Edf 210 History of Education-1-1

EDF 210 Handout:-Lecturer Barasa Sam Omachar
EDF 210 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

LECTURE NOTES
MEANING OF HISTORY OF EDUCATION

 There is no standard definition of history of education however,
 The title History of Education is made up of two important terms, which require
defining.
a Meaning of History:
 Neville Allan (1938 in his book the gateway to History) an integrated narrative or
descriptive of past events of facts written in a spirit of critical inquiry for the
whole truth
 Hill and Keber (1967) ‘Attempts to encompass and then explain the whole realm
of humanity past in a perspective that greatly accents to its social cultural
economic and intellectual development’
 Gottschalk, L. (1967).defines history as ‘’that part of human past which can be

meaningfully from the available records and from inferences regarding their
setting’’
N/B The terms refers to the recorded human experiences. These experiences are political,
social, economic, scientific and technological activities. It is these activities which shape
human society.
b Meaning of Education:
 Sifuna and Otiende (1992:1) Defines education as an organized and sustained
instruction meant to transmit a variety of knowledge, skills understanding and
attitudes necessary for the daily activities in life.
1|Page Lecturer Barasa Sam Omachar

 Aristotle defined education as a creation of a sound mind in a sound body. It

develops mans faculty specially his mind so that he may be able to enjoy the
contemplation of supreme truth, goodness and beauty.
 Plato argued that education develops in the body and soul of the pupil all the
perfection he is capable of
N/B
Education is also a social process in which one achieves social competence and growth
within a selected and controlled institutionalized setting.
The term education can be examined in three dimentions nameliy
Normative ideal- what we aspire to achieve, at individual level or society
As aprocess involving acquiasition of knowledgee
Therefore when the two terms are put together in our study here it could be defined as follows:
“A recorded study of the system of educating social process which lead to change in
human societies through the ages”.
Various scholars have come up with different

definitions of History of Education i.e.
1. Sifuna and otiende (1992). Have defined it as ‘‘a

study of the past educational
development especially of education systems, theories and
institutions within the general historical context of social
economic political or cultural scientific and technological
change’’
2. Otiende, Karagu and Wamahiu (1992:4) A study that deals with

interconnected topics on the growth of education
system,development of educational theories and practices, history

of educational institutions,life and work of educators and

educationists,changing and developing views about the
curriculum and teaching techiniques……..it includes mans
institutions which store and promote enderering aspects of his
civillization’’
POINTS TO NOTE INCLUDES:-

It is a sub displine of history and a branch of education that critically studies the past educational
experiences of our society
Is the study of mans past and present events related to preparation of man for life.
It takes on almost all the qualities of history- it employs similar sources and methods of study
It provides meaning and subsistence /direction for a better understanding of our past and present
educational phenomena
Is a special branch of general History especially related to the history of civilization or cultural
development for which it is both cause and effect of
N/B
History of Education accounts for the contributions of prominent movements and educators
whose theories and practices have exerted outstanding impact on educational development.
What is the scope of history of education?

 The scope of history of education includes the description, elaboration and the
analysis of both the formal and informal aspects of education in ancient
western civilization. Ranging from antiquity in Greece, through Roman
civilization, Middle Ages, Renaissance and Reformation.
The informal aspects of education to the total cultural context, in which persons are born,
grow and become to the maturity. THROUGH THE PROCESS acculturation, persons
acquire the simply, linguistic and a people’s value pattern of their culture

 Unfortunately during the past history of education has been entirely European
centered. Thus narrow approach must change in the independent Africa. Otherwise we
would be perpetuating cultural imperialism loathed by Africans themselves. Black
personalities whose ideas have had significant impact in education and cultural
development should be studied as a source of inspiration needed for active participation
in the reconstruction of education and culture of African people during the post
independent era.
 While every effort must be made to gain from the long period of western education
starting from the classical Greeks and Romans. The remarkable ideas and practices of
education featured in long stream African and Asiatic civilization must be resurrected and
incorporated in the revised syllabus.
 History of education rightly begins at the dawn of human civilization, with the
founders of world civilizations centered within the vicinity of Nile in Egypt, Tigris and
Euphrates Mesopotamia, Indus valley and Hwang Ho valley.
Why should a prospective teacher study

history of Education. (Relevance of History
of Education)
 History of education teaches us about the past educational activities ie practices,
challenges and solutions. Therefore history of education teaches us about our past
educational activities so that we can focus on educational activities of the present in
order that we may modify those activities of education for the future generation in the
light of the existing conditions.
 To professionally prepare teachers that they can be able to critically explore

alternative theories and practices of educational evaluation, acceptance, rejection
and modification of cultural inheritance. In this way the history of education can help
expand the possibilities for personal and professional action.

 It contributes to the strengthening of both the personal and the professional

competence of the teacher.ie in the following ways;
1. To investigate, examine, evaluate, accept reject or even modify one`s cultural inheritance.
One will have a chance to agree or disagree or modify their cultural heritage.
2. To become educational critic and agent who is and can be responsible for cultural
transmission and change, rather than a person who blindly accepts the status quo or who
simply accepts unchallenged claims
 We study the motivations and behaviors of other human beings that were engaged
in similar activities in the past. In this way, a teacher is directly encouraged to
endeavor to discern the various choices which were instrumental in shaping human
purposes in the past thus bring the possibilities and alternatives in present decision
making.
 Through critical examination of the educational activities in the past, the teacher can be
able to illuminate on the possibilities and alternatives for the decision making in the
present and thus help modify the future
 Encourages freedom of critical thought and imaginative thinking in the exercise of

educating
 Helps one develop personal view on education eg what aims, methods, and existing
institutions
 Through comparative studies we are able to evaluate past successes and failures
thereby identifying there worth
Points to Note
 History does not only reveal the structure, but indeed, life itself.

 Therefore history of education is an account of the living growth of educational

aims, methods, curriculum and the institutions without which they would appear
static. Historical studies of education help to improve the quality of decision-making and
the formulation of policies. It also helps to strengthen the personal and professional
competence of the teacher.
 History of education is essentially the history of mankind. It considers not only what
was taught in a particular society at a particular time but also how, where, by whom, to
whom, why and on what beliefs the teaching was based as it comes through civilization
for the answers to these questions, History of education draws upon the knowledge
experience and the insights of many different study in the realm of knowledge.
History of education also help students to avoid repeating mistakes of his predecessors. For
example memorization as a method in learning and teaching techniques has a long record
of failures. It also helps to recognize the forces of change to see how good ideas eventually
become good traditions, or indeed how they can degenerate into stale and worn-out customs.
The knowledge which is derived from understanding history of education should help the
following:-
1. To identify obsolete ideas and practices in the education system currently in operation.
This knowledge and understanding enables the students to intelligently participate in, or
even initiate future possible changes.
2. It should also enable the student to obtain a deeper comprehension of the meaning of
education processed so that he can become a more effective classroom teacher.
In this way history of education enables one to:
a. Formulate richer educational patterns
b. Formulate more comprehensive educational principles
c. Provide a larger educational perspective
d. Project imaginatively into a broader range of humanity.
This then eventually means history of education is not to immerse more and more data in
order to answer old questions or bolster old believes, but :
1) To formulate new and better questions
2) it excites curiosity and the spirit of the inquiry
3) it disciplines the faculty of reason
4) it cultivates the arts of self- expression and communication
5) it develops the attitudes of mind which distinguishes the educated person
6) it develops the habit of skepticism and criticism
7) it develops the ability of thinking with perspective and objective
8) it develops the ability of judging the good and the bad and the in-between human affairs
and of weighing the pros and cons

 Historical study of education can help one to give shape, form, organization,
sequence, interrelationship and the significance of ideas.
LECTURE TWO
1. EDUCATION IN ANCIENT CIVILLIZATION.
In this chapter we describe evolution of educational activity as a social institution. We examine
the purposes which education has served in history in this way an attempt is made to create
awareness of the trends in education throughout record history.
However, we embark on that historical examination, we need to define the meanings of the two
important terms used in the teaching profession and which explain The process of teaching and
leaving. The two terms are the back borne of entire social process related to human learning and
development.
These terms are:
1) The verb ‘to educate’
2) The norm ‘Education’
i To educate:
The verbs comes from another verb, to educe, which means:
1) To lead
2) to evolve
3) to develop
4) to deduce
5) to infer
Therefore, ‘education’ can be understood to mean the act of bringing out.
Therefore, the term can mean to bring up implied here is the act of bringing the child out of the
darkness of ignorance. The word is from the meaning of helping the youths to grow in the right
way or into acceptable manner in the society.
The word also mean, to train, to develop. Implied here is the development of the intellect and the
moral pavers of the youth. The word also mean to provide the schooling for the youth.
ii Education.

This noun means among others, the following:

a. The process of educating;
b. The systematic training and the development of the intellectual and the moral facilities;
c. Instructions;
d. A cause of instructions;
e. The result of a systematic cause of training and instructions.
Therefore, education means , the provision of an organization and a systematic form of
training of the youth. The ward comes from the Greek words which are “ Pedia agoi”.
Where, “Pedia”, means children .
“Agoi”, means bringing up
In which case, this organized system of training must be subject to change. If cannot be
static. It is this aspect of the process which becomes the subject matter of the subject,
“History of Education” .
It must be therefore be expected that as a social process, Changes would be expected from
time to time and from one generation to another.
Pre-Historic man and Education
Man has been inexistence on this planet for about one million years. In that period, no doubt man
has undergone many changes in his survival. For example, man had continue to learn more and
more complex survival tactics. He had to learn and develop abilities to adopt his ever changing
conditions in his environment.
For that reason there is evidence that man refined his tools in about 500,000 years ago.
Consequently, there were wide strides in his development over 20,000 years ago.
For example between 10,000 and 8000 bc, man had made even greater developments in his life.
He started in home and grew food staffs rather than depend on wild fruits and hunting only. He
thus begun living in organized families and developed clans. He also developed gestures, signs
and symbols for purpose of communication.
Further more, there is evidence that improved skills in commerce and culture which can be
noted today come into existence in about 4000 and 300 years ago .
Ancient Times and Education
There was on common education system during the ancient empires or during the ancient
communities . Each community has its own objectives to be achieved through their educational
practices
For example, in ancient Persia only few people were chosen to go to school or to be given
organized form of education. Those who were chosen for schooling was due to reason of
becoming scribes and Priests. Further more, education was used in Persian Empire to to create a
good conformists.

