 1-a-2dQ+ 2-c-1dQ - 1-a-2dW - 2-c-1dW=0 Subtracting, we get 2b1dQ- 2c1dQ ( 2b1dW - 2c1dW) =0 We know that the work is a path function and hence the term in the bracket is non-zero. Hence we find 2b1dQ = 2c1dQ That is heat is also a path function. Energy is a property of the system: By rearranging we can have 2b1 (dQ - dW) = 2c1 (dQ - dW) It shows that the integral is the same for the paths 2-b-1 and 2-c-1, connecting the states 2 and 1. That is, the quantity (dQ - dW) does not depend on the path followed by a system, but depends only on the initial and the final states of the system. That is (dQ - dW) is an exact differential of a property. This property is called energy (E). It is given by dE = dQ-dW E = KE + PE +U
24
where U is the internal energy. Therefore, dE = d(KE) + d(PE) + dU = dQ-dW Quit often in many situations the KE or PE changes are negligible. dU = dQ dW An isolated system does not exchange energy with the surroundings in the form of work as well as heat. Hence dQ = 0 and dW = 0. Then the first law of thermodynamics reduces to dE = 0 or E2 = E1 that is energy of an isolated system remains constant. Perpetual Motion Machine of the first kind: An imaginary device which delivers work continuously without absorbing energy from the surroundings is called a Perpetual Motion machine of the first kind. Since the device has to deliver work continuously, it has to operate on a cycle. If such a device does not absorb energy from its surroundings dQ =0. From the first law, it can be observed that dW =0, if dQ = 0. Therefore such a device is impossible from first law of thermodynamics. First law analysis of non-flow processes: The first law of thermodynamics can be applied to a system to evaluate the changes in its energy when it undergoes a change of state while interacting with its surroundings. The processes that are usually encountered in thermodynamic analysis of systems can be identified as any one or a combination of the following elementary processes: Constant volume (isochoric) process Constant pressure (isobaric) process Constant temperature (isothermal) process. Adiabatic process. Constant volume process: Suppose a gas enclosed in a rigid vessel is interacting with the surroundings and absorbs energy Q as heat. Since the vessel is rigid, the work done W due to expansion or compression is zero. Applying the first law, we get dU = dQ or Q = U2 U1 That is, heat interaction is equal to the change in internal energy of the gas. If the system contains a mass m equal of an ideal gas, then Q = U = mCv (T2 T1) The path followed by the gas is shown on a P-V diagram. Now consider the fluid contained in a rigid vessel as shown. The vessel is rigid and insulated. Shaft work is done on the system by a paddle wheel as shown in Fig. a. In Fig. b electric work is done on the system. Since the vessel is rigid, the PdV work is zero. Moreover, the vessel is insulated and hence dQ = 0. Application of the first law of thermodynamics gives
Thermodynamics
25
dU = dQ dW = dQ (dWpdv + dWs) or dU = -dWs or Ws = U = U2 U1 Where dWpdv is the compression /expansion work and dWs is the shaft work. That is increase in internal energy of a system at a constant volume, which is enclosed by an adiabatic wall, is equal to the shaft work done on the system. Constant pressure process: Several industrial processes are carried out at constant pressure. A few examples of constant pressure processes are: (a) reversible heating/cooling of a gas (b) phase change (c) paddle wheel work (d) electrical work. For a constant pressure process, the work done W is given by W = PdV = P (V2-V1) Application of the first law of thermodynamics gives dU = dQ dW = dQ PdV = dQ d(PV) or dQ = dU + d(PV) = d(U + PV) = dH or Q = H That is in a constant pressure process, the heat interaction is equal to the increase in the enthalpy of the system. Now consider the constant pressure processes in which the system is enclosed by an adiabatic boundary. Application of the first law gives: dU = dQ dW = dQ (PdV + dWs) Here, the net work done (dW) consists of two parts the PdV work associated with the motion of the boundary and (-dWs), the shaft work (or electrical work) done by the surroundings. Since the system is enclosed by an adiabatic boundary, dQ = 0 the equation can be written as -dWs = dU + d(PV) = dH That is, the increase in the enthalpy of the system is equal to the shaft work done on the system. Constant temperature process: Suppose a gas enclosed in the piston cylinder assembly is allowed to expand from P1 to P2 while the temperature is held constant. Then application of the first law gives:
26
dU = dQ dW = dQ PdV It is not possible to calculate work and heat interactions unless the relationships between the thermodynamic properties of the gas are known. Suppose the gas under consideration is an ideal gas (which follows the relation Pv = RT and u = u(T) only) then for an isothermal process, dU = 0 dQ = PdV = RTdv/v or Q =W = RTln(v2/v1) Reversible adiabatic (Isentropic process): Polytropic Process W = cdv/ vn w = (P1v1- P2v2)/(n-1) du = dq dw u2 u1 = q - (P1v1- P2v2)/(n-1) u2 u1 = Cv (T2 T1) = q w q = R(T2 T1)/( -1) + (P1v1- P2v2)/(n-1) = R (T1 T2){1/(n-1) 1/( -1)} =(P1v1- P2v2)/(n-1) {( -n)/( -1)} =w.{ ( -n)/( -1)} Q.2 Air (ideal gas with = 1.4) at 1 bar and 300K is compressed till the final volume is onesixteenth of the original volume, following a polytropic process Pv1.25 = const. Calculate (a) the final pressure and temperature of the air, (b) the work done and (c) the energy transferred as heat per mole of the air. (a) P1v11.25 = P2v21.25 P2 = P1(v1/v2)1.25 = 1(16)1.25 = 32 bar T2 = (T1P2v2)/(P1v1) = (300 x 32 x 1)/(1x16) = 600K (b) w = (P1v1- P2v2)/(n-1) = Ru(T1 T2)/(n-1) = 8.314 (300 600)/(1.25-1) = -9.977 kJ/mol
Ans
Thermodynamics
27
(c) q = w.{ ( -n)/( -1)} = -9.977 (1.4 1.25)/(1.4-1) = -3.742 kJ/mol Unresisted or Free expansion
In an irreversible process, w
Pdv
Vessel A: Filled with fluid at pressure Vessel B: Evacuated/low pressure fluid Valve is opened: Fluid in A expands and fills both vessels A and B. This is known as unresisted expansion or free expansion. No work is done on or by the fluid. No heat flows (Joules experiment) from the boundaries as they are insulated. U2 = U1 (U = UA + UB)
Q.3
A rigid and insulated container of 2m3 capacity is divided into two equal compartments by a membrane. One compartment contains helium at 200kPa and 127oC while the second compartment contains nitrogen at 400kPa and 227 oC. The membrane is punctured and the gases are allowed to mix. Determine the temperature and pressure after equilibrium has been established. Consider helium and nitrogen as perfect gases with their Cv as 3R/2 and 5R/2 respectively. Considering the gases contained in both the compartments as the system, W= 0 and Q = 0. Therefore, U = 0 (U2 = U1) Amount of helium = NHe = PAVA/RuTA
Ans
28
= 200 x 103 x 1/(8.314 x400) = 60.14 mol. Amount of nitrogen = NN2 = PBVB/RuTB = 400 x 103 x 1/(8.314x500) = 96.22 mol. Let Tf be the final temperature after equilibrium has been established. Then, [NCv(Tf-400)]He + [NCv(Tf-500)]N2 = 0 Ru[60.14(Tf-400)3 + 96.22(Tf-500)5 ] /2 = 0 Or, Tf = 472.73 K The final pressure of the mixture can be obtained by applying the equation of state: PfVf = (NHe + NN2)Ru Tf 2Pf = (60.14 + 96.22) 8.314 (472.73) or, Pf = 307.27 kPa Q-4 Explain control volume analysis ?
Ans: Control-Volume Analysis Control volume is a volume in space of special interest for particular analysis. The surface of the control volume is referred as a control surface and is a closed surface. The surface is defined with relative to a coordinate system that may be fixed, moving or rotating. Mass, heat and work can cross the control surface and mass and properties can change with time within the control volume. Examples: turbines, compressors, nozzle, diffuser, pumps, heat exchanger, reactors, a thrustproducing device, and combinations of these. First law of thermodynamics for a continuous system Let the continuous system be in state 1 at time t and after a differential time dt, let it be in the state 2. The change in the energy of the continuous system is,
Now, dE = dQ dW or,
dE
d[
edV ] dt
dt
dE dt
d edV dt V
Q W
First law of thermodynamics
Q W
to a control volume
Thermodynamics
29
mi m e Or [Rate of accumulation of mass inside the control volume] = [Rate of mass entering the control volume at inlet] [Rate of mass leaving the control volume at exit] The above is commonly known as continuity equation.
We should identify a definite quantity of matter which remains constant as the matter flows. For this purpose, let the boundary of the system include all matter inside the control volume and that which is about to enter the control volume during the differential time interval dt. At time t, the system is defined as the mass contained in the control volume and the mass in region A which is about to enter the control volume in a differential time dt. At time t+dt, the system is defined as the mass contained in the control volume and the mass in region B. Therefore, during the differential time dt, the system configuration undergoes a change. Mass contained in region A = Mass contained in region B = From mass balance, The work done as the
dm dt
mi dt
me dt
mi dt m(t dt ) m e dt
mass enters the control
m(t )
volume = -Pivi m dt i The work done by mass exiting the control volume = Peve m dt e Energy of the system at time t = E(t) + m eidt i Energy of the system at time (t+dt) = E(t+dt) + ee Energy transferred as heat to the system = Shaft work done by the system = W dt sh From the first law, [E(t+dt) + ee dt] [E(t) + m eidt ] = Q dt - W dt ( Peve m sh e i me me -Pivi m )dt i
me dt
Q dt
30
me (
or,
ee + Peve)-
mi (ei
+ Pivi)=
E (t
dt ) dt
E (t )
Wsh -
me
(he+Ve2/2 + gZe) -
mi (hi+Vi2/2 + gZi) = Q - Wsh - dE/dt
where, he = ue + Peve, hi = ui + Pivi Or, Rate of energy accumulation = rate of energy inflow rate of energy outflow Steady state flow process Assumptions:
mi
me
The state of matter at the inlet, exit and at any given point inside the control volume does not change with respect to time. dE / dt = 0 The rate of energy transfers across the control surface is constant. (he+Ve2/2 + gZe) - (hi+Vi2/2 + gZi) =(
- m
Wsh )/
Thermodynamics
31
( Figure -1.1)
(Figure-1.2)
Steady state steady flow process
Ke Pe h g (Z e e i For free studyh notes log on: www.gurukpo.com 2
Ve2
Vi 2
Zi )
where, q
Q/m
and w
Wsh / m
32
For negligible change in kinetic and potential energies through the control volume, If the control volume is well insulated (i.e. adiabatic), then, q = 0. For steady flow devices, such as turbines, compressors and pumps, W through a shaft.
sh is power transmitted
Ke
(Ve2 Vi 2 ) / 2
h (kJ / kg)
The unit of ke is m2/s2 which is equivalent to Joule/kg. The enthalpy is usually given in kJ/kg. So kinetic energy should be expressed in kJ/kg. This is accomplished by dividing it by 1000. Kinetic energy term at low velocities is negligible, but should be accounted for at high velocities. By similar argument, the elevation difference between inlet and exit of most industrial devices such as compressors and turbines is small and potential energy term is negligible (particularly for gases). The only time the potential energy term is significant is when a process involves pumping a fluid to high elevations.
Q5 Explain Turbine, nozzle compressor, diffuser pump ? Ans: Turbine A turbine is a rotary steady state steady flow machine whose purpose is the production of shaft power at the expense of the pressure of the working fluid. Two general classes of turbines are steam and gas turbines depending on the working substance used. Usually, changes in potential energy are negligible, as is the inlet kinetic energy. Often the exit kinetic energy is neglected (if in a problem, the flow velocities are specified, the kinetic energy term should be included). Normally, the process in the turbine is adiabatic and the work output reduces to decrease in enthalpy from the inlet to exit states. Compressor / pump The purpose of a compressor (gas) or pump (liquid) is the same, to increase the pressure of a fluid by putting in shaft work (power). There are two fundamentally different types of compressors:
Thermodynamics
33
1. The rotary type (either axial or centrifugal flow) 2. A piston/cylinder type compressor. The first type is analyzed using control volume approach (steady state steady flow process). The working fluid enters the compressor at low pressure and exits at high pressure. Usually, changes in potential energy are negligible as is the inlet kinetic energy. Often, exit kinetic energy is neglected as well (wherever, in a problem, velocities are specified, ke term should not be neglected). The compression process is usually adiabatic.
Wsh m[(h
Nozzle
he )
(Vi 2
Ve2 ) / 2]
A nozzle is a steady state steady flow device to create a high velocity fluid stream at the expense of its pressure. It is contoured in an appropriate manner to expand the fluid to a lower pressure. Since the objective of the device is to increase the flow velocity, hence kinetic energy, the kinetic energy term cannot b
Wsh
m[(h
he )
(Vi 2
Ve2 ) / 2]
Since there are no moving parts, shaft work is zero. The potential energy term (for gases) is negligible and hence omitted.
( hi
he )
(Ve2
Vi 2 ) / 2
Diffuser A steady state steady flow device meant to decelerate high velocity fluid resulting in increased pressure of the fluid. It is the opposite of a nozzle as far as the purpose is concerned. The assumptions are similar to those for a nozzle.
A systematic approach to problem solving Step 1. Identify the system and draw a sketch of it. The system that is about to be analyzed should be identified on the sketch by drawing its boundaries using the dashed lines. Step 2. List the given information on the sketch. Heat and work interactions if any should also be indicated on the sketch with proper directions. Step 3. State any assumptions: The simplifying assumptions that are made to solve a problem should be stated and fully justified. Commonly made assumptions:
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(a) Assuming process to be quasi-equilibrium (b) Neglecting PE and KE (c) Treating gas as ideal (d) Neglecting heat transfer from insulated systems. Step 5. Apply the conservation equations. Step 6. Draw a process diagram. Determine the required properties and unknowns. A 0.1 m3 rigid tank contains steam initially at 500 kPa and 200oC. The steam is now allowed to cool until the temperature drops to 50oC. Determine the amount of heat transfer during this process and the final pressure in the tank.
Q.6
Ans State 1: P1 = 500kPa, T1 = 200oC v1 = 0.4249 m3/kg, u1 = 2642.9 kJ/kg State 2: v2 = v1 = 0.4269 m3/kg T2 = 50oC vf = 0.001m3/kg vg= 12.03 m3/kg uf = 209.32 kJ/kg ug = 2443.5 kJ/kg P2 = Psat @50oc = 12.349 kPa v2 = vf + x2vfg 0.4249 = 0.001 + x2(12.03 = 0.001) x2 = 0.0352 u2 = uf +x2ug = 209.32 +(0.0352)(2443.5 209.32) = 288.0 kJ/kg m = V/u = (0.1 m3/kg)/(0.4249 m3/kg) = 0.235 kg -Qout = U = m(u2 u1) Qout = m(u1 u2) = (0.235)(2642.9 288) = 553.4 kg
Thermodynamics
35
Q.7
A piston/cylinder contains 50 kg of water at 200 kPa with a volume of 0.1 m3 . Stop in the cylinder is placed to restrict the enclosed volume to 0.5 m3. The water is now heated until the piston reaches the stops. Find the necessary heat transfer. At 200 kPa, vf = 0.001061 m3/kg vfg = 0.88467 m3/kg hf = 504.68 kJ/kg hfg = 2201.96 kJ/kg This is a constant pressure process. Hence, Q= H The specific volume initially, vi = 0.1 /50 = 0.002 m3/kg v = vf + x vfg = 0.001061 + x (0.88467) Therefore, x = (0.002 0.001061) / 0.88467 = 0.001061 h = hf + x hfg = 504.68 + 0.001061(2201.96) = 507.017 kJ/kg vfinal = 0.5 /50 = 0.01 m3/kg v = vf + x vfg Therefore, x = (0.01 0.001061) / 0.88467 = 0.01 hfinal = 504.68 + 0.01(2201.96) = 526.69 kJ/kg Q = H = 50 (526.69 - 507.017)
Ans
36
= 983.65 kJ/kg
Q.8
A rigid insulated tank is separated into two rooms by a stiff plate. Room A of 0.5 m 3 contains air at 250 kPa, 300 K and room B of 1 m3 has air at 150 kPa, 1000 K. The plate is removed and the air comes to a uniform state without any heat transfer. Find the final pressure and temperature.
Ans The system comprises of room A and B together. This is a constant internal energy process as there is no heat and work exchange with the surroundings. mA = PAVA / RTA = (250 x 1000 x 0.5) / (287 x 300) = 1.452 kg mB = PBVB / RTB = (150 x 1000 x 1.0) / (287 x 1000) = 0.523 kg UA + UB = 0 Let Tf be the final temperature at equilibrium mA (Tf 300) + mB (Tf 1000) = 0 1.452 (Tf 300) + 0.523 (Tf 1000) = 0 Tf = 485.37 K Pf = (1.452 + 0.523) x 287 x 485.37 / 1.5 = 183.41 kPa
Thermodynamics
37
Q.8
A piston / cylinder assembly contains 0.1m3 of superheated steam at 10 bar and 400oC. If the steam is allowed to expand reversibly and adiabatically to a pressure of 3 bar, calculate the work done by the steam.
Ans At 10 bar and 400oC, v = 0.3065 m3/kg h = 3264.4 kJ/kg s = 7.4665 kJ/kg K At 3 bar, sg = 6.9909 kJ/kg K This is an isentropic process as initial entropy value is greater than sg at 3 bar, the steam is superheated at the end of the process. At 3 bar and 200oC, s = 7.3119 kJ/kg K and at 300oC, s = 7.7034 kJ/kg K therefore, the final state is having a temperature between 200oC and 300oC.Equating si = sfinal,
38
Find the enthalpy and specific volume by interpolation. Then calculate ui and ufinal. The work done = U = m(ui ufinal) Heat exchangers Heat exchangers are devices where two moving fluid streams exchange heat without mixing. Heat is transferred from the hot fluid to the cold one. Under steady operation, the mass flow rate of each fluid stream flowing through a heat exchanger remains constant. w = 0, ke = 0, pe = 0 Heat exchangers are intended for heat transfer between two fluids within the device. Usually, the entire heat exchanger is selected as the control volume and Q becomes zero. Q.9 Refrigerant-134a is to be cooled by water in a condenser. The refrigerant enters the condenser with a mass flow rate of 6 kg per min at 1 Mpa and 70oC and leaves at 35oC. The cooling water enters at 300 kPa and 15oC and leaves at 25oC. Neglecting any pressure drops, determine (a) the mass flow rate of the cooling water required and (b) heat transfer rate from the refrigerant to water. Throttle Throttle is any kind of flow restricting device that causes a significant pressure drop in the fluid. The pressure drop does not involve any work. A large drop in temperature often accompanies the pressure drop in the fluid. Throttling devices are commonly used in refrigeration and air-conditioning applications. q = 0, w = 0, ke = 0, pe = 0 Hence across a steady flow throttling device, h2 = h1 Internal energy + flow energy = constant Joule-Thomson Coefficient The temperature behaviour of a fluid during throttling process is described by Joule-Thomson coefficient. = ( T/ P)h Joule-Thomson coefficient is a measure of the change in temperature with pressure during a constant enthalpy process. JT <0,temperature increase as the pressure drops =0, temperature remains constant >0, temperature decreases
Thermodynamics
39
Example: Steam at 800 kPa, 300oC is throttled to 200 kPa. Changes in ke are negligible for this process. Determine the final temperature of the steam, and the average Joule-Thomson coefficient. Control volume: Throttle valve hi = he Since he = hi = 3056.5 kJ/kg, and Pe = 200kPa, These two properties determine the final state. From superheat table for steam, Te = 292.4oC JT (ave) = ( T/ P)h = -7.6 / -600 = 0.0127 K/kPa Throttling calorimeter When wet steam is throttled to a low pressure (usually atmospheric), steam becomes superheated. The temperature of the superheated steam is measured. Knowing the pressure and temperature of the steam in the calorimeter, its enthalpy can be determined. he= hi = X hg + (1-X)hf Knowing the value of hg and hf at inlet pressure, X can be calculated from the above relation.
Uniform flow processes
40
Some unsteady flow processes can be reasonably represented by simplified model, the uniform flow processes. 1. At any instant during the process, the state of the control volume is uniform (it is the same throughout). The state of the control volume may change with time but it does so uniformly. The fluid properties may differ from one inlet or exit to another, but the fluid flow at an inlet or exit is uniform and steady.
2.
Charging of a cylinder (mf mo) hi = mf uf mo uo Further, if the cylinder is initially evacuated, the equation reduces to hi = uf Discharge of a cylinder (mo mf) (h + V2/2) = Q + mo uo mf uf Example: A rigid insulated tank that is initially evacuated is connected through a valve to a supply line that carries steam at 1MPa and 300oC. Now that valve is opened and the steam allowed to flow slowly into the tank until the pressure reaches 1MPa, at which point the valve is closed. Determine the final temperature of the steam in the tank.
Solution: We take the tank as the system. This is a control volume since mass crosses the system boundaries during the process. This is an unsteady flow process since changes occur within the control volume. For an evacuated tank, mo = 0 and mo uo = 0. There is only one inlet and no exit. Assumptions: 1. Uniform flow process. The properties of steam entering the control volume remain constant during the entire process. 2. The ke and pe terms are zero for the tank since it is stationary. 3. The ke and pe of the stream are negligible.
Thermodynamics
41
4.
w = 0, q = 0
Mass balance: mf mo = msystem mo = 0 Energy balance: Ein Eout = Esystem moho = m2u2 (since W = Q = 0, ke = pe = 0 and mo = 0) Combining the mass and energy balances, uf = hi At Pi = 1MPa and Ti = 300oC, hi = 3051.2 kJ/kg Which is equal to uf. Using steam table, at Pf = 1MPa and uf = 3051.2 kJ/kg, Tf = 456.2oC. Alternative solution: Consider the region within the tank and the mass that is destined to enter the tank as a control mass system as shown in the figure. Since no mass crosses the boundaries, viewing this a control mass system is appropriate. During the process, the steam upstream (the imaginary piston) will push the enclosed steam in the supply line into the tank at a constant pressure of 1MPa. Then the work done on the system during this process is W = -Pi (Vf Vi) = -Pi (Vtank (Vtank+Vi)) = PiVi where, Vi is the volume occupied by steam before it enters the tank and Pi is the pressure at the moving boundary (the imaginary piston face) The energy balance for the control mass system gives mi Pi vi = mf uf mi ui uf = ui +Pi vi = hi Example: A pressure cooker has a volume of 6 litres and an operating pressure of 75 kPa gage. Initially, it contains 1 kg of water. Heat is supplied to the cooker at a rate of 500 W for 30 minutes after the operating pressure is reached. Assuming an atmospheric pressure of 100 kPa, determine, (a) the temperature at which cooking takes place
42
(b) the water left in the pressure cooker at the end of the process.Solution: Take the pressure cooker as the system. This is a control volume system since mass crosses the system boundaries during the process. This is an unsteady process since changes occur within the control volume. Assumptions: 1. Uniform flow process. 2. ke and pe are negligible for the escaping steam. 3. Within the pressure cooker, ke and pe are zero. Therefore, Esystem = Usystem 4. The pressure (and thus the temperature) in the cooker remains constant. 5. Steam leaves as a saturated vapor at the cooker pressure. 6. There is no work involved. 7. Heat is transferred to the cooker at constant rate. (a) The absolute pressure within the cooker is Pabs = Pgage + Patm = 75 kPa + 100kPa = 175kPa T = Tsat@175 kPa = 116.06oC (b) Mass balance: me = (mf mo)cv Energy balance: Ein Eout = Esystem Qin-mehe = (mfuf mouo)cv Combining mass and energy balance, Qin = (mf mo)he + (mfuf mouo)cv The amount of heat transferred during this process is Qin = (0.5)(30)(60) = 900 kJ he = he@175kPa = 2700.6 kJ/kg The initial internal energy is found after the quality is determined: vo = V/mo = 0.006/1 = 0.006 m3/kg xo = (vo-vf)/vfg = (0.006 0.001)/(1.004 0.001) = 0.005 thus, uo = uf + xoufg = 486.8 + (0.005)(2038.1) = 497.0 kJ The mass of the system at the final state is mf = V/vf substituting this in the energy equation, Qin = (mo V/vf)he + {(V/vf)uf mo uo} There are two unknown in this equation. Assuming saturation conditions exists in the cooker, vfinal = vf + xf vfg = 0.001 + xf (1.004 - 0.001) ufinal = uf + xfufg = 486.8 +xf(2038.1) Substituting the above in the energy equation, xf becomes the only unknown. xf = 0.009 Thus, vfinal = 0.001 + (0.009)(1.004 - 0.0001)
Thermodynamics
43
= 0.010 m3/kg mfinal = V/vfinal = 0.006 / 0.01 = 0.6 kg Therefore, after 30 min, 0.6 kg of water is remaining in the pressure cooker. Limitations of First Law First law is a statement of conservation of energy principle. Satisfaction of first law alone does not ensure that the process will actually take place. Examples: A cup of hot coffee left in a cooler room eventually cools off. The reverse of this process- coffee getting hotter as a result of heat transfer from a cooler room does not take place. 2. Consider heating of a room by passage of electric current through an electric resistor. Transferring of heat from room will not cause electrical energy to be generated through the wire. 3. Consider a paddle-wheel mechanism operated by fall of mass. Potential energy of mass decreases and internal energy of the fluid increases. Reverse process does not happen, although this would not violate first law. 4. Water flows down hill where by potential energy is converted into K.E. Reverse of this process does not occur in nature. Conclusion: Processes proceed in a certain direction and not in the reverse direction. The first law places no restriction on direction. A process will not occur unless it satisfies both the first and second laws of thermodynamics. Second law not only identifies the direction of process, it also asserts that energy has quality as well as quantity. Q-3 Define Thermal reservoir and explain Heat Engine & Calculate its thermal efficiency with dygram? Thermal Reservoir A thermal reservoir is a large system (very high mass x specific heat value) from which a quantity of energy can be absorbed or added as heat without changing its temperature. The atmosphere and sea are examples of thermal reservoirs. Any physical body whose thermal energy capacity is large relative to the amount of energy it supplies or absorbs can be modeled as a thermal reservoir. 1.
Ans:
44
A reservoir that supplies energy in the form of heat is called a source and one that absorbs energy in the form of heat is called a sink. Heat Engine It is a cyclically operating device which absorbs energy as heat from a high temperature reservoir, converts part of the energy into work and rejects the rest of the energy as heat to a thermal reservoir at low temperature.
The working fluid is a substance, which absorbs energy as heat from a source, and rejects energy as heat to a sink.
Working Fluid ------- Water Q1 Heat received from hot gases WT Shaft work by turbine Q2 Heat rejected to cooling water in condenser WP Work done on the pump Wnet=WT-WP W = Q1 Q2 Thermal Efficiency,
W net Q1
W Q1
Q1
Q2 Q1
Thermodynamics
45
Schematic representation of Refrigerator and Heat pump.
QL Heat absorbed from low temperature thermal reservoir QH Heat rejected to a high temperature thermal reservoir when work (W) is done on it. QL QL (COP ) R W QH QL
QH QH W QH QL In a reversible, isothermal expansion of an ideal gas, all the energy absorbed as heat by the system is converted completely into work. However this cannot produce work continuously (not a cycle). (COP ) HP
46
Single reservoir heat engine (1 T engine) is not possible.
Thermodynamics
47
Chapter -3
Second Law of Thermodynamics