On the other hand, in about 8000 BC. Education in Sparta was used to produce warriors.
Warriors were necessary because of constant wars. For this reason, it was necessary to produce
totally obedient citizens who were totally loyal to the state.
Ancient Athenians had a different stress in their education at that time. This stressed the
importance of the individual fulfillment of the person. It was considered that individual
fulfillment was also good for the state. IT was this objective in then Greek education system that
led to great Greek thinkers as we come to know them in our time.
The greatest names among the Greek educational thinkers include the following:
1) Plato 429-347 BC
2) Socrates 469-399 BC
3) Aristotle 384-322 BC
these thinkers are best known as the ancient Greek philosopher. They mainly advocated the
pursuit of knowledge and truth in this way, also improved the social process of the society to
which they longed and indeed to the present societies worldwide. Their ideas in both the field of
education and philosophy are studies by the present society in greater details than ever before.
Ancient Romans in their part sought the application of knowledge rather than pursuit of
theoretical truth for its own sake. The Roman educational approach was suggestive of power and
organization. This then led to the establishment of strong administration system in the roman
society.
Therefore, it is obvious to note that it is the fusion in the Greco- Roman heritage which
eventually became the basis of the present day western civilization. Practical evidence of this is
that, it is the Greek and Roman educational influence which has led to the establishment of the
three levels of our current educational circles.
Educational circles compared
GRECO-ROMAN PRESENT COMMON

1) The lower schools The Nursery schools University
2) The Grammar Schools The Pimary schools
3) The technical school The secondary schools
The content of the lower school had a literacy content. This content was mainly taught by
imitation and memorization. This was done under severe discipline. This meant that the learner
had to learn the content, commit it to memory and was expected to reproduce that constant is
exactly the same way as the teacher. This way the only evidence of whether or not any learning
has taken place.
The content in the Grammar school include oratory, poetry and the interpretation of the poetry.
The medium of communication was Latin and Greek. The same medium of communication
continued in the technical school. The curriculum here was carried in the two languages where
the students were trained in the legal and literary subject.

After the causes in these schools in Rome, the Greek students went to Greek universities in
Athens.
Maybe one of the greatest of evidence of the Roman educational influence in our present time is
contained in the Roman idea of the Universal empire. Further more there in the concept of the
law and the ‘Pax Romana’, Roman peace. This concept still guides and underline civilization to
this day.
Similarly, Christianity in the way we have come to know it, is a result of the Roman genius of
the organization Christianity was organized as the imperial religion within the Roman empire.
The Catechumencal School
After the imperial reorganization of the church, it became necessary that schools to teach religion
or religion matters had to be open. This led to the development of the catechumenal school.
Some formal instructions were given. The courses in these schools lasted for three years. The
courses in these schools were intended to propagate the faith of the Roman Catholic church.
The schools did not offer intellectual content. It was strictly religious courses only.
The middle ages and education.
This period in history is also called the dark ages. Or the ‘medieval ages’
As it will be seen later, this was indeed a dark period in the history of mankind. The period was
marked by arrival of barbarian hoarders from Northern Europe and the civilization scenes in
southern Europe. This was after AD.300
The barbarians descended on the ancient civilization with great lawlessness and violence. They
thus destroyed everything which had been developed and established by the ancient learning.
However, this situation required that all those who loved and respected ancient learning and
civilization work out a method of preservation of whatever was good from the ancient world.
This led to the establishment of universities- which grew out for the need of higher education.
It is for this reason that this period is also referred to as the period of preservation.
Renaissance
This is the term used to apply to that period in history when Europe witnessed the revival of art
and letters. This was during the period of between the 14th and 16th centuries.
This was the time when Europe witnessed rebirth of knowledge. It was the when Greco- Roman
heritage was reviewed. Renitence developed out progressive social, political, economic and the
philosophical change.
Therefore, the factors out of which emerged the conditions of renascence included the following
1) the development of the need for and the appreciation for national languages and literature
2) the enrichment of the cities
3) the expansion of commerce, industry and banking (the industrial revolution)
10 | P a g e L e c t u r e r B a r a s a S a m O m a c h a r
The Reformation.
Right from the time when the church in Rome was adopted as the official religion of the Roman
empire the Christian church steadily begun to accumulate power and to consolidate its influence
throughout the empire. There had come up some resistance with the revival of Islm in the East
but in the West Christian church remained unchallenged authority in spiritual affairs and often in
political, economic, and social matters as well.
This absolute power of the Christian church eventually led to a situation where the church
leaders did care anymore for any protest of criticism against corrupt practices or misuse of
power. This usually led to the triumph instead.
However, just like they say, power corrupts and absolute power corrupt absolutely, the church
during this period was no exception. Like any other institution with entrench authority, the
church became laced. Some of its clergy were more of politicians and tax gathers than priests.
This state of affairs in the church led to the development of the Protestantism. This protest was
against the roman catholic church. The church had resisted to implement internal reforms. This
church revolt brought more changes within Christian church which also education.
The 17th, 18th and the 19th Christianity and Education
This period saw the push in education towards “Realism”. This was an attempt to make
education meaningful. This was the need to humanistic realism in education by understanding
the meaning of what was taught. In other words it was an attempt to adopt education inreal life
situation.
It is at this time when the great heritage

of learning rot memorization collided
with an influx of new ideas about the
purpose of learning. there was general
revolt about absolutism and the
ecclesiasticism. This trend had to give
way to the spirit of truth and freedom
based on reason and inquiry.
Therefore despotism had become intolerable. Some people saw this as bad for education. This is
how perspective individuals like Rousseau (1812-1778) came in as redeemers
The 19th century is an age of conflicting ideologies. The various socio- political dogmas of this
time replaced the much worn out inherited commitment of religious dynastic status quo.
Major socio-political ideologies of the 19th century included the following:
1) Industrialism
2) liberalism
3) democracy
4) capitalism
5) communism
Interaction of these trends and great influence of education in many parts of Europe and the rest
of the world.
Finally the educational trend of the 20th century should belong to the philosophers and
sociologists rather than to the historians. However there are some historical trends which are note
worthy.
For example the thrust of modernization problems of the general gap and the changing criteria of
the educational authority. The factors have witnessed the emergence of two broad educational
movements which are progressive and radical.
PART TWO
EDUCATION DURING ANCIENT CIVILIZATION.
It is an accepted belief that we all are descendants of Adam and Eve these two being the first two
human being to inhabit the earth. Similarly, it is an accepted principal in education that we learn
in order to survive. If this be the case then learning in human beings has come a long way to
finally be with us here and now.
Therefore, since survival is a must in human lives, and since learning is necessary factor to
facilitate adaptability to the ever changing conditions of the environment, then we must expect
variations in the standard of the learning. These variations must include improvements,
modification and invention . It is therefore these factors that make study of ancient education
important in our live.
The study of education during ancient time is note just a mere academic pursuit. The very
essence of learning is as relevant to our own lives now as it was to the lives of the people of
ancient world. Through our study, we note from the characteristics of education in the early
historic societies how much similarities there are in comparison with the educational principle
and practice in our own times.
For example the way in which the young of early societies were educated and hence of there
future generations were milestone in their cultural history. Therefore education and the culture of
the past are significant because, the present values are clearly rooted in those of the past.
It is for this reason that it become important for us to be aware of the main avenues of actions of
the ancient time. This has the implication that, we need to know and understand the ideal which
shaped ancient education together with the men who created them including the policies and the
practices which were based on these ideals.
However, our study of the ancient educational policies and practices is not based on all such
societies as are known to have existed in many parts of the world, but, rather on these past
societies was educational influence has become a permanent future of western education hence,
our Kenyan education system of today.
For that reason we select for the purpose in this study , the following ancient civilization:
1) ancient Egypt
2) ancient china
3) the ancient Hindus
4) ancient Hebrew education
5) the ancient Greeks
6) the ancient Rome
a. The Ancient Egypt.

The education system in Egypt of about 4000BC and 1000 BC
It was centered along the Nile valley i.e. founded on agricultural activities of the Nile
All aspects of Egyptian life was linked to religion and believed in life after death
Egyptian society was stratified into the following classes
1.upper class/ royal class
2.middle class/working class
3.lower class/slaves
Aims of Egyptian education included
I. Achieving proper understanding of their religion i.e. enhance morality and respect to god
II. Development of vocational skills. The skills were needed for trade and agriculture.
III. Fostering social stability and maintenance of status quo
IV. Producing professionals and work oriented people to support social economic and
political systems
Whereas skills in trade were easy to develop, skills in agriculture were not since, they needed
development of knowledge in other field of learning. These were the following:
1 Mathematics
2 Geometry
3 Physics
Skills and knowledge in these subjects were made necessary because of the type of agriculture
practiced in the area. Egypt is a country in the desert.
The livelihood of these people in this country was and is still based on the waters of the river
Nile.
Therefore, their farming was still and is by irrigation. This require further knowledge of survey
for measurement and geometry for the levels of water flows.
2.Ancient China
The Chinese education of ancient time sought to preserve the past. Unity of the family provided
the foundation of the Chinese education throughout the ages. Therefore there education concerns
itself with human relationships, order, duty and morality
The greatest Chinese philosopher is Confucius (557-749 BC).
Chinese taught respect for age and superior achievement. Confucius pointed out that state could
own prosper when final piety prevails and when a system etiquette governs social lives. Aims of
Chinese education emphasized the past rather than present.
According to the Chinese the educated is that man who has respect for knowledge while the
ignorant man follows irrational passions. However knowledge should not be worshiped for its
sake. It is important as prelude to correct ethical behavior.
Ancient China did not develop a national education system. Private school prepared students to
pass state examinations.
There two educational cycles;
1) The elementary schools
2) The academics
The elementary schools took place in teachers houses and the academics provided advanced
instructions.
There were three stages in Chinese education
1) The art of writing literature
2) the study of the nine sacred books
3) the study in philosophy and the moral ideas.
There was a strong emphasis on discipline in Chinese education which included use of corporal
punishment.
methods used in teaching were mainly memorization and imitation. and since the past was the
method originality and inventiveness were discouraged.
2. The Ancient Hindus
The Hindus endeavored through education to prepare themselves life after death through the
same process they endeavored to maintain the caste system in their society. The idea and practice
of preparing oneself for the life after death is based on the Reincarnation. Reincarnation
dominate or those who are not truly emancipated.
The Hindu educational ideals were severe. A student had to obey and follow instruction of the
teacher to the letter. Discipline and reinforcement by use of corporal punishment were frequent.
students were also often required to practice asceticism.
Schools of different kinds were established. There were private schools whuch were established
by gurus. A guru is a Hindu religious leader or teacher some of the schools included the
following:-
1 The Parishads or the Parish Schools
these were schools or simply assembly centres of the Hindu priests or Brahmins
2 The tutorial Centres
Tutorial centres were rooms for learner and one teacher. They were better known as ‘the one
room, one-teacher education centres. Students for these tutorials lived or found living
accommodations near the tutorial rooms.
3. The Forest Colleges
Teachings at these establishments centered on the virtues of contemplation. This practice
attracted many famous scholars
4. The Tempe Schools
Instructions in these educational institutions were religious. These centres came up about
500AD.
There were also monasteries, which were concentrated much more on educational matters, which
were strictly of a religious nature only.
5. The Court Schools
These were educational centres which were for secular knowledge.
Among the important universities for the Brahmins established at about the same time included
the following; Bereaves, Nadia, and Taksasila. Natural and the physical sciences were tought at
these universities. Other subjects in the curriculum for these universities included the following:
Logic, Literature, Philosophy ,and Religion.
Teachers in the Hindu system of education were held in great respects and the teachers were also
expected to be ascetic, learned and gentle in their behaviour.
Scholarship for teachers was a way of life.
3 i
4 Ancient Hebrew Education.

The early beginning of the Hebrew is rather cloudy. It is carried in legends. But there are records
to show that Isaac, Abraham and Jacob were Hebrew tribal leaders who lived in migratory
existence.
From the old testament, it is well known that mosses led the children of Israel out of land of
Egypt. This is given the date of 2,400 BG. The exodus led the Hebrew to join the other Semitic
people in their new home in the land of Canaan.
The Israelites lived unsophisticated pastoral lives of twelve loosely united by a Common faith in
one God called ‘Yahweh or Jehovah’. They made no significant advances in the art, science and
technology.
In their wondering, they served as transmitters of other people’s cultures rather than their own.
However their impact on world civilization is great. And may be their greatest contribution to
world civilization in in the concept of monotheism. This is the concept of the oneness of God.
This was the revolutionary ideas of the polytheistic world of the ancient.
The concept of a one God, which implied a single moral power, formed the heart of a Hebrew
religion. It was this concept which was transmitted to Europe through Christianity and to Africa
and Asia through Islam.
The kingdom of Israel was founded by Saul in about 1020 BC. This kingdom was established in
spite of great attacks from philistines. But even in the rule of Saul and that of his successor
David , life in Israel remained primitive in comparison with civilization of Egyptians , the
Sumerians or even their neighbours,, the Canaanites. The Canaanites were also called the
Phoenicians by the Greeks.
The Phoenicians were the leading traders, sailors, explorers, metallurgists of their time. They
also invented the first real letters of the alphabets.
Jerusalem flourished as the capital of the kingdom of Israel under the rule of Solomon in 961-
922BC . The Israelites captured the city from the Canaanites during the rule of David. The
temple of king Solomon was the work of Phoenicians.
Hebrew education was mainly through apprenticeship. This was the method upto about the exile
in 586BC.There were no professional teachers. Parents and the older relatives acted as
educational guides for the youths. Therefore, there were no formal schools. The family and the
tribes formed educational institutions.
Basically the actual responsibility for bringing up the children in properly accepted manner lay
with the father.
The objective of education was basically religious. It was mainly to develop a sense of personal
responsibility towards and an obligation towards the law. Boys were introduced to the laws of
the people from about the age of three. By the time the boys were thirteen, they were expected to
understand lawfully and to act upto on its teachings. They also learned to master religious
ceremonies such as rites of Passover.
Higher education did not exist, But, the priests and the prophets expanded the law to all adults. It
is these priests and prophets who created the Hebrew literature, which was passed on from
generation to generation in the oral tradition.
After the death of king Solomon in 922BC. Israel begun to decline such that it was split in two
rival kingdoms of Israel and Judah. The Hebrew declining power was further diminished by
onslaughts of the Assyrians about 800 BC the Hebrew state disappeared until it was re-
established as a new state in 1948.
Therefore there was many other highly developed cultures in various parts of the world. the ones
given here above simply serve as an example of all those ancient civilizations and their
educational principles and practices. The light of education, which these example provide, is that
schools appeared almost contemporaneously with civilization.
further more we note from these examples that schools developed as a practical response to the
need to write. Therefore, they were originally professional schools for the purpose of training
scribes.
The connection between ancient education and religion manifestated itself in many different
ways. Schools often developed as parts of the appendages to the temples. This was due to the
fact that, the priest needed to be literate in order to keep temple records. Therefore, potential
priests were of necessity students of the art of writing.
For that reason, priests continued to be the teachers even long after a class of secular scribes had
came up, Religious marks like the Vedas often formed the basics of school curriculum.
Therefore, religion, or the transmission of religious knowledge, frequently provided the
fundamental objective for the formal instruction.
Finally, ancient students or teachers were just as human with responses similar to those of their
contemporary counterparts. And ancient education, like modern ones had their limitations
usually school instructions were restricted to the boys or young men of the upper classes.
Discipline was harsh and the methods of instructions were routine and repetitious. and the
curriculum was sometime dedicated to the past rather to the present or to the future.
1. Ancient Greek
in most cases, history of education either begins with or at least includes the Greek. This is not a
mere convention. It is because the Greeks set forth many ideas and ideals basic to the principles
and the practice of education. Is this basic factors which have formed the practice of the current
western educational traditions.
Greeks explored problems of human nature. of the human mind, the learning process e,t,c. They
also asked searching questions about the individual and the state. They also provided significant
answers. Greeks were skilled as artisans, artists, and political theorists and scientists.
For example, Greeks asked questions about what education is and what purpose it serves in
human lives. They devised schools and the methods of fulfillments of their ideals.
Greek education was guided by nationalistic emphasis this was possible because in the Greek
social system, there was no infallible authority and there was no organized priesthood. This
allowed free inquiries to flourish. This freedom developed a spirit of tolerance unequalled by
civilizations in other parts of the world.
Even in Greece of the time, there were limitations to that freedom. We find for example that
Anaxagoras, who was a pre- Socratic thinker, was persecuted because of his scientific views.
And then, Socrates was made to take hemlock because some Athenians felt that he was
corrupting the youths with his views and that he was subversive to the established religion and
government.
The ideal of the Greek education upheld a combination of physical and intellectual excellence.
This was based on the strong believe that both the mind and the body was to be trained.
To the Greeks, the educated man is the one without extremes on the pleasures of the world. It is
the man who cultivates a sense of reason because reason is the most important quality in a man.
Therefore the wise man will seek enough eternal satisfaction, friendship, and the good things of
life so that his existence would be enriched. And the good man acted according to the laws of
nature while the evil man violated them.
Greeks thought unlike Christianity, was based on naturalistic spirits. Life to the Greeks was to be
enjoyed to the full but the idea of limitation came in based in the fact that the finite was good
but, the infinite was regarded as the principles of the evil.
Greek ideals resulted in an integrative concept of education. For example it was believed that the
best life was the one, which led to a full adjustment of man to his environment.
However may be the weakness of Greek education is its lack of application in practical life. But
this was due to the deliberate regard among the Athenians of the time for labor as an inferior
activity. For that reason we find that the Greeks developed many of the theories, which have
furthered the progress of sciences.
However we then talk of the ancient Greek education, it is proper that we make a proper
distinction regarding the kind of the education we are talking about. This is due to the fact that
Greece of the time did not operate as one state. The people were Greeks but lived in
administrative city states. The most notable of these city- states were Sparta and Athens.
The educational arrangements in Sparta and Athens provide some effectives contrast and
excellent examples of the ways in which education and social structures are intricately
interwoven. But the two important differences between the Spartan and Athenioian is that ,
while the Athenian developed virtue of the ability of the wind, the Spartans went for the military
prowess.
A. SPARTA
During the 8th c BC. Sparta was a primitive village in the Laconic plains in the northern Greece
the basic social unit was the family. A century later Sparta had become a centre of a well
developed culture, Which attracted poets and artists from far and its social Circle had expanded
to that of the city state. It was then a peaceful competitor in the Olympic games
However by the 4th c BC Sparta had changed barbarous city petrified into attitude of more disrust
and no longer centre. It was no longer education youth in arts but training them in skills of war.
The reason of this was the war struggles between Sparta and her neighbours where Sparta come
out victorious. This experience changed entire lifestyle of the Spartan society from that OF
PEACE TO WAR.
The creator of this new state was Lycurgus. He required that all citizens were subject of state
strictly. His philosophy was that from birth, all children became the property of the state.
A committee inspected all babies and those found unfit were done away with. Those found to be
fit were made to join others in a life specifically designed to make them physically fit.
Not tenderness was shown to a Spartan child either at home or elsewhere in the country. Right
from the earliest years sneer, taught and flogging taught children to obey state rules of contacts
At the age of seven boys begun to attend classes for games and physical training. At the age of
12, they left home to begin their military career. They lived include barracks and were not
permitted warm clothes even in winter. The children deliberately subjected to hardship in order
to train endurance a factor necessary for war.
By the age of 20 the young men were inducted into a state organization. Their duties was to spy
on the helots. They also had orders to kill harlots who showed any restlessness.
by the middle of the 6th c BC Spartan society consisted of three classes of people. Their classes
were:-
The Spartan Aristocrat.
this was a group of people who were of Spartan origin and landowners. In other words they were
a warrior caste.
The periokio class.
This was a group of free Spartans but who had no political rights.
The Helots (serfs)
This was a group of people who were the origin of Laconia but overrun by Spartans who then
enslave them thus making them serfs or neglected people who became their sarvants. But, by
population, their numbered 10-1
This social structure of the Spartan society was fixed. There was no allowance for crossing from
one social class to another. One born in one class there you stay. The social classes were as fixed
as were other aspects of the Spartan society at the time.
The society was so fixed that change, new ideas and strangers were not allowed and welcomed.
even in terms language, a necessary words were not allowed in Laconic speech.
the Aristocratic Spartan made a reacher out of the austerity which circumstance were imposed
upon him. These conditions included among those were such as rejecting luxury, ignoring the
acts idolization of the military power and accepting endure hardship and at the same time using
Helots to providing their war materials.
And since the boys in Spartan society were going to spend their lives in military service their
curriculum was arranged accordingly
1 The art and sciences were thought unnecessary
2 they were taught national songs, dancing, martial music, the Homeric epics and the
war like poems.
3 they were taught numbers to extent they enabled to count head and weapons
4 literary wars restricted to reading writing in their rudemtary forms .
Although they too lived a vigorous life, the girls stayed at home but the were trained in running,
wrestling and discuss throwing. The primary concern for the girls was the development of
healthy bodies so that they could produce sturdy sons for the state.
The girls participated in the national festivals. During these festivals, the girls danced naked with
the boys. The purpose for dancing naked was to display their physical fitness and not to indulge
in orgiastic revelry, which would have been entirely alien to the Spartan behaviour, which was
marked by strong discipline.
The Spartan education system was a successful story in spite of its limitations in its aim and
objectives. We note in our time that it served as model for the totalitarian societies such as the
Nazi Germany, the Communist Russia and the people’s republic of china
In spite of these seeming success of Spartan system of education of ancient time the limitation of
the system led to its own end in the face of unfamiliar condition which in this case were created
by the Thebans. This was due to the fact that where as the Spartan soldiers were well trained and
properly disciplined, yet they were defeated due to their inability to adopt to methods which were
not familiar.
Therefore they were defeated by the efforts of the Thebans
In short the Spartan education system was capable only for producing functionaries for a static
militaristic society. This was due to the fact that, the system excluded considerations for
important concepts such as:-
1 Intellectual development
2 Individual self-fulfillment
3 The exploration of knowledge
4 The development of art forms
5 The self-initiative and the willingness to try new ideas.
Now to find these more adverse and more liberal elements of education, we will turn to the next
Greek city state, Athens.
ATHENS
Athens is situated by the sea which she seems to have made full use of. She sent her colonists
and traders throughout Mediterranean world and she also welcomed to her shares mariners and
strangers with their different ideas.
On the other hand, Sparta which was encircled by mountains, regarded strangers with suspicion.
Therefore it can be safe to conclude that that geographical conditions had a lot to do with the