Q-1 Ans Kelvin-Planck Statement: - It is impossible to devise a cyclically operating device, which produces no other effect than the extraction of heat from a single thermal reservoir and delivers an equivalent amount of work. Heat engine with single thermal reservoir is not possible. For a 1-T engine the thermal efficiency =W/Q=1. No heat engine can have efficiency equal to unity. Explain Kelvin-Planck Statement.Define Carnot engine with equation?
Clausius Statement: - It is impossible to construct a device that operates in a cycle and produces no effect other than the transfer of heat from a lower-temperature body to higher-temperature body.
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To prove that violation of the Kelvin-Planck Statement leads to a violation of the Clausius Statement, let us assume that Kelvin-Planck statement is incorrect. Consider a cyclically working device 1, which absorbs energy Q1 as heat from a thermal rese rvoi r
at TH. Equivalent amount of work W(W=Q1) is performed. Consider another device 2 operating as a cycle, which absorbs energy QL as heat from a low temperature thermal reservoir at TL and rejects energy QH (QH=QL+W). Such a device does not violate Clausius statement. If the two devices are now combined, the combined device (enclosed by the dottedboundary) transfers heat QL from the low temperature reservoir at TL to a high temperature reservoir at TH with out receiving any aid from an external agent, which is the violation of the Clausius statement. Likewise let us assume that the Clausius statement is incorrect. So we have a device 1, cyclically working transferring heat Q from a low temperature reservoir at TL to a high temperature thermal reservoir at TH . Consider another device 2, which absorbs heat Q1 from a high temperature reservoir at TH does work W and rejects energy Q as heat tot the low temperature reservoir at T L as shown in figure. If the two devices are combined (shown in figure by a dotted enclosure), then the combined device receives energy (Q1-Q) as heat from a thermal reservoir and delivers equivalent work (W=Q1-Q) in violation of the Kelvin-Planck statement. Therefore violation of Clausius statement leads to the violation of the Kelvin-Planck statement. Hence, these two statements are equivalent. Perpetual Motion Machines
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A device that violates the First law of thermodynamics (by creating energy) is called a Perpetual Motion Machine of the first kind. A device that violates
the Second law of thermodynamics is called a Perpetual Motion Machine of the Second kind. Reversible and Irreversible Processes A process is said to be reversible if both the system and the surroundings can be restored to their respective initial states, by reversing the direction of the process. A reversible process is a process that can be reversed without leaving a trace on the surroundings. Processes that are not reversible are called Irreversible processes. Irreversibilitys The factors that cause a process to be irreversible are called irreversibilitys. Examples:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
Friction Unrestrained expansion Mixing of two gases Heat transfer across a finite temperature difference Spontaneous chemical reactions Expansion or Compression with finite pressure difference Mixing of matter at different states
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The Carnot cycle uses only two thermal reservoirs one at high temperature T1 and the other at two temperature T2. If the process undergone by the working fluid during the cycle is to be reversible, the heat transfer must take place with no temperature difference, i.e. it should be isothermal. The Carnot cycle consists of a reversible isothermal expansion from state 1 to 2, reversible adiabatic expansion from state 2 to 3, a reversible isothermal compression from state 3 to 4 followed by a reversible adiabatic compression to state 1. The thermal efficiency, is given by
= Net work done / Energy absorbed as heat During processes 2-3 and 4-1, there is no heat interaction as they are adiabatic.
2 2
Q1
2 1
Pdv
1
RT1
dv v
RT1 ln( v2 / v1 )
Similarly for the process 3-4,