differing educational development in the two societies.
Athens grew from primitive village to a majestic, city states of temples, theatres and public
squares which were greatly admired. Athenians developed a refined process of law making. In
this way they created for themselves a democratic society devoted o general good of all men.
ATHENIAN DEMOCARCY WAS not a primitive form of egalitarianism. It recognized the
difference in people based on birth, wealth and professional status.
The aristocratic members of the society derived their wealth from the land. Other Freemont
earned their living from farming, trade, priests, potters tanners, weaver or even labourers. The
slaves earned their livelihoods by serving their masters in many ways.
Schools first appeared in Athens in during 6th C B.C . These schools were private and they
charged fees . In this way education was limited to only those who could afford to pay.
In spite of that Athens did not adopt a Lezzas-faire towards formal education were enacted where
the first one was during the rule of Solo (640-559 BC). These laws regulated the hours of the
school attendance and the ages of the pupils at school. They also required proper moral
supervision for boys.
Only boys attended the school. But they stayed at home until the age of seven. The curriculum at
this stage included the following:
1 Wrestling
2 rudimentary health habits
3 music
4 writing and reading
5 counting
6 recitng poems (Homer)
Far most boys, instructions ended at the age of 14. But for the privileged supervised instructions
continued though at a less formal level. The youth was introduced to public society, e.g theatre,
law couts, public meetings, e.t.c
educational and the formulation of the theoris about:
a what is knowledge/
b how do we learn?
c to what end do we learn?
Strengly enough, those substantial educational philosophers did not all have great impact upont
their counterpat. Those views whch were expanded by
1 Socrates 469-399BC
2 Plato 428-348 BC
3 Aristotle 322 BC
were not heeded as much as those ideas of Isocraetes yet those are the foundation of the western
cultural, philosophical and educational traditions.
2. ANCIENT ROME
although here we talk about ancient education in Rome, in actual sense it is Greek education in
Rome. But at first, the family dominated family education where the father was supreme. His
words were final.
The ideal of the Roman education was to cultivate main lines and the self control. Individualism
was not tolerated in the early roman republic. While the mother subject to the husband yet at the
same time she remained a very respected member of the family.
Until age 7 the child remained the care of the mother or another trusted woman. The early
training of the child was handed over to that of their fathers after the mother were satisfied that
children had accomplished the mothers training the aim of the parental training was moral and
practical rather than intellectual or aesthetic.
After 272 BC, many Greek scholars came to Rome, among them was Livius Andronicus he
translated many Greek writings into Latin .The process of hellenazation of Rome came after the
conquest Greek in 146BC.
The entire Greek development in the art were transferred to Rome such that whereas politics
conquered Greek, Greek conquered Rome in the field of art and education.
The Romans simply absorbed and helped spread the Hellenistic culture but they selected what to
absorb and modified others. At the same time they still honored and respected their trust
traditions .The Romans build a formal education system which aimed at achieving two
objectives. Those were:
1 Roman culture
2 Roman Unity
Romans were interested in producing decently educated men who were both cultured and
practical.
The Roman most influential educational thinker was Quintilian 35-95 AD. Others were the
following
a Marcus T. V Cicero 106-43 BC
b Marcus T. Varro 116-27 bc
c Martiinus Capella 5th C AD
On the greatest evidence of the Roman educational influence which has survived to our present
life time is contained in the Roman idea of the universal empire or the unity of the world.
Furthermore there is the concept of the ‘Pax Romana’ or the Roman peace.. This concept still
guides and underlies the present civilization.
Similarly the Christianity the way we have come to know it, is the making of the Roman genius
for organization. Christianity was recognized as the empirical religion within the Roman empire.
Patterns of education during ancient times.
The evaluation of man’s culture therefore of his education dates from his own origin of earth.
Indeed, it dates from long before the recorded history. In fact religion, economy and values of
society and the general life styles from the near Eastern societies showed a succession of formal
education system earlier from those of west.
At first education is an instrument of cultural transmission was imparted informally. This went
on until the demand of the society became too complex. It is the complexity within the society
which led to the establishment of the modern types of formal education through school system.
Furthermore knowledge explosion meant that the family in particular and the society at large
could not cope with the use and the rate of the transmission of the emergent specializations in
education. It was this need therefore which helped to pave the way for the establishment of the
formal institutions to deal with the training in reading, writing and arithmetic.
The supportive principles of division of labour that followed the technological and the urban
revolution which included the agricultural developments which go together. This led to the
development of the class of teachers who were to handle this new social development.
At first, the teachers were taught selected few. The few were those children from the families of
the ruling and the wealthy class. Therefore the teachers supplemented the society. The content of
their teachings involved those areas which were relevant to the needs of both the family and
society in general. These areas included the following:
1) Commercial
2) Administrative
3) Literature
4) Numeracy
5) Religion
The invention of writing became an important stimulus towards establishments of schools. It is
here where the skills in writing, reading and arithmetic became very useful for commercial,
administrative and for the record keeping purposes in many places.
Therefore, school became an overriding necessity for the purpose of teaching people how to read
and write. Unfortunately, recorded tradition soon became authoritarian once again creating a
status quo.
However, the method in the teaching of the time was only memorization and repetition . This had
the meaning that the learner had to repeat word for word from the teacher. This was no attempt
by the teacher to encourage the learner to relate his new knowledge to real life situation. Nor was
there a provision for the application for what had been learnt to problem solving in real life
situation.
Failure to learn or to understand the teaching material was always blamed to the laziness of the
learner.
For that reason there was strict school and class discipline. Therefore education was a means of
producing submissive, conforming and yet productive citizens for the cohesive society.
PART THREE
1 EDUCATION DURING THE MEDIEVAL TIME.
Medieval times in history is also referred to as ‘The dark ages or The middle ages’. Between the
3rd C and the 12th C is that period in reference. This period in history is categorized as the period
of intellectual stagnation. Whereas that may be so, yet it is true that some changes did occur but
the pace was deniably slow.
At the same time, the medieval time in history has one very important and positive aspects. This
is the aspect which makes it referred to as, ‘The period of conservation of knowledge’
For that reason of conservation of knowledge the ancient world had centres of learning. It is in
these centres where learning was imparted. These centres were located in the following places:
1. Alexandra
2. Athens
3. Constantinople
4. Beirut
5. Bordeaux
6. Lyeuns
7. Odessa
These centres could be refer to as the universities of the time. However these centres came to an
ending about 800 AD.
Two important factors were responsible for the downfall of all these centres and they were the
following:
1. The growth of Christian supernaturalism and mysticism
2. The invasion by the Barbarians from the North.
The two factors here listed above as those responsible for the decline in the learning
which had been acquired till then worked towards the same end but from two differing
objectives. The objective which they achieved wiped out the entire learning which had
been attained by the ancient teaching.
The reasons for the attack were that,
1. The Christian religion was completely opposed to secular teachings of the ancient times.
Therefore, wars were waged to wipe it out
2. The Barbarians from the north and south were just anti- civilization standards which had
been attained till then.
In view of this, it became necessary that ancient civilization and entire learning needed to be
preserved for the future generation. This responsibility fell upon the shoulders of men who
choose to seek refuge in seclusion in some remote out of the way retreats. These men sought to
preserve knowledge from total destruction.
In those retreats, they immersed themselves in the earnest fasting, praying and suffering all
things. It was from these hermits that the first monks emerged. These later established
monasteries all over Europe.
The church onslaught on the type learning of the time was due to the fact that the church had a
strong mistrust and literature and rhetoric church teaching followed the advice of the apostolic
constitution. This required that they abstain from all heathen teachings.
However, the church soon realized that it required training for its clergy in literary work if it is to
survive. For that reason , schools were established, directed exclusively ecclesiastical objectives
only. Therefore, as the church developed further the situation positively changed. The clergy
who had studied sacred text only begun to acquire love for learning for its own sake. And since
the medium of instruction and communication was Latin this factor led gradually to the revival
of the grammar schools as they had existed in Rome.
With the assistance from the secular larders the church established a wide spread system of the
school by 11c AD. In this way the church held monopoly of education. Some of the schools
which were established at th time included the following:
1. The Monasteries
2. The convent
3. The song schools
4. Episcopal (CATHEDRAL SCHOOLS)
5. The Presbyterian Schools
The Monasteries
many persecuted believers were forced to take refuge in the woods or the mountain. Others
became Hermits by choice in order to lead a solitary life of contemplation surrounded by the
beauty of nature. They chose this kind of life as opposed to more comfortable existence amid the
corruption in the city.
One of the greatest of those HARMITS was Benedict. He was from a wealthy home in Rome
BUT CHOSE TO live a hermit way from the comfort of his home. He FOUNDED A
MONESTRY OF Mt. Casino in the year 529 AD. He vowed to devout his life to poverty,
chastity and obedience. He preferred to be ‘knowingly ignorant and unlearned’. He developed
and cherished this attitude because he was opposed to learning, paradoxically he had profound
educational influence.
In that code, rule No. 48 required that brother should be occupied at specific times in sacred
moldings. This made it necessary that monasteries should provide enough instruction materials
for the brothers. These materials were used for the production and preparation of learning texts.
The monks had to learn to copy books, they had also to prepare commentaries and the
interpretation of texts. Before long, monasteries became centres of learning because they became
schools a and libraries because they became centres for the book production.
Cappellers ‘Marriage of philosophy and Mercury’ was approved by imperial government in 540
AD. For the purpose of the study. After the approval of this stuy it made it easier as this helped
endorse the revival of the teaching of the liberal arts.
This helped keep the classics alive. The seven liberal were the following subjects:
1. Grammar
2. Rhetoric
3. Dialectic
4. Arithmetic
5. Geometry
6. Astronomy
7. Music
The medium of instruction in educational institutions throughout the Europe was Latin. There
was an exception here which was Ireland. In the schools of the time it was a requirement that
children were admitted at the age of ten. They then spent eight years preparing for full
membership of the order. The boys who were admitted into these schools were called ‘interim or
ablate . The methods used in the teaching of the subjects was mainly questions and answers. And
because books were few teachers relied on dictation and memorization. Discipline remained
severe. The learners were expected to reproduce with a high level of accuracy, the entire
teachings of his teachers. In this way the monks also helped to keep culture and learning of the
ancient world alive
Convents
A long with the monasteries, there developed also convents for the girls. The best known rule
for the women was that of st. Caesarius rules which were written in 534 AD. It specified that
girls were to be accepted to the convent at the age of six and seven and they were made to be
able to read and write.
The nuns were to learn to read, write and devote at least two hours each day to read holy word
and they were to copy manuscripts. therefore, the converts also he loped to preserve the ancient
learning and culture in this way.
The song school
Among the more specialized schools of middle age are the song schools. The style of teaching in
these schools applied more to the poor boys of the society at that time. The school provided
educational instruction to those boys who aided the musical services of the church.
The song schools were developed during the rule of Gregory the great of 540-604 AD. The main
objective of the school was to provide choristance and assistance during the celebration of the
mass.
While the main emphasis was on the chant and song, some instruction in oral and written Latin
was necessary. These schools later developed into elementary schools. Chantry schools were
condoned by members of the local aristocracy. These people would establish pales in the
memory of their departed ones. They would then employ priests who also acted as teachers.
The Episcopal or Cathedral Schools.
A part from the monasteries and the convents, the early church did not have seminaries for the
instruction of future priest. Those who aspired for priesthood would gain general education in
public schools and trained in church dogma and liturgy through a kind of apprenticeship to the
bishops.
When the public schools disappeared general education was no longer available therefore, from
about the 6th C AD, the bishops themselves had to provide the general education as well as
theological education. Therefore the ante- rooms became schools. This situation changed by 18th
C AD.
It was from these cathedral school that early universities developed.
Presbyterian schools
Another type of religious school of the medieval time was the parish school, most of these
schools specialized in the teaching of Latin grammar. these schools mainly served the urban
areas .
Therefore, in 529 the church ordered that all parish priest should gather boys around them and
teach them. In this way, the priest may help bring the boys within the church upbringing. This
order eventually led to the establishment of the village schools.
Not all schools during the middle ages were under the church controlled the merchants and the
craft guilds developed and established special schools for their members, the noble men found
schools for the education of their children more lay grammar schools flourished in Italy and
Ireland where these schools specialized in the subjects of law and history.
By the end of the middle ages, burger or public vernacular schools had become more prominent.
These schools were dominated by practical philosophy of education. And they also stressed the
subjects of the arithmetic and the liberal arts.
The education of women during middle ages remained minimal. Even the nuns were taught the
rudiments of reading and writing. Although, some of the women became great scholars yet most
of them received nothing beyond manual training. There were also castle school. These were
schools for the daughters of the Aristocrats. Here, they were trained in etiquette and physical
education.
However, Italy had a higher level for the education of women much more than in many other
areas of Europe. Women were admitted to medical schools at Salerno.
THE EFFECTS OF THE CHURCH ON EDUCATION
Throughout the whole period of the middle ages the church sponsored and encouraged learning.
This was done through teaching, copying of manuscripts and writing commentaries. These then
became the basis upon which medical university developed.
However, the monopoly of education by the church during medieval time and for a long time
afterwards these had the negative effect. This is due to the fact that church interests and the
church doctrines set the limit of education practice. This had the meaning that any science or
philosophy which could be seen to be incompatible with the wishes of Christianity was
automatically excluded from the school curriculum.
This created intellectual wastage. therefore scholarship had to concentrate in harmonizing
knowledge and doctrine in order to survive. The long term effect of this monopoly was that,
considerable intellectual inquiry had to be developed in order to rediscover what had once been
known but lost because of the exclusion from the curriculum of the time from a very long time.
Together with intellectual development in Christianity medieval education in the liberal art
played an important role in the intellectualization of the medieval culture.
Although the education of this time aimed at the selected few nevertheless it provided the
catalyst for a broad based intellectual change which became the foundation of the education of
the letter generation .
The development of secular palace and the prominent cathedral schools in the 11c and the 12 c
and then the establishment of the university from the thirteenth century can be compared with the
awakenings commonly referred to as the medieval renaissance.
As it has already been stated, the major catalyst of education throughout the medieval period was
the Christian theology, this was much more so in Italy and especially in Rome after the rise of
papacy.
Throughout the middle ages, Italy continued to produce clergy of intellectual renown. Some of
them included the following: Ambrose, Augustine, Gregory the great ,Thomas Aquinas and
Gregory of Rimin. Therefore, it was a frequent practice that Italians were sent out from Rome to
teach in many parts of Europe of the time and indeed throughout the Christian world at large.
This flow to and fro Rome of these religious thinkers and intellectual helped preserve, reproduce
and spread the leanings of the ancient time. In turn, this made Rome all important religious and
educational centre of medieval era, and indeed for a long time thereafter.
Therefore it is obvious from the above that the clergy had a reason to study the classics. the
reason was the need to understand the bible literature therefore the study of the classic was a
means to an end.
JUDAISM AND EDUCATION.
The old testaments records that Moses led the children of Israel out of the land of Egypt.
Research in area puts the exodus at some time after 1,400 BC. This is the time when Hebrew join
other Semitic peoples.
For about 200 years, the Israelites live unsophisticated lives. They were twelve tribes which were
loosely united by a common faith in one God called Yahweh/ Jehovah. They did not make much
advancement in the art, science and technology.
In their wondering, they served as transmitters of other people’s cultures rather than their own.
However their impact on world civilization is great. And may be their greatest contribution to
world civilization in the concept of monotheism. This is the concept of the oneness of God. This
was the revolutionary ideas of the polytheistic world of the ancient.
The concept of a one God, which implied a single moral power, formed the heart of a Hebrew
religion. It was this concept which was transmitted to Europe through Christianity and to Africa
and Asia through Islam.
Israel as a unified kingdom was founded in about 1,020 BC under the rule of king Saul . He
founded this kingdom in the face of attacks by the Philistines. However, even through his rule
even that of his successor David. Israel remained primitive in comparison to the civilization
attained at the time by Egypt, Samaria and Canaanites (the Phoenicians) or indeed by the Greeks
who were neighbours to the north.
Sumerians were called Phoenicians by the Greeks they were Semitic race and were the leading
traders, sailors, explorers, metallurgists of their time. They also invented the first real letters of
the alphabets
Under king Solomon (961-922 BC) Jerusalem flourished as a capital of kingdom of Israel. The
Israelis captured the city from Canaanites during the rule of king David. It appears as if due to
their strong religious convictions against graven images, the Israelites developed few skills as
crafts men and therefore, they left few works of art.
Upto the time of exile in 856 BC, the Israelites educated their youths by apprecintiship method.
There were un professional teachers. Parents and the older relatives instructed the young. This
was so because, there was no formal schools. The family and the tribe were the centres of
educational learning. However the ultimate responsibility for bringing up of the young lay with
the father.
The essential purpose of education at the time was basically religious. The basic aim of
education was the development of a sense of personal responsibility towards God and an
obligation towards the law.
Boys were introduced to the law at the age of 3. They were expected to understand and in the end
act according to the law by the age thirteen. They also learn to master religious ceremonies such
as the Passover. Higher forms of education did not exist. But the priests and the prophets
expounded the law to all adults. Accordingly, the priests and the prophets created the Hebrew
literature. It is this literature that was passed on from generation to generation in the oral
tradition.
Written records for the Israelis appeared by 6 th century. It is therefore from around this time that
a distinct class of scribes and teachers begun to emerge.
The major part of the old Testament was most likely written between the Exile and the 2 nd C. BC.
Whether in its oral form or written, the old testament was the ‘national book’. It formed the basic
text of the Jewish instruction. It was therefore, the centre of the Jewish life and education.
After the death of King Solomon 922 BC , Israel split into rival kingdoms of Israel and Judah.
The declining power of the Jewish further diminished by the attacks from the Assyrians about
800 BC. And then by the Exile of 586 BC the Jewish state disappeared until it was re-established
in 1948.
JEWISH EDUCATION.
Until the exile into the Babylon in 586 BC . Jewish education was the responsibility of the father
and the family in general. It was during the exile that Jewish synagogue developed a centre for
adult learning. It was in the synagogue where the scribes who had become new learned group or
class among the Jews interpreted the sacred book and taught the law.
There were no school for the young. Jews were generally suspicious of the secular education
such that when a Greek gymnasium was developed in Palestine in the 3 rd c BC . it was not
accepted by the Jews, This was because it was not familiar with the Jews it was Greek and
therefore worldly. The Jews in the then roman empire resisted Greek culture. The Jews remained
God’s centered as what they viewed as man centered learning. Therefore, they were the
exception to the colonization of the Roman empire,
however it was Christianity, religion developed by the Jews which ultimately prevailed in the
Greco-Roman world .
Therefore, to the Jews of the time religion which was a personal loyalty to the jealous God
dominated the national and the private lives of the Jews and the key to wisdom. For example,
they strongly believed in the following dictums:
1. That, all wisdom comes from the lord and is with him forever
2. That, the world of God most high is the fountain of wisdom
3. That the fear of the lord is a crown of wisdom.
in this connection for the Jews religion provided the aim, it established the curriculum, it dictated
the method, it excluded girls from education. And determine the qualification and the conduct for
teachers.
The Jewish school system was in reverse of what we knew or what is the general practice in our
school system. That school system begun with adults downwards. Simon Ben Shetch founded
school for the youth of 17 and 17 during the 2 CBC. the aim and the Saul objective of Jewish
school system was the study of the scripture this was due to the increased need of training to
perpetuate Judaism or the Jewish national identity .
Emperor Titus ordered the distinction of Herod temples of 70 AD coupled by Thadrian’s ordered
that Jewish must not live in Jerusalem. Jewish came to accept their dispersal as inevitable. Which
this realization, they begun to establish Jewish communities whenever they were. This meant
that the teaching in the Jewish school system had to undergo a modification . This led to the
establishment of the community or elementary public schools wherever they happen to be.
Joshua, the high priest ordered that teachers be appointed to teach the boys in all Jewish
community and that education levy be made so that buys from poor home should get education
freely.
By the end of the 2nd C AD Jewish state had ceased to exist. All the Jewish had at this time been
scattered throughout Arabia, Egypt and Italy. This scattering continued to Spain and northern
Europe therefore, the school maintain religious identity rather than national one. The elementary
schools were located in the synagogues and they were called the houses of the Book. Theses
schools took in boys of ages between 6 and 13.
The books of psalms and the prophets and proverbs were added to the Jewish curriculum during
the 3 C AD. Before this time, the learning of the boys was wholly devoted to the written torah.
However, for all those Jews who had adopted foreign languages as their first language had to
learn Hebrew, or just as a mother tongue so that they may be able to learn sacredness of the
Jewish people.
Discipline in the Jewish schools was enforced by the corporal manner of the age. Corporal
method of enforcing discipline was justified by many Jewish proverbs such as ‘ He that spareth
the rod hateth his son. the manner of the study in the house of study for the both from 13-17
concentrated by the oral rather than the written law.
The general methods used in this study were:
1. Memorization
2. chanting of texts from teachers
3. The mastery of mnemonic devices
But, learning in the house of study also employed the discussion and the disputation or critic as a
method.
The qualification for the teacher as set out in the Talmud, was that the teacher should be:
1. A man
2. Should have enough knowledge of the law as well as other holy scriptures
3. That he should be of exceptional character
4. Should be married
However, in spite of the above few but seemingly strict code, there was a general public
recognition that the teacher carried great responsibilities for the promoting and maintaining the
continuity of the Jewish way of life.
THE RISE OF UNIVERSITIES IN EUROPE.
No one know exactly when the first university was sighted. This is because the first universities
were not founded deliberately as we know the case in our time. The earliest universities started
off planlessly or in deed unwillingly. The universities emerged for a variety of reasons and
uncommonly out of special academic conditions. For example, the university of Paris was a
product of some extraordinary teachers, especially in the logic and divinity section of cathedral
school of Notre Dame.
Therefore, there were many forces which combined to produce universities in Europe. In that
way we find that no two universities originate under the same conditions. Among these forces or
influences that combined to produce the universities in Europe included the following:
1. The Muslim influence
2. The development of the scholasticism
3. The growth of wealth and cities
4. The kings and universities
A. The Muslim Influences.