4 4
Q3
4 3
Pdv
3
RT2
dv v
RT2 ln(v4 / v3 )
Net heat interaction = Net work done = RT1ln(v2/v1) + RT2ln(v4/v3) = RT1ln(v2/v1) - RT2ln(v3/v4) The processes 2-3 and 4-1 are reversible, adiabatic and hence T1v2 -1 = T2v3 -1 Or, v2/v3 = (T2/T1)1/( -1) And T2v4 -1 = T1v1 -1 Or, v1/v4 = (T2/T1)1/( -1)
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v2/v3 = v1/v4 or v2/v1 = v3/v4 = {RT1ln(v2/v1) - RT2ln(v3/v4)} / RT1ln(v2/v1) = (T1 T2)/T1 = 1- T2/T1
The Carnot Principles 1. 2. The efficiency of an irreversible heat engine is always less than the efficiency of a reversible one operating between same two thermal reservoirs. The efficiencies of all reversible heat engines operating between the same two thermal reservoirs are the same.
Lets us assume it is possible for an engine I to have an efficiency greater than the efficiency of a reversible heat engine R. I> R Let both the engines absorb same quantity of energy Q1. Let Q and Q2 represent the energy rejected as heat by the engines R, and I respectively. WI = Q1 - Q WR= Q1 Q2
I
= WI / Q1 = (Q1 - Q)/Q1 = 1-Q/Q1 = WR/Q1 = (Q1 - Q2)/Q1 = 1-Q2/Q1