Muslims carried their Jihads into Europe reaching Spain in about 900 AD. In the process of their
conquest, they gave Spain an Islamic civilization which included intellectual life. Muslims had
acquired Greek civilization. This together with Syrian learning and learning the Hindu sources,
they had picked mathematical and astronomical knowledge which they brought into Spain as
areas of new learning and new knowledge.
In this connection, the European monks were attracted to his training because it was superior.
Consequently, the Muslims helped establish universities at Cordova, Toledo, and at Seville.
Curriculum at these universities covered the following areas:
i. Physics
ii. Mathematics
iii. Astronomy
iv. Chemistry
v. Medicine
vi. Psychology
vii. Philosophy
viii. Law
The most outstanding record accredited to the Islamic influence of the time is in medicine. The
‘Canon of medicine ‘by Avicenna, (980-1037).
B. The development of scholasticism
From about the 11C to about 15C, there appeared in Europe a new future in educational
development. This was a future characterized by scholastic method which consisted of citing all
known authorities from both sides of a given academic question. Thereby, a variety of distinction
to show how each authority may be reconciled.
This was a method explication of what was simplicity in mysticism. Bernard (AD. 1153) was the
architect.
Scholasticism was the systematization of speculation and by faith, the strict application of
Aristotelian logic to the philosophical and theological question of middle ages. This method
became necessary for the following factors:
i. To correct the mystical tendencies of the orient
ii. To put Europe in national thought of ancient world
iii. to save Europe from moral suicide and ignorance
iv. To compel Christendom to raise itself and to state its position as definitely opposed to
Islam
The most important of the scholasticism was the Thomas Aquinas (1255-1274 AD). He tried to
combine the Aristotelian thought with the Christian tradition of his time.
C. The emergence of wealth and cities.
The emergence of cities due to the development of commerce led to wealth among peoples of
Europe. There was a development arising from the trade far a field from Europe following the
reports and successes of the European explorers. This led to the development of the commercial
enterprises and the development of the local governments. This in turn led to the development of
interest in secular education more than ever before.
It is the development of these new interest in education and higher intellectual speculation that
led to the developments of universities.
The growth of secular interests promoted educational speculations. This led to universities to
offer causes which led to the setting up of faculties at the universities in the following order:
A. The faculty of Arts (the seven liberal arts)
i. Grammar
ii. Rhetoric
iii. Dialect
iv. Arithmetic
v. Geometry
vi. Astronomy
vii. Music
B. The faculty of law
C. The faculty of Music
D. The faculty of Divinity
Not all the universities which were established at the time offered courses in all of these
faculties. For example, the university of Salerno was founded in AD 1224 specialized in medical
training. And Bologna which was established in AD 1158, specialized in law. At the same time
the university of Paris which was established in AD1180, specialized in Divinity.
D.The kings and the universities
The founding of the higher education and subsequently the establishment of the universities was
greatly encouraged by the privileges granted by the pope in Rome and the emperors of the time.
The privilege included the granting of the university authority documents called ‘charters’. These
documents gave universities full recognition and the right to operate as a distinct educational
body of a higher learning. The first charter was given to the university of Bologna in AD 1158
by Emperor Fredrick 1.
Medieval universities were organized around the teaching faculties and the students population.
They were organized like guilds. Students to these universities were drawn from all over Europe.
The only differences among the students were the language and the kinship. These the only
natural divisions at the universities. Therefore students and masters were organized into groups
according to their national affiliations.
Teaching methods in these universities were based on the formal lecture. However, the lecture
were to be memorized by students to indicate the mastery and the acquisition of the expected
knowledge. Lectures included the reading and explaining of the required text. Then, the students
debated the relevant points which each other on the basis of a group discussions among the
students themselves. At some time, the points discussed among the student’s groups were
brought for disputation between the students and their masters. The medium of communication
in these universities was Latin.
The universities awarded degrees. The award were made after a successful end of every course.
The examination were administered under strict conditions. Examination included thesis which
the students had to defend before the members of the faculty.
However the examination for the doctoral degrees were even more strict. They lasted for a week
or even more. These examination were both written and oral. They strictly tested the ability to
defend and to dispute.
The successful candidates became master, doctors, or professors. This had the meaning that, the
candidates were able to defend, dispute and determine a case, accordingly they were allowed or
authorized to teach publicly.
Although the medieval period was educationally static due to the barbaric conquests and
although universities were usually restricted, formalized and meager, their greatest influence was
in crystallizing intellectual interests and rebuilding libraries and creating better prepared teachers
and in making them more accessible than the religious institutions did.
However, universities provided academic retreats for the more and few geniuses who could have
access to such places. Such geniuses of the time include the following:
i. Bacon 1214-1294
ii. Dante 1265-1321
iii. Patriarch 1304-1374
iv. Wyclifee 1324-1384
v. Huss(burned) -1415
vi. Copernicus 1473-1543
Unlike the religious institution, the Universities were democratic in nature such that, politically,
ecclesiastically and theologically, they were bulwark of freedom due to their legal status and
privileges. Therefore, universities preserved freedom of expression and opinion. It noted that,
even monarchs respected scholars’ opposing views such that there were few instances of
violation of student’s rights and privileges. It is on record that even monarchs such as Henry111
and Philip of France appealed to the universities for arbitration in their divorce cases.
ISLAMIC EDUCATION
The orthodox Muslims believed in absolute fatalism. But, some sects within the faith believed in
a limited form of free will. That evil and injustice are due to man and not God. Therefore, the
believe in predestination has philosophical and educational implication. For example, this would
be no sense in the use of the resources of reason when all you need is faith.
However, Islam provides for a strong family system, moderate habits and for charity towards the
underprivileged members of the society.
According to Mohamed, all believers are equal before Allah. Therefore, in that connection there
would be no for an organization for priesthood. In this regard, the centre of theology is the Koran
and not the church.
According to Islam, sins are put in two main categories. These are as follows:
A. Major sins
i. Heresy
ii. Murder
iii. Adultery
iv. Magic
v. Gambling
These sins require genuine repentance. The worst sin is the disbelief in God. This leads to
domination and is unpardonable.
B. The minor sins
i. Dispation and acts of lust
ii. Sexual morality
An amend for the sins in this category is by doing good. However, there is far less Puritanism in
Islam than in Christianity. It follows therefore that, the system of polygamy and the
subordination of the women allowed for more erotic freedom than western religions could
recognize.
The believers of Islam are expected to repeat the Creed five times a day while bowing facing
Mecca. Alms giving is encouraged and stressed because charity is part and parcel of
Mahamedanism. Fasting is encouraged during the month of Ramadan. And then as far as it is
possible, Islamic believers are expected to visit Mecca at least once in their life’s time.
There are many constant struggles to be found within Islam philosophies. These struggles are
between those who believe and accept the inspired message of Koran and those who were guided
by reason and were inclined in the direction of philosophy. One of the most notable of the
Muslim philosophers is Alfarabi. He made an interpretation of Islam in the context of Platonic
philosophy.
In his view, He advanced the view that we cannot know God completely because, God is
infinitely perfect. Like Plato he stressed the importance of reason as a means of arriving at the
point of the acquisition of the knowledge. Furthermore in his educational advancement , Alfarabi
stressed that God is a spirit of truth and we honour him best by cultivating our philosophical
powers. And that, the teacher is the representative of Allah on earth.
Another philosopher of note was Avicenna. His greatest contribution was in the field of medicine
like Alfarabi, he too believed in the omnipotence of God. And that, the value of man manifests
itself when a man identifies himself with God.
Avicenna believed in the personal morality. That, the soul is not corruptible by matter. There is
a lot of mystical expression in his philosophy such that he states that, the highest state of
knowledge is arrived at when we feel a divine illumination which cannot be verbally expressed.
For Avicenna, the main purpose of education is the cultivation of mysticism.
One of the other notable Muslim philosopher from the Muslim world is Al- Gazzali who further
heightened the mystical strains in Islam he deeply studied philosophy and religion.
He divided the search for truth into four categories. These were the following:
a) Scholastic
b) Belevers in esoteric doctrines
c) Professional philosophers
d) Sufis
Al-Gazali’s view in these categories were that, the scholastics did not have enough faith to
defend religions ideal. In which case they could not give certainty to man. And as far as those
who believed in an esoteric doctrines, their knowledge was shallow and fraudulent. HE
particularly was critical about professional educators and philosophers. He felt that the doctrine
they taught was irrelevant, and tended to be subversive.
The approach which Al- Gazzali approved was that of Sufis. He felt that theirs was the sure way
to salvation. The Sufis replaced reason by faith to scientific knowledge by intuition. He further
asserts that man does not need theology to achieve realization of divine reality which governs the
universe.
Furthermore, according to the views of Al-Gazzali, real education demands asceticism. and that
man must abandon all lust of the flesh and striving for honour and the worldly praise. In this way
we turn away from sense object and then we get to see the overwhelming majesty of God.
A yet another notable Muslim philosopher was Averroes who relied mainly on the Greek
thought in philosophy of Aristotle. He believed that only the active intellect is immortal. That
what remained after death is part of a man which is reason whose aspects we share with other
beings.
In order to keep away with his critics, he took refuge in bauble truth. That, it was possible that
something could be sure in philosophy and education and yet the same thing could be found to
be false in theology. Averroes did not believe in the concept of creation out of nothing. He
believed that the universe was eternal and could not be destroyed by Allah.
Averroes believes in the course of enlighten, he contented that a real teacher is the one who is
emancipated from superstition and the one who understand the symbolic nature of the truth. He
will look upon knowledge as an eternal process, not as a final attainment.
Contribution of Islam to Education
Muslim culture and learning was very superior to that of western civilization. Muslim translated
Greek classical into Arabic. In this way they managed to cultivate a very high standard of
learning. Muslims were tolerant when it came to new ideas.
This Muslim approach to learning does not seem to have continued into the modern times. It is
on the record that during the middle Ages, Islamic learning had developed and reached a high
standard of sciences and medicine. The most outstanding work of the time is Avicenna’s ;Canon
Medicine’. Islamic learning was the pioneer in Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry and Geography.
When universities came up to the area, they stressed learning in the area of scientific studies and
religion.
A house of wisdom was established in 830 Ad as a combination of centre of learning and
museum. It is also noted that they universities of the middle ages in the Muslim world, were
more liberal and progressive than in the modern times. Notable records in the Muslim literature
include among others, the Arabian Nights and the Rubaiyat.
However the Islamic contribution to education during Refinances it through their translation of
the Greek thinkers and by encouraging scholarship. But, there was a turn away from their earlier
attitude towards Greek learning and education when they attacked and captured Constantinople
in 1453 AD. Many of the famous Greek scholars were forced to take refuge in the Italian City
states of the west.
However by all accounts the Islamic approach to education is an example of the relationship of
the freedom and creativity in education. It is therefore found that when Islamic rulers like
Haroun al- Rashid encouraged freedom of expression, the arts and sciences prospered. But, when
the freedom was curbed by the advent of more Orthodox Islamic leaders in later years, Muslim
learning declined. This then retarded learning in the whole of the Muslim world.
This was due to the fact that when the freedom of inquiry is limited, no real advancement in
knowledge can be possible.
PART FOUR
RENAISSANCE AND EDUATION