I
Since
>
R,
1-Q/Q1 > 1-Q2/Q1 or, Q < Q2 Therefore, WI (= Q1-Q) > WR (=Q1 Q2)
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Since the engine R is reversible, it can be made to execute in the reverse order. Then, it will absorb energy Q2 from the reservoir at T2 and reject energy Q1 to the reservoir at T1 when work WR is done on it. If now engines I and R are combined, the net work delivered by the combined device are given by WI WR = Q1 Q (Q1 Q2) = Q2 Q The combined device absorbs energy (Q2 Q) as heat from a single thermal reservoir and delivers an equivalent amount of work, which violates the second law of thermodynamics. Hence, R I
Carnot principle 2 Consider two reversible heat engines R1 and R2 , operating between the two given thermal reservoirs at temperatures T1 and T2. Let R1 > R2 Q1= energy absorbed as heat from the reservoir at T1 by the engines R1 and R2, separately. Q = energy rejected by reversible engine R1 to the reservoir at T2 Q2 = energy rejected by reversible engine R2 to the reservoir at T2. WR1 = Q1 - Q = work done by a reversible engine R1 . WR2 = Q1 Q2 = work done by a reversible engine R2 According to assumption, R1 > R2 Or, 1 Q/Q1 > 1- Q2/Q1 Q1 Q >Q1-Q2 or WR1 >WR2 WR1 WR2 = (Q1 Q) (Q1- Q2) = Q2 Q Since the engine R2 is reversible, it can be made to execute the cycle in the reverse by supplying WR2. Since WR1 > WR2 the reversible engine R2 can be run as a heat pump by utilizing part of the work delivered by R1. For the combined device, WR1 WR2 = Q2 Q, by absorbing energy Q2 Q from a single thermal reservoir which violates the second law of thermodynamics. Hence R1 > R2 is incorrect. By similar arguments, if we assume that R2 > R1 then,
R1 R2
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Therefore, based on these two equations, R1 = R2 The efficiency of a reversible heat engine is also independent of the working fluid and depends only on the temperatures of the reservoirs between which it operates.
Q.2
Explain Thermodynamic Temperature scale with proper Justification?
Ans : Thermodynamic Temperature Scale To define a temperature scale that does not depend on the thermometric property of a substance, Carnot principle can be used since the Carnot engine efficiency does not depend on the working fluid. It depends on the temperatures of the reservoirs between which it operates.
Consider the operation of three reversible engines 1, 2 and 3. The engine 1 absorbs energy Q1 as heat from the reservoir at T1, does work W1 and rejects energy Q2 as heat to the reservoir at T2. Let the engine 2 absorb energy Q2 as heat from the reservoir at T2 and does work W2 and rejects energy Q3 as heat to the reservoir at T3. The third reversible engine 3, absorbs energy Q1as heat from the reservoir at T1, does work W3 and rejects energy Q3 as heat to the reservoir at T3. 1 = W1 / Q1 = 1- Q2/Q1 = f(T1,T2) or, Q1/Q2 = F(T1,T2) 2 = 1- Q3/Q2 = f(T2,T3) or, T2/T3 = F(T2,T3) 3 = 1- Q3/Q1 = f(T1,T3) T1/T3 = F(T1,T3) Then , Q1/Q2 = (Q1/Q3)/(Q2/Q3) Or, F(T1,T2) = F(T1,T3) /F(T2,T3)
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Since T3 does not appear on the left side, on the RHS also T3 should cancel out. This is possible if the function F can be written as F(T1, T2) = (T1) (T2) (T1) (T2) = { (T1) (T3)} / { (T2) (T3)} = (T1) (T2) Therefore, (T2) = 1 / (T2) Hence, Q1 / Q2 = F(T1,T2) = (T1)/ (T2) Now, there are several functional relations that will satisfy this equation. For the thermodynamic scale of temperature, Kelvin selected the relation Q1/Q2 = T1/T2 That is, the ratio of energy absorbed to the energy rejected as heat by a reversible engine is equal to the ratio of the temperatures of the source and the sink. The equation can be used to determine the temperature of any reservoir by operating a reversible engine between that reservoir and another easily reproducible reservoir and by measuring efficiency (heat interactions). The temperature of easily reproducible thermal reservoir can be arbitrarily assigned a numerical value (the reproducible reservoir can be at triple point of water and the temperature value assigned 273.16 K). The efficiency of a Carnot engine operating between two thermal reservoirs the temperatures of which are measured on the thermodynamic temperature scale, is given by = 1- Q2/Q1 = 1 T2/T1 The efficiency of a Carnot engine, using an ideal gas as the working medium and the temperature measured on the ideal gas temperature scale is also given by a similar expression.
1
(COP)R = QL /(QH QL) = TL / (TH TL) (COP)HP= QH /(QH QL) = TH / (TH TL) Q.3 Explain Clausius in equality with equation?
Ans: For a Carnot cycle Q1/Q2=T1/T2 Or Q1/T1-Q2/T2=0 for a reversible engine. With the usual sign convention, that is, heat flow into a system taken as positive and heat outflow of the system taken as negative Q1/T1+Q2/T2=0 or Qi/Ti=0
For an irreversible engine absorbing Q1 amount of heat from a reservoir at T1 and rejecting Q21 to a reservoir at T2, then 1-Q21/Q1 1-Q2/Q1
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or or or
1-Q21/Q1 1-T2/T1 Q21/Q1 T2/T1 Q21/T2 Q1/T1
making use of the sign convention, we get Q21/T2+Q1/T1 0 Or Q/T 0 for an irreversible engine
Replacement of a Reversible process by an equivalent process Let us consider cyclic changes in a system other than heat engines. If the cycle can be split up into a large number of heat engine cycles then the above observation can be made use of in relating the heat interactions with the absolute temperatures.
Any reversible process can be approximated by a series of reversible, isothermal and reversible, adiabatic processes. Consider a reversible process 1-2. The same change of a state can be achieved by process 1-a (reversible adiabatic process), isothermal process a-b-c and a reversible adiabatic process c-2. The areas 1-a-b and b-c-2 are equal. From the first law U2-U1=Q1-a-b-c-2-W1-a-b-c-2 Consider the cycle 1-a-b-c-2-b-1. The net work of the cycle is zero. Then
dW W 1
a b c 2
W2
or
W1
W2
W1
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the heat interaction along the path 1-a-b-c-2 is Q1-a-b-c-2=Q1-a+Qa-b-c+Qc-2=Qa-b-c Since 1-a and c-2 are reversible adiabatic paths. Hence U2-U1=Qa-b-c-W1-b-2 Application of the first law of the thermodynamics to the process 1-b-2 gives U2-U1=Q1-b-2-W1-b-2 Comparing the two equations Qa-b-c=Q1-b-2 The heat interaction along the reversible path 1-b-2 is equal to that along the isothermal path a-b-c. Therefore a reversible process can be replaced by a series of reversible adiabatic and reversible isothermal processes. Clausius Inequality A given cycle may be subdivided by drawing a family of reversible, adiabatic lines. Every two adjacent adiabatic lines may be joined by two reversible isotherms.
The heat interaction along the reversible path is equal to the heat interaction along the reversible isothermal path. The work interaction along the reversible path is equal to the work interaction along the reversible adiabatic and the reversible isothermal path. That is, Qa-b=Qa1-b1 and Qc-d=Qc1-d1 a1-b1-d1-c1 is a Carnot cycle. The original reversible cycle thus is a split into a family of Carnot cycles. For every Carnot cycle
dQ / T
dQ / T 0
. Therefore for the given reversible cycle,
If the original cycle is irreversible
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dQ / T
so the generalized observation is
dQ / T
Whenever a system undergoes a cyclic change, however complex the cycle may be( as long as it involves heat and work interactions), the algebraic sum of all the heat interactions divided by the absolute temperature at which heat interactions are taking place considered over the entire cycle is less than or equal to zero (for a reversible cycle).
Q-4
Define Entropy with proper justification and diagram?
Ans: 1. 2.
dQ T
dQ T
R
has the same value irrespective of path as long as path is reversible is an exact differential of some function which is identical as entropy
2 2
3.
S2
S1
S
1
dS
1
dQ T
4.
dS
dQ T
for reversible process only

R
Calculation of Entropy change 1. Entropy is a state function. The entropy change is determined by its initial and final states only In analyzing irreversible process, it is not necessary to make a direct analysis of actual reversible process. Substitute actual process by an imaginary reversible process. The entropy change for imaginary reversible process is same as that of an irreversible process between given final and initial states. (a) Absorption of energy by a constant temperature reservoir Energy can be added reversibly or irreversibly as heat or by performing work.
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S
Example:-
dQ T
The contents of a large constant-temperature reservoir maintained at 500 K are continuously stirred by a paddle wheel driven by an electric motor. Estimate the entropy change of the reservoir if the paddle wheel is operated for two hours by a 250W motor. Paddle wheel work converted into internal energy- an irreversible process. Imagine a reversible process with identical energy addition
dQ T
Q T
0.25
2(3600 ) 500
0.6kJ
(b) Heating or cooling of matter
Q
Q
S dQ T
For constant volume heating
H For constant pressure heating

T2
m Cp
T1
dT T
Cv
mC p ln
T2 T1
T2 T 1
, for constant pressure

S dQ T
T2
m
T1
dT T
mCv ln
, for constant volume process
(c)- Phase change at constant temperature and pressure
S sf
dQ T
hsf Tsf
S fg
dQ T
h fg T
Tds relations From the definition of entropy,
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dQ = Tds From the first law of thermodynamics, dW = PdV Therefore, TdS = dU + PdV Or, Tds = du + Pdv This is known as the first Tds or, Gibbs equation. The second Tds equation is obtained by eliminating du from the above equation using the definition of enthalpy. h = u + Pv dh = du + vdP Therefore, Tds = dh vdP ds = (du/T) + (Pdv/T) ds = (dh/T) (vdP/T) Change of state for an ideal gas If an ideal gas undergoes a change from P1, v1, T1 to P2, v2, T2 the change in entropy can be calculated by devising a reversible path connecting the two given states. Let us consider two paths by which a gas can be taken from the initial state, 1 to the final state, 2. The gas in state 1 is heated at constant pressure till the temperature T2 is attained and then it is brought reversibly and isothermally to the final pressure P2. Path 1-a: reversible, constant-pressure process. Path a-2: reversible, isothermal path s1-a = dq/T = Cp dT/T = Cp ln(T2/T1) sa-2 = dq/T = (du+Pdv)/T = (Pdv)/T = Rln(v2/va) (Since du = 0 for an isothermal process) Since P2v2 = Pava = P1va Or, v2/va = P1/P2 Or, sa-2 = -Rln(P2/P1) Therefore, s = s1-a + sa-2 = Cp ln(T2/T1) Rln(P2/P1) The two equations can be rearranged as
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Path 1-b-2: The gas initially in state 1 is heated at constant volume to the final temperature T2 and then it is reversibly and isothermally changed to the final pressure P2.
2
s
1
( du T T 2 T 1 ( dh T
pdv ) v2 v1
Cv dT T
Rdv v
Cv ln
R ln
Similarly,
2
s
1
vdp )
C p ln
T2 T 1
R ln
P 2 P 1
1-b: reversible, constant volume process b-2: reversible, isothermal process s1-b = Cv ln(T2/T1) sb-2 =Rln(v2/v1) or, s = Cv ln(T2/T1)+ Rln(v2/v1) The above equation for s can also be deduced in the following manner: ds = (dq/T)R = (du + Pdv)/T = (dh vdP)/T Principle of increase of entropy Let a system change from state 1 to state 2 by a reversible process A and return to state 1 by another reversible process B. Then 1A2B1 is a reversible cycle. Therefore, the Clausius inequality gives:
dQ / T
1 A2 B1 1 A2
dQ / T
dQ / t o
2 B1
If the system is restored to the initial state from 1 to state 2 by an irreversible
dQ / T
1 A 2 C1 1 A2
dQ / T
dQ / t
2 C1
process C, then 1A2C1 is an irreversible cycle. Then the Clausius inequality gives: Subtracting the above equation from the first one, Since the process 2B1 is reversible,
2
dQ / T
2 B1
2
dQ / T
1
dQ / T
2 B1 1
dQ / T
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or ,
1
dS
dQ / T
2C1
In general, dS dQ / T
Where the equality sign holds good for a reversible process and the inequality sign holds good for an irreversible process. Now let us apply the above result to evaluate the entropy change of the universe when a system interacts with its surroundings and exchanges energy as heat with the surroundings. Let Tsur and Tsys be the temperatures of the surroundings and the system such that Tsur >Tsys. Let dQ represent the energy transfer as heat from t he surroundings to the system during the given irreversible process. dSsys = dQ/Tsys dSsur = -dQ/Tsur dSuni = dSsys + dSsur = (dQ/T)sys (dQ/T)sur >0 Suni >0 (since Tsur>Tsys) If the system is isolated, there is no change in the entropy of the surroundings and S 0, for an isolated system Therefore the entropy of an isolated system either increases or, in the limit, remains constant. The equality sign holds good when the process undergone by the system is reversible, the inequality sign holds good if there is any irreversibility present in the process. This statement is usually called the principle of entropy increase. Irreversible or spontaneous processes can occur only in that direction for which the entropy of the universe or that of an isolated system, increases. These processes cannot occur in the direction of decreasing entropy. For an isolated system, S > 0, for irreversible processes S = 0, for reversible processes S < 0, the process is impossible Example: One kg of superheated steam at 0.2MPa and 2000C contained in a piston cylinder assembly is kept at ambient conditions of 300K till the steam is condensed to saturated liquid at constant pressure. Calculate the change in the entropy of the universe with this process. Solution: Initial state of the steam: superheated at 0.2 MPa and 200oC h1= 2870.4 kJ/kg; and s1 = 7.5033 kJ/kgK Final state: saturated liquid at 0.2 MPa. h2 = 504.52 kJ/kg and s2 = 1.5295 kJ/kgK
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Hence Ssteam = s2 s1 = 1.5295 7.5033 = -5.9738 kJ/kgK For a constant pressure process: q = h Therefore, q = h2 h1 = 504.52 2870.4 = -2365.68 kJ Entropy change of the surroundings = Ssur = Q/Tsur = 2365.88/300 = 7.886 kJ/K Hence, Suni = Ssys + Ssur = -5.9738 +7.886 = 1.9122 kJ/K Suni > 0 and hence the process is irreversible and feasible. Temperature-Entropy diagram Entropy change of a system is given by dS = (dQ/T)R. during energy transfer as heat to the system from the surroundings is given by dQ = TdS. Hence if T and S are chosen as independent variables, then the integral area under the curve.
TdS is the
The first law of thermodynamics gives dU = dQ - dW also for a reversible process,
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Q.5
Calculate entropy change if 1kg of water at 300 C is heated to 800C at 1 bar pressure. The specific heat of water is 4.2kJ/kg-K
Ans
S C p ln T2 T1 4.2 10 3 ln 273 273 80 30
0.6415
kJ k g.K
Q.6 Ans
Explain Availabel and Unavailable Energy with diagram ? The second law of thermodynamics tells us that it is not possible to convert all the heat absorbed by a system into work. Suppose a certain quantity of energy Q as heat can be received from a body at temperature T.
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The maximum work can be obtained by operating a Carnot engine (reversible engine) using the body at T as the source and the ambient atmosphere at T0 as the sink.
Q 1
T0 T
T0 |
s|
Where s is the entropy of the body supplying the energy as heat.
The Carnot cycle and the available energy is shown in figure. The area 1-2-3-4 represents the available energy. The shaded area 4-3-B-A represents the energy, which is discarded to the ambient atmosphere, and this quantity of energy cannot be converted into work and is called Unavailable energy
Suppose a finite body is used as a source. Let a large number of differential Carnot engines be used with the given body as the source. If the initial and final temperatures of the source are T1 and T2 respectively, the total work done or the available energy is given by
dW dQ dQ 1 T0 T
T2
W orW
dQ
T dQ 1 0 T T1
T2
Q T0
dQ T T1
Q T0 | s |
Loss in Available Energy Suppose a certain quantity of energy Q is transferred from a body at constant temperature T1 to another body at constant temperature T2 (T2<T1).
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Initial available energy, with the body at T1,
Q 1
T0 T
Final available energy, with the body at T2,