Between 13th and 16th Centuries Europe experienced a rebirth of knowledge. This was the period
which history is generally referred to as ‘the renaissance’
This is the period in which ancient Greco-Roman was revived or begun to re-emerge. The
human activities which eventually came to characterize the period of the renaissance developed
out of progressive social, economic and philosophical rebirth or change
Those factors for which emerged the period of renaissance include the following factors:
1. The emergent and development of national languages and literature.
2. The enrichment of cities
3. The expansion of commerce and industries and banking ( Industrial development)
4. The rise of the guilds and the growing spirit of nationalism.
Renaissance represents a new period in human culture. However its break with middle ages was
gradual, It WAS A GRADUAL CHANGE WHICH EVENTUALLY LED TO THE
DEVELOPMENT OF NEW WORLD PERSPECTIVE.
For example where the middle ages had advocated for modification of the body, Renaissance
scholars asserts that life is to be enjoyed to the full. The middle class became more important
during renaissance. Nationalism and the glorification of wealth became more permanent aspects
of European civilization. The invention of printing created a broader foundation for the universal
education.
Other notable developments of the renaissance include such aspects as the role of women of the
society which had been inferior during middle Ages, took on prominent role of European culture.
Furthermore while the middle ages had maintained moralistic conception of man, art became the
main instrument of interpretation during the renaissance.
In this connections, such arts like the da Vinci became the leaders of the society. Man’s body
which had earlier been regarded as the source of sin, was now glorified by the artists and
became the object of detailed economic study in the medicine e.t.c
All these changes also affected the general status of man which also changed. There was a
glorification of human perfection . Man’s dignity was emphasized. We note as Pico della
Mirandola showed that man became the centre of the universe. Furthermore we find a new
conception of the gentleman during the Renaissance.
The medieval gentleman was usually illiterate and only interested in sports and warfare. On the
other hand, the renaissance gentle man treasured and valued education and was an expert of love.
This was due to the fact that the needs and expectation of the man in renaissance was a complete
man in whom both art and sciences are properly cultivated.
the development of the attitudes of the renaissance periods brought about the revolution in the
thinking of the man of the time. The knowledgeable public in the Middle Ages pictured conceive
the earth as a centre of the universe. This view was turned around by the knowledge of the
renaissance public. This view was contradicted by the heliocentric perspective of the universe of
the new age. Those who advanced the view of the age included the war Copernicus, Galileo,
Brahe and Kepler. This work aided the emergence and the establishment of the final victory of
this world view.
At the beginning the new scientific ideas were ridiculed and the proponents were persecuted. The
well known among others is the suffering of the Galileo. Finally during the age of the Newton,
the heliocentric viewpoint of the universe was taken for granted by the educated world.
by this stage not only had the universe changed, but so had the man lost his status as the lord of
creation. more and more scholars were conscious of man’s infinitesimal position in the vast
astronomical world.
Nevertheless, the thinker of the time equally developed various reactions to the new conception
of the world. To Bruno for example, it meant a ready acceptance of the pantheism. On the other
hand to Gassendi, Epicureanism was the only alternative. While to Bayle, skepticism seemed to
be the best answer.
On the other hand, Pascal who laid the foundation for the calculus considered faith as the only
valid solution to the concept of the world. However his belief in the revelation was different
from that medieval ages acceptance of the dogmas of the church. For THE SCHOLARS OF THE
MIDDLE AGES it natural to adhere to absolute standard but for Pascal it an escape caused by
despair.
The new world of the renaissance was nominated by laws and not by miracles. It was afar more
sober than the older world. However, faith in the miracle s continued but to some extent these
were on the foundation of the science.
By this time, the absolute authority of the rulers and theology over the knowledge and the
learning of the old war waning. The students at the universities were chartered by the study of
language and sway of the physical sciences instead of by the issues of theology only. The new
method in science respected to fact of nature. It ceased to be an allegory and instead became the
experiment. In this, facts and particulars were emphasized instead of generality and patience
became a major virtue for the scientists.
all these advance made during this period of renaissance created un bounded spirit of confidence
in man’s abilities. This period also created a sense of optimism. At this time man begun to feel
that no discovery nor scientific advancement play beyond human achievement.
It is therefore strange that various man begun modern civilization with such a high confidence in
his ability yet it is noted that at present skeptics has set him in regard to his control of nature may
be it would be easy to explain that renaissance spirit in man’s self confidence. it was during this
period that man at the early stages in his emancipation that he was overwhelmed by the novelty
of his primary inventions.
One of the scholars who influence the development of the renaissance was Patriarch. He was a
supporter of classical learning and an exponent of secular ideals. He was opposed to an education
system. Instead, urged the cultivation of the art and sciences.
In his school at Mantua in Italy, Vittarino da Felter was a famed classical scholar and a noted
mathematician. The schools also trained in sciences, humanity as well as religion. In each of
these field of learning he also expanded humanistic concept of lfe . On his part Petrus Paulus
Vergerius became notable in the field of literature. He regarded this area of learning as the basic
study of the entire curriculum. And Guarino from Veronna founded a school at Ferrara in Italy.
This was a preparatory academy for the teaching religion and the schools also emphasized high
standard in literary arts. Furthermor, casttiglience outlined the etiquette of the new educational
system. He mauntainred that learning and good manners should be joined such that a well
educated person is well behaved or a man of good manners. At the same time he advocated thet
the Aristocrats should also be a model to others in general society in his own cultural intresrest .
REFORMERS IN EDUCATION
Among the educational reformers of the period renaissance included the following:
a) Rabelais (1494)
Rabelais deserves a honored place among the reformers in education of the renaissance for his
educational recommendation during his time. He was born in 1494 at Tauraine . He joined a
monastery and later he became too independent for the order to sustain him. He the broke away
he devoted himself to medicine.
Rabalais maintains in ‘Gargantua’ that the major objective of education is, or must be ‘Do what
thou wilt’.
With this view in mind he wanted to establish a school which could become ideal school run on
co- educational basis that there were to be no cloke in school and no compulsion whatsoever.
And the students were not to be recruited into the school on the basis of personable men and
women only. The basic criteria for admission would be intelligence.
Rabelais made it clear that there were to be no ascetics in the school and no rule of poverty,
chastity and of obedience. He wanted the students in the school to exercise their freedom wisely.
Then they were to learn foreign languages and various sciences. He felt that greatest evil in
education was coercion. He had o place for corporal punishment of scholastic rules nor the
worship of the past. \
Rabelais wasnted to establish education SYSTEM BASED ON THE GLOR OF THE PRESNT
b) Juan Louis Vives (1492-1540)
Juan was more religious that Rabelais a Spanish thinkers who remained faithful to Catholicism.
He exercised a profound influence on comenus by his advocacy of the use of vernacular in
learning and dar the education of women
In his view the progress of education depends on the methodology used that learning should start
with simple and concrete and then move on to the more abstruct and complex matters.
c) Peter Ramus (1515-1572)
He felt that the influence of Aristotle needed to be limited in its application in education. He
favoured logic based on induction and considered literature as basis of instruction. He was a
professor at the university of Parish. He was killed at the time when St. Bartholomew massacred
because they were protestants.
Ramus just like Vives, believed in the importance of methodology as the starting purity of
knowledge .That, knowledge must be concrete and applicable in the daily lives of man.
d) Thomas Eliot (1490-1546)
Thomas popularized the new educational ideals in England He outlined the rules of the
instruction of the future Aristocrat that, the future aristocrat would be taught the humanity as
well as the sciences. At the same time, the praise of the Aristocrat should be developed so that he
may act like a real gentleman on all occasions.
e) Sir. Philip Sydney
The renaissance ideal of education was eloquently represented by sir Philip who combined
poetry with mainlines and annexed bravery. In his many- sided genius, Sydney represented
aspiration to excellence. This was a spirit which was greatly admired during the renaissance.
HUMANISM AND EDUCATION
The victory of the scientific spirit was made possible by the northern humanist of the period of
renaissance. Most of them were pious Christians who still accepted God as the primary
condition in in life. They also had great respect for authority and more particularly for the Greek
and the Roman scholars.
The humanist did much to help popularize scholarship The universities then became social and
political storm centres as well as agencies of active religion reform. However these humanists
were concerned with exactness and scholarship.
The humanists venerated Greeks and Latin authorities almost to the same degrees as the
theologians venerated the work of the church fathers.
Notable humanists of the renaissance
a). Desidrious Erasmus (1466-1536)
Erasmus was a man who travelled far and wide. He often admitted that he was a citizen of
Europe and not of any one nation. During his lifetime , he taught at Cambridge and lived in
Paris, Venice and Basel. Scholars followed him wherever he went and his letters and books
reached a wide audience.
Erasmus believed that man is the centre of the universe. He had strong faith in God, but he hated
superstition. He felt that hypocrisies govern most of mankind and that educator has to be aware
of conceit. Like many other humanists, Erasmus believed that women should be educated, for
real knowledge would strengthen the family ties. For that reason he urged the systematic training
of teachers.
The aim of education according to Erasmus is independent judgment where this combine real
knowledge and honesty. This was based on the fact that, we must not rely on the ancient at all
time. But we must learn to stand on our own feet and deal intelligently with the problems of our
own time.
Furthermore, Erasmus made important contribution to the study of motivation. For example if a
teacher used force and coercion, he would motivate his students in a negative way. However,
this teacher could become positive influence if he set out a scholarly example. He notes that, it is
easy to use the rod as a tool of discipline yet it is far more important and effective if you use a
moral inspiration such that the student may want to continue to learn by himself.
In one of his most eloquent pleas, Erasmus set out a plea for an education system. That, since
fully dominates all aspects of society, self- examination is indeed very necessary.
He asserts that learning should concerned less with flattery and vein glories and praises but more
with the Socratic spirit. Humanity is the most important trait of a scholar.
Erasmus maintained that, the task of a teacher is to develop a Christian philosophy of education
which can be understood by all.
b. Niccolo Machiavelli 1469-1527
Another notable among the humanist of the renaissance is Machiavelli. He stands of the ideas of