Q 1 T0 T2
Loss in available energy

Q 1 T0 T 1 Q 1 T0 T2 T0 Q T2 Q T 1 T0 suni
where suni is the change in the entropy of the universe. Availability Function The availability of a given system is defined as the maximum useful work that can be obtained in a process in which the system comes to equilibrium with the surroundings or attains the dead state. (a) Availability Function for Non-Flow process:Let P0 be the ambient pressure, V1 and V0 be the initial and final volumes of the system respectively. If in a process, the system comes into equilibrium with the surroundings, the work done in pushing back the ambient atmosphere is P0(V0-V1). Availability= Wuseful=Wmax-P0(V0-V1) Consider a system which interacts with the ambient at T0. Then, Wmax=(U1-U0)-T0(S1-S0) Availability= Wuseful=Wmax-P0(V0-V1) = ( U1-T0 S1)- ( U0-T0 S0)- P0(V0-V1) = ( U1+ P0V1-T0 S1)- ( U0+P0V0-T0 S0) =
1- 0
where =U+P0V-T0S is called the availability function for the non-flow process. Thus, the availability: 1- 0
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If a system undergoes a change of state from the initial state 1 (where the availability is ( 1- 0) to the final state 2 (where the availability is ( 2- 0), the change in the availability or the change in maximum useful work associated with the process, is 1- 2. (b) Availability Function for Flow process:The maximum power that can be obtained in a steady flow process while the control volume exchanges energy as heat with the ambient at T0, is given by:
Wsh (m ax) Wsh (m ax)

Wuseful
( H1 ( H1
B1
H 0 ) T0 ( S 1 S 0 ) T0 S1 )
B0 H T 0S
( H1
T0 S 0 )
Sometimes the availability for a flow process is written as:
where, B
which is called the Darrieus Function. Second Law Efficiency The second law efficiency ( 2) of a process, 2=Change in the available energy of the system
Change in the available energy of the sourcea) Compressors and Pumps:Change in the availability of the system
is
given
by:
Wrev
B2
B1
Wrev W
(h2
h1 ) T0 ( s2
(h2 h 1)
s1 )
T0 ( s2 W s1 )
where T0 is the ambient temperature The second law efficiency of a compressor or pump is given by,
2C / P
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(c)
Turbines and Expanders:-
The change in the available energy of the system=W The change in the available energy of the source=Wrev=B1-B2 The second law efficiency of the turbine 2T/E is given by,
2T / E
W Wre v
W B1 B2
Work Potential Associated with Internal Energy:The total useful work delivered as the system undergoes a reversible process from the given state to the dead state (that is when a system is in thermodynamic equilibrium with the environment), which is Work potential by definition. Work Potential = Wuseful= Wmax- P0(V0-V1) = ( U1-T0 S1)- ( U0-T0 S0)- P0(V0-V1) = ( U1+ P0V1-T0 S1)- ( U0+P0V0-T0 S0) =
1- 0
The work potential of internal energy (or a closed system) is either positive or zero. It is never negative. Work Potential Associated with Enthalpy,h The work potential associated with enthalpy is simply the sum of the energies of its components.
Wsh (m ax) Wsh (m ax)
( H1 ( H1
H0 ) T0 S1 )
T0 ( S 1 ( H1
S0 ) T0 S 0 )
The useful work potential of Enthalpy can be expressed on a unit mass basis as:
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wsh
( h1
h0 )
T0 ( s1
s0 ) here h0 and s0 are the enthalpy and entropy of
the fluid at the dead state. The work potential of enthalpy can be negative at sub atmospheric pressures. Q7 Derive an expression for Clapeyron Equation ? Ans :To find out the dependence of pressure on equilibrium temperature when two phases coexist. Along a phase transition line, the pressure and temperature are not independent of each other, since the system is univariant, that is, only one intensive parameter can be varied independently. When the system is in a state of equilibrium, i.e., thermal, mechanical and chemical equilibrium, the temperature of the two phases has to be identical, the pressure of the two phases has to be equal and the chemical potential also should be the same in both the phases. Representing in terms of Gibbs free energy, the criterion of equilibrium is:
d g 0 at constant T and P
^ ^ ^
or, d g
s dT
v dP
Consider a system consisting of a liquid phase at state 1 and a vapour phase at state 1 in a state of equilibrium. Let the temperature of the system is changed from T1 to T2 along the vaporization curve.
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For the phase transition for 1 to 1:

^ ^ ^
d g
^
s dT
^
v dP
or or
g liquidphase
^ ^
g vaporphase
g1
g2
In reaching state 2 from state 1, the change in the Gibbs free energy of the liquid phase is given by:
^ ^ ^ ^ f
g2
g1
dT
v f dP
Similarly, the change in the Gibbs free energy of the vapour phase in reaching the state 2 from state 1 is given by:
g 2'
g 1'
^
s g dT
^ f
v g dP
^ ^
Therefore,
dT
v f dP
^ ^
s g dT
v g dP
vg vf Or Where the subscript sat implies that the derivative is along the saturation curve. The entropy change associated with the phase transition:
sa t
P T
sg
^
s
^
^ ^ ^
sg
sf
hg T
^
hf
h fg T
^
P T
h fg
^ sat
h
^
Hence, Which is known as the Clapeyron equation
T v fg
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P T
Since
h is always positive during the phase transition,
sat will be positive or negative

^ ^
depending upon whether the transition is accompanied by expansion ( v >0) or contraction ( v <0). Consider the liquid-vapour phase transition at low pressures. The vapour phase may be approximated as an ideal gas. The volume of the liquid phase is negligible compared to the
^ ^
volume of the vapour phase( >> The Clapeyron equation becomes:

^
vg
)and hence
v fg
v=
vg
=RT/P.
P T
sat
h fg P RT 2
^
d ln P dT
h fg RT 2
or which is known as the Clausius-Clapeyron equation. ^ Assume that integrated to get,

^
h fg
is constant over a small temperature range, the above equation can be
P ln 2 P1
h fg 1 R T1
^
1 T2
ln P
or
h fg RT +constant
Hence, a plot of lnP versus 1/T yields a straight line the slope of which is equal to (hfg/R). Q-8 Derive and Equation of Kirchoff Equation ?
Ans : Kirchoff relation predicts the effect of temperature on the latent heat of phase transition. Consider the vaporization of a liquid at constant temperature and pressure as shown in
^
figure. The latent heat of vaporization associated with the phase change 1 to 1 is (
h g1 -
76
^
h f 1 ) at temperature T. When the saturation temperature is raised to (T+dT), the latent

^ ^ f 2
heat of vaporization is ( h g 2 - h
^ ^ fg ^
). The change in latent heat,
dh
d hg
dh
The variation in the enthalpy associated with the variation in the independent variables T and P is given by:
^ ^ ^
dh
or,
^
Cp dT
v(1
T )dP
^ g
d h fg
^
(C pg C pf )dT [( v g v f ) (v g
^ ^ ^ ^ ^ g
vf
^
)T ]dP
h fg T
(C pg C pf ) [(v g v f ) (v g
vf
)T ]
P T
sat
Substituting for (dP/dT)sat from the clapeyron equation,

^ ^ ^ ^ ^ g ^ ^ f ) h fg ^ ^
h fg T
(C pg C pf )
(v g
vf
h fg T
(v g v f )
This is known as Kirchoff relation.
Thermodynamics
77
For a solid-to-liquid transition, it is a reasonably good approximation to assume that the molar heat capacity and the molar volume are constant in each phase and the coefficient of volume expansion is negligible for each phase. Then,
^
(hsf / T ) T
^
C pf C ps T
is the latent heat of fusion.
where
h sf
For the transition from liquid phase to vapour phase, the molar volume of the liquid phase can be neglected compared to the molar volume of the gas phase, and g>> f. The vapour phase may be approximated as an ideal gas. Then g=1/T. It is clear that vg g> vf f. Hence,
^
h fg T
^ pg
(C
pf
Q.9 Ans :
Explain Ideal Rankine Cycle. Give Block Diagram and Explain each Block with proper Justification?
(a) Schematic representation of an ideal Rankine cycle (b) T-s diagram of an ideal Rankine cycle Application of the First law of thermodynamics to the control volume (pump, steam generator, turbine and condenser), gives Work done on pump, per kg of water, WP= h2-h1 Energy added in steam generator, q1= h3-h2
78
Work delivered by turbine, WT= h3-h4 Energy rejected in the condenser, q2= h4-h1 The thermal efficiency of the Rankine cycle is given by,
q1 q1 q2 ( h3 h2 ) h3 ( h4 h2 h1 ) ( h3 h4 ) h3 ( h2 h2 h1 )
= Net work done Energy absorbed Practical Rankine cycle
Pump and Turbine do not operate isentropically in practice. The practical Rankine cycle is shown as 1-2-3-4-1. In the actual turbine, the work delivered is less than the isentropic turbine. Similarly, the work consumed by an actual pump is greater than the work consumed by an isentropic pump. That is, h3-h4 < h3-h4 h2-h1 > h2-h1 Thermal efficiency of a practical Rankine cycle,
(h3
' ' h4 ) (h2
h1 )
h3
' h2
The performance of an actual turbine or pump is usually expressed in terms of isentropic efficiency. Isentropic efficiency of turbine ( T) is defined as the ratio of Work delivered by actual turbine to Work delivered by an isentropic turbine.
T
h3 h3
' h4 h4
Isentropic efficiency of pump ( P) is defined as the ratio of Work required by isentropic pump to Work required by actual pump
Thermodynamics
79
h2 ' h2
h1 h1
Methods to increase the efficiency of the Rankine cycle Basic idea: Increase the average temperature at which heat is transferred to the working fluid in the boiler, or decrease the average temperature at which heat is rejected from the working fluid in the condenser. 1. Lowering the condenser Pressure:-
Lowering the operating pressure of the condenser lowers the temperature at which heat is rejected. The overall effect of lowering the condenser pressure is an increase in the thermal efficiency of the cycle. 2. Superheating the steam to high temperatures:-
The average temperature at which heat is added to the steam can be increased without increasing the boiler pressure by superheating the steam to high temperatures.
80
Superheating the steam to higher temperatures has another very desirable effect: It decreases the moisture content of the steam at the turbine exit. 2. Increasing the 3. Boiler pressure:-
Increasing the operating pressure of the boiler, automatically raises the temperature at which boiling takes place. This raises the average temperature at which heat is added to the steam and thus raises the thermal efficiency of the cycle.. Reheat Rankine Cycle
(a) Schematic representation of a reheat Rankine cycle (b) T-s diagram of a reheat Rankine cycle The energy added ( per unit mass of steam ) in the steam generator is given by,
Thermodynamics
81
q1
( h3
h2 )
( h5
h4 )
The energy rejected in the condenser,
q2
h6
( h3
h1
h2 ) ( h3 ( h5 h2 ) h4 ) ( h5 ( h6 h4 ) h1 )
The thermal efficiency,
Regenerative Cycle
(a) schematic diagram (b) T-s diagram Consider the feed water heater as the control volume and apply the first law of thermodynamics to obtain,
2 m
and or
8 m
2 h2 m
3 m
8 h8 m 3 h3 m
3h3 m
3 m 8 )h2 m 8 h8 (m
82
h3
or
8 m h 3 8 m
8 m h 3 2 m
Let, =Y= the fraction of steam extracted from the turbine for preheating
8 m 3 m
h3
Y h8
Y h2
Energy added in the boiler per unit mass of the working fluid,
q1
q2
( h7
h7
1
h4
Y ' (h9 h1 )
h1 )
Energy rejected in the condenser, Thermal efficiency,

h4 ) 1 ( h7 Y ' ( h9 h4 )
The work output of the turbines =
( h7
h8 )
Y ' ( h8
h9 )
Work spent on the pumps =
(h4
h3 )
1 Y ' (h2
h1 )
Q.10 Explain Air Standard Otto Cycle. Calculate its Air Compression Ratio? Ans:
Air standard Otto cycle on (a) P-v diagram (b) T-s diagram Processes: 0-1: a fresh mixture of fuel-air is drawn into the cylinder at constant pressure 1-2: isentropic compression 2-3: energy addition at constant volume
Thermodynamics
83
3-4: isentropic expansion 4-1: combustion products leave the cylinder 1-0: the piston pushes out the remaining combustion products at constant pressure Since the net work done in processes 0-1 and 1-0 is zero, for thermodynamic analysis, we consider the 1-2-3-4 only. The thermal efficiency of the cycle is given by
W ne t Q1
Q1
Q2 Q1
where Q1 and Q2 denote the energy absorbed and rejected as heat respectively. For a constant volume process Q= U. If m is the mass of the air which is undergoing the cyclic process,
mC v T
Energy is absorbed during the process 2-3 Energy is rejected during the process 4-1 Hence,
Q 1 Q2 U3 U4 1 U2 U1 T4 T3 mCv (T3 mCv T 1 T2 T4 T2 ) T 1
For an ideal gas undergoing an isentropic process (process 1-2 and 3-4),
Tv
Hence,
= constant
T1 T2
v2 v1
and
T4 T3
v3 v4
But v1=v4 and v2=v3. Hence we get,
T1 T2
1
T4 T3
T1 T4 1
or
T1 T4
T2 T3
T2 T3
or
T4 T1 T4
T3 T2 T3
T4 T3
T1 T2
T4 T3
T1 T2
84
1 1
Hence, Where the compression ratio r0 is defined as
T 1 1 T2
v2 v1
1 r0
r0
v1 v2
W v1 v2
Sometimes it is convenient to express the performance of an engine in terms of Mean effective Pressure, Pm, defined as the ratio of Net work done to Displacement volume
Pm
Pm (v1
v2 )
Thermal efficiency of the ideal Otto cycle as a function of compression ratio ( =1.4)
Thermodynamics
85
The thermal efficiency of the Otto cycle increases with the specific heat ratio, of the working fluid.
Air standard Diesel cycle Diesel cycle on (a) P-v diagram (b) T-s diagram Processes: 0-1: fresh air is drawn into the cylinder 1-2: isentropic compression 2-3: constant pressure energy addition 3-4: isentropic expansion 4-1: combustion products leave the cylinder 1-0: remaining combustion products are exhausted at constant pressure Defining cutoff ratio, rc as,
rc
v3 v2
For a constant pressure process (2-3), Q= H. Hence, the energy addition during process 2-3, Q1 H3 H2 m ( h3 h2 ) mC
(T3
T2 )
86
where m is the mass of gas undergoing the cyclic change. The energy rejection during the process 4-1,
Q2
U4
U1
m(u 4
is given by
u1 )
mC v (T4
T1 )
The thermal efficiency,

Q1 Q2 Q1 T4 (T3
mC p (T3
T2 ) T4 T1 T3 T2
mC v (T4 T2 ) 1 1
T1 )
mC p (T3 T1 T2 ) T1 1 T2
Since the process 1-2 is isentropic,

T 1 T2 v2 v1
1
1 r0
Since the process 4-1 is a constant volume process,

T4 T 1 P 4 P 1 P 4 P 3 P 3 P 1 P 4 P 3 P 2 P 1
since P2=P3 The processes 1-2 and 3-4 are isentropic. Hence,
P 4 P 3 v3 v4
and
v1 v2
P 2 P 1
v1 v2
Hence we get,
T4 T1 v3 v4 v3 v2 rc
For the constant pressure process,
T3 T2
v3 v2
rc
Hence the efficiency becomes,

1 1 r0 rc rc 1 1
The mean effective pressure of an air standard diesel cycle is given by,
P m P 1 r 0 r c ( 1) r 0 (r c 1)(r 1 ) 0 1
Thermodynamics
87
Thermal efficiency of the ideal diesel cycle as a function of compression and cutoff ratios ( =1.4) Air standard Dual cycle Dual cycle on (a) P-v diagram (b) T-s diagram
Energy addition is in two stages: Part of energy is added at constant volume and part of the energy is added at constant pressure Energy added, q1
q1
Energy rejected, q2
Cv (T3
T2 )
C p (T4
T3 )
88
q2
Thermal efficiency,
Cv (T5
T1 )
1 1 1
q2 q1 Cv (T3 (T3 Cv (T5 T1 ) T2 ) C p (T4 T1 ) (T4 T3 ) T3 )
(T5 T2 )
The efficiency can be expressed also in terms of, Compression ratio, r0 = V1/V2 Cut-off ratio, rc = V4/V3 Constant volume pressure ratio, rvp= P3/P2
Q-11 Ans:
Explain Air standard Brayton cycle. Derive its Efficiency and Air Compression Ratio
Schematic representation of an air standard Brayton cycle
Thermodynamics
89
Brayton cycle on (a) P-v diagram (b) T-s diagram Processes: 1-2: isentropic compression 2-3: constant pressure energy addition 3-4: isentropic expansion 4-1: constant pressure energy rejection Energy added, Q1= mCp (T3-T2) Energy rejected, Q2= mCp (T4-T1) Thermal efficiency,
Q1
Q2 Q1 T1 T4 T1 T3 T2
T4 T3 1 1
T1 T2
1 T2
The pressure ratio of the Brayton cycle, rp is defined as,
rp
P3 P4 P2 P1
P2 P 1
Then the processes 1-2 and 3-4 are isentropic. Hence,

1
T2 T 1 T 3 T4
We get,
P 2 P 1
1
P 3 P 4
T2 T1
T3 T4
1 T1 T2
or
1
T4 T1
T3 T2
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90
1 rp
Work delivered by the cycle is given by W= Q1 Increasing Q1 can increase work done by the cycle Since the Turbine blade material cannot withstand very high temperature, T3 and hence Q1 is limited The optimum pressure ratio for fixed values of T1 and T3, for which work is maximum, is obtained by, Wne t Q1 Q2 mC p (T3 T2 ) mC p (T4 T 1)
Wne t Wne t mC p [(T3 mC p T3 1 T4 ) T4 T3 1 rp (T2 T 1
1 1
T 1 )] T2 T 1 T 1 1
Wne t
mC p T3 1
rp
For optimum pressure ratio,
dWnet drp mC pT 1
mC pT3 1
1
rp 0
rp
2
T3 r p
1
T1 r p
or
T3 T1
rp
2(
1)
(r p )
or
T3 T1
2(
1)
Thermodynamics
91
Q- 12 Explain Carnot Vapour compression Refrigeration cycle. With proper diagram?
(a)
Schematic representation (b) T-s diagram Processes: 1-2: Isentropic compression from state 1 (wet vapour) to state 2 (saturated vapour) 2-3: Heat rejection (QH) in the condenser 3-4: Isentropic expansion from state 3 (saturated liquid) 4-1: Heat absorption ( QL) in the evaporator The COP of the refrigerator,
(COP ) R
QL W
QL QH QL TH
TL TL
Practical Vapour compression refrigeration cycle (a) schematic diagram (b) T-s diagram Application of the first law of thermodynamics to the control volume compressor, condenser, throttle and evaporator gives (Ws)compressor=h2-h1 QH=h2-h3
92
h3=h4 and QL=h1-h4 The COP of the refrigerator is given by,

(COP ) R QL W h1 h2 h4 h1
In the ideal refrigeration cycle, the refrigerant leaves the evaporator as wet vapour. In some cases the refrigerant leaves the evaporator as either saturated vapour or superheated vapour.
T-s diagram for a vapour compression refrigeration cycle when the refrigerant leaves the evaporator as (a) saturated vapour (b) superheated vapour Gas refrigeration cycle (a) Schematic diagram (b) T-s diagram
Thermodynamics
93
The simplest gas refrigeration cycle is the reversed Brayton cycle Processes: 1-2: isentropic compression for state 1 (atmospheric air) to state 2 2-3: energy exchange with the surrounding, air is cooled 3-4: isentropic expansion to state 4 Work obtained during the expansion process can be used to run the compressor Work done on the compressor,
Wc
h2
h1
C p (T2
T1 )
Work delivered by the expander,
We
h3
h4
C p (T3
T4 )
The net work required= CP (T2-T1-T3+T4) The COP of this refrigeration system is given by,
COP
QL W
T2
T1 T1
T4 T3
T4
Q- 13 Evaluate the slopes of a constant-pressure process and a constant- volume process lines on an enthalpy versus pressure diagram and on an enthalpy versus entropy diagram, respectively, for an ideal gas. Redraw the cycle shown below on h-P and h-s diagrams? Ans
Solution 1:-
94
h P
dh
Tds h P
v dP T s P v
v
s T
T P
v
v
Cv h P
v C v
v
For an ideal gas: h

P v 1
v
1 P
and
v
1 T
T C v P
v C v R
1 v
C v R
dh
T ds h s h s
v dP T
T
P
dh
Tds dh s
v dP T v T 1 P s 1 v Cv T
v
P T
T s
T h s
T Cv
v Cv
T
v
For an ideal gas:
Thermodynamics
h s P v CvT
95
T 1
v
T 1
R C v
Q-14 The decrease in the melting point of ice with increase in pressure is largely responsible for our ability to skate on ice. At the line of contact between the skate and the ice a high pressure is exerted by the person who is skating because of the small area of contact. Therefore, ice melts and provides a thin layer of liquid water which acts as a lubricant and help in skating. Suppose a man of mass 75 kg desires to skate on ice. The area of contact between the skates and ice is 20 mm2. Will he able to skate on ice, which is at 20 C?
Ans:
P T
h 334 .9 T v 273 .15 (1.002 13 .5MPa / K
10 3 1.091 )10
If T=-2K, pressure required = 27MPa Pressure increase due to the person on skates
75 20
9.81 10 6
36.79MPa
Since the increase in pressure is greater than the required pressure, it is possible to skate. Q.15 Determine the sublimation pressure of water vapour at 600C using data available in the steam tables. Ans Control mass: water From steam tables, For saturated solid- saturated vapour water,
96
Temp.,T C -30 -40 Ans :
Pressure, P kPa 0.03810 0.01286
Evap.Enthalpy, hig KJ/kg 2839.0 2838.9
For sublimation, the change from solid i directly to vapour g, the Clapeyron equation reduces to the form,
dPsat dT
hig Tvig
hig Psat RT 2
hig is relatively constant in these temperature ranges. Hence, integrate between the limits 400C and 600C.
2
dP P P 2 P 1
hig dT RT 2 R
hig R
dT T2
ln
Let
hig
T2 T 1 T T2 1
P2 = 0.0129kPa T2=233.2K Then,
T1=213.2K
ln
P 2 P 1
2838 .9 0.46152
233 .2 233 .2
213 .2 213 .2
2.4744
P1 = 0.00109kPa Q.16 The pressure on a block of copper having a mass of 1kg is increased in a reversible process from 0.1 to 100 MPa while the temperature is held constant at 150C. Determine the work done on the copper during this process, the change in entropy per kilogram of copper, the heat transfer, and the change of internal energy per kilogram. Over the range of pressure and temperature in this problem, the following data can be used:
Thermodynamics
97
Volume expansivity = P =5.0*10-5K-1 Isothermal compressibility= T=8.6*10-12m2/N Specific volume= 0.000114 m3/kg Ans Analysis:Control mass: copper block States: initial and final states known Process: Constant temperature, reversible The work done during the isothermal compression is
Pdv T
The isothermal compressibility has been defined as
1 v
v P
v T dP T
w
dvT
2
Therefore, for this isothermal process,
v
1
PdP T
Since v and T remain essentially constant, this is readily integrated:
2 P 2
2 P 1
The change of entropy can be found by considering the Maxwell relation, and the definition of volume expansivity.
98
s P dsT
v T v
P
v v
v T
v
P
dP T
P remain constant:
This equation can be readily integrated, if we assume that v and
s2
s1
(P 2
P 1 )T
The heat transfer for this reversible isothermal process is q = T(s2-s1) The change in internal energy follows directly from the first law, (u2-u1)= q-w
2 0.000114 4.9 J / k g
2 (P 2
2 P 1 )
8.6 2
10
12
(1002
0.12 )
1012
( s2
s1 )T
(P 2 10
P 1 )T
5
0.000114 5.0 0.5694 J / k gK
(100
0.1)
10 6
q (u 2
T ( s2 u1 )
s1 ) q w
288 .2
0.5694 ( 4.9)
164 .1J / k g 159 .2 J / k g
164 .1

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What is thermodynamics?

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2

Biyani's Think Tank

Think Tanks Biyani Group of Colleges

Concept & Copyright :

Biyani Shikshan Samiti

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Define Internal Energy, Work and Heat in terms of thermodynamics system.

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pressure is constant, we conclude

from the above equation that

200 kPa* (0.1

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cons tan t V11

cons tan t 1 (V2 1 n P P V1 2V2 1 1 n 0.04 0. 1 P P V1 2V2 1 1 1.3 6.41k J

60.77k Pa 60.77 * 0.1 200 * 0.04 1 1.3

P 1V1 ln 0.10 0.04

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A rea under the curv e

With P`1 = P1 and P'2 = P2 subject to the constraint that

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Derive Van der Waals Equation of State ?

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Constant Temperature Process

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Also Pv = Constant using perfect gas relation

First law of Thermodynamics

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First law of thermodynamics

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mi (hi+Vi2/2 + gZi) = Q - Wsh - dE/dt

Steady state steady flow process

Ke Pe h g (Z e e i For free studyh notes log on: www.gurukpo.com 2

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Uniform flow processes

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Schematic representation of Refrigerator and Heat pump.

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Single reservoir heat engine (1 T engine) is not possible.

Second Law of Thermodynamics

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Similarly for the process 3-4,

= WI / Q1 = (Q1 - Q)/Q1 = 1-Q/Q1 = WR/Q1 = (Q1 - Q2)/Q1 = 1-Q2/Q1

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Explain Thermodynamic Temperature scale with proper Justification?

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1-Q21/Q1 1-T2/T1 Q21/Q1 T2/T1 Q21/T2 Q1/T1

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. Therefore for the given reversible cycle,

If the original cycle is irreversible