the time which led to the creation of a sense of nationalism. This came up in the fact of
weakening authority of the church. His level of nationalism was based on the city states because,
nations as we now know them had not yet developed.
It is also believed that the religious revolts at the time were greatly encouraged by the
nationalistic considerations.
The thinkers of renaissance period were more frank and free than those of medieval scholars
with regards to the economic drives of a man. For that matter, Machiavelli indicated the
important role of property in politics. He also showed that revolutions had been brought about
because of inadequate economic policies on the part of the rulers. In other words, the social
revolts and unrest are due to economic disparities in the society.
Furthermore, there was a frank recognition of dual concept of morality. This dual morality
concept provided that what was valid for the common man could not be applicable to the
Princes, and what was praiseworthy in private conduct could not apply to the matters of state.
And the divine right of the kings, placed the king beyond the dictates of the ordinary morality.
In fact, what was good and right and just was determined by the rulers but not the customs of the
society.
Machiavelli highlighted educational ideals of power politics which ideas are represented in his
works. According Machiavelli life is not a metaphysical process but is determined by biological
factors and social economics. That self interest guide the human race. According to Machiavelli
we are all first and foremost egotists. We think of our own advancement before we give a
thought to the other.
Machiavelli was a caustic antic of the church in Rome and the pope. He believed that the nearer
people lived to Rome, the more they are inclined to be more atheistic. He was of the view that
the masses could be controlled easily. That, people easily changed and their memories are short-
lived. Therefore, the best type of education would be that which appeals to the lowest drives in
man.
C. Michael de Mointaigne 1533-1592
According to Montaigne, life is Schod masters. He felt that faith is less important than reason.
He also travelled wide and experience from his travels was that you learn better from
interpersonal interaction than from books. Therefore, he believes that the development of the
educated man depends on his physical excellence. Without good health the mind cannot develop.
The educated man should cultivate the art as well as the sciences. The truly educated man should
avoid Puritanism.
However, that does not in any way imply life dedicated to sensual pleasures, but, a sense of
moderation. The morals of the educated must be trained and developed in the same way as his
aesthetic sensitivity is sharpened.
Montaigne was loyal to the teaching of religion but he did not have fervent faith. He believed
that man was to be guided by good sense and sense of proportion. He felt that religion sometimes
impedes educational progress. That in learning, memorization should be avoided because
learning should be an active process. That, one should travel both intellectually and physically.
That, every season, every social event, every encounter with a new person can and should be an
educative experience,
We need to be aware and alert about our environment so that we can be able to read with more
profound interest.
While avoiding the dual concept of the medieval educators Montaigne claim that the body and
the mind have the same needs. Education is not an abstract external process, but one which
involve a change in our basic attitudes. The value of education that, it facilitates the full
enjoyment of life.
In summary, the advantage of the new system of education was in its enthusiasm for the classics.
The classical ideal represented a way of life based on moderation and the enjoyment of this
world. The exact ideals of scholarship were glorified and the scholar was regarded as the leader
of civilization.
But, the new system also brought about degeneration of the study of literature, a stress on empty
memorization and emphasis n limitation on the past.
However, in the history of humanity reforms have often become traditional and their favour has
frequently been diminished though a parent success. At the same time, we need to note here that
many renaissance scholars were just as regressive as the scholastic of the medieval period whom
they criticized. On the other hand, This criticism may not be made of such educators as
Montaigne and Ramus. They believed in a universal scheme of instruction.
Nevertheless renaissance is closer to the 20th C in its educational ideals than any other age in
human civilization. The period paused severe dilemma which still torture modern man, For
example what is the relationship between knowledge and morality? what is more important,
general education or specific knowledge? what is supposed to be centre of education, science or
literature? what is the relationship between intellectual and aesthetic excellence? as can be seen
all these questions are important in the history of education.
In order to be able to live upto the renaissance ideal virtue man find it necessary to develop all
his interest, i.e. Physical, mental, aesthetic and spiritual. Thus, there was a need of real activity.
Furthermore, the emphasis on self expression and of confidence in man helped to make
humanism one of the most significant movement in the history of education.
Reforms and Education.
Reformation during Renaissance did not come up suddenly. It came up after several centuries of
agitation on the part of heretical groups. The causes that produced it were economic, and social
as well as religious. It coincided with the rise of a new age, such that instead of feudalism there
was growth of capitalistic economy.
Furthermore, the discovery of printing helped to make religious knowledge available to all. At
the same time, the church was suffering from various abuses. For example, the immorality of the
clergy, the great schism with many contenders for the papacy and the papacy itself was falling
short of its high calling and the growing materialism among the church official.
The humanists like the Okham challenged the concept of the universal truth. They held the views
that only particulars are real. This meant that an emphasis is upon the individual worshiper and
not on the church organization. They placed a stress on the importance of man rather than the
supernatural.
They were also critical of scholastic doctrines. The movement held that the church councils,
rather than the pope were supreme. Rebels like Huss and Wycliffe urged that the church should
go back to simplicity of Christ and they favoured an encouragement of the nationalistic forces
within Catholicism.
One of the names which spearheaded reformist movement is that of Martin Luther (1483-1546).
It is him who led to the creation of a new look in religion and education. Luther was a well
educated man who had a brilliant mind and very intelligent. He was a man of intense moral
earnestness.
In his work of 1517, he stressed that, the saints can make up of some of the sins of mankind thus
our stay in purgatory might be shortened by indulgence.
With time Luther became more and more radical. He attacked the concept that the pope is
superior to the church councils, that spiritual power ranks above temporal power, and that no one
could interpret the bible but the pope.
Luther maintained that there is no real difference between spiritual and secular power for all
Christians belonged to spiritual estate. That the bishop have neither special privileges nor special
status, potentially, every man is his own priest. He was emphatic regarding the ability of every
Christian to interpret the bible he could no scriptural evidence for that claim that only the pope
could interpret the whole scripture.
To appreciate the bible we need faith and understanding and this can be achieved by the lay man
as well as the priest, by the lowly as by the Aristocrat.
The cardinal concept of the Martin Luther was his emphasis on justification by faith and rather
than good work that we are not saved without complete dependence on God.
Like St. Augustine, Luther was cautious of man lust and failings. Faith itself is due to God’s
mercy and not to God in his own inscrutable way determines those who will receive divine grace
When Luther died in 1546, the denomination he carried had spread into most of Germany. This
is what we have come to know in our own days as the Lutheran church.
The first and notable contribution which Martin Luther made to education was transaction of
bible into German. It soon became the national text book. He maintained that school should be
governed by the state and not the church. He even argued the princes of his time to force parents
to send their children to school. That, not only would this promote morality, but it would also
add stability of the state.
To Luther, education was made up of the kind of instruction a child received at home. This is in
accordance with the first commandment which is to honour our parents. This becomes the debt
we owe to them. The erring had to be disciplined. Otherwise certain impulses would find
expression and complete delinquency would result.
However, this did not imply that the rod should be used constantly by the teacher. On the
contrary, Luther urged a more humane form of discipline. All in all, inspiration was the best
method of education.
Finally, it is difficulty to evaluate long range result of the reformation. Thus, we find a constant
multiplication of sects, a return to Biblical literalism and a Puritanism of morals, which increased
the instability of the western man. Indirectly, the reformation encouraged the of nationalism for
instance, the piece of Westphalia resulted in a concept whereby the princes would decide the
religion of their subject.
It has been It has been remarked that Puritanism stimulated an acquisitive economy .Property
right where placed above human rights and moral obligations to the individual were above
human right and moral obligation to individual were often forgotten. Catholic thinkers like
maintained speak of reformation as an unfortunate incident. They feel that it impoverished the
spiritual life an destroyed the aesthetic splendor of the middle ages.Not withstanding, the true
spirit of reformation had many constructive result .
Reformation encouraged the use of vernacular as a fundamental contribution to the improvement
to education. The basis of popular education was expanded and thus reformation aided the forces
of democracy.
Some Educational views
All matters upon which man has to react originates from the original creation in accordance with
Plato’s Cosmogony. From here we note that, the nature of ideal being was everlasting. But
bestow the attribute in its fullness upon the creature was impossible. Where off the creator
resolve to have a moving image of eternity, and when he set in order the heaven, he made the
image eternal but moving according to a number while eternity itself rests in unity.
And this image we call “time”
Before this, there were no days and nights of eternal evidence we must not say that it was or
will be, only is, is current. What is implied here is that of the ‘Moving image of eternity’ it is
correct to say that it was and will be.
Time and heavens came into existence at the same instant. God made the sun so that animals
could learn arithmetic. This is based on understanding that without succession of days and
nights, we might not have thought of numbers and thus, counting would not have been
conceived.
The sight of the day and night, months and years created the knowledge of number.
Consequently, this has led to the conception of time and subsequently the development of
philosophy.
Furthermore, we find that Descartes asserts that that the universe is made up of three substances:
a The absolute, God
b The wind
c The matter
He further states that, the last two are relative because they were created by God while God is the
efficient cause of all matter, he therefore is the teleological cause of the mind. Mind and matter
have no properties in common. Thus, we find a dualistic spirits in Decodes.
It is found that the method he used had profound consequences on education. H e maintained
that valid knowledge cannot be achieved without purging of all prejudices. For example, what
we want to achieve cannot influence our thinking. That, we should be guided by reason alone
and not by our hopes and desires. Therefore, one must avoid extremes. That is better be guided
by probabilities when absolute conclusions could not be achieved.
At the same time, it is not good to cultivate a sense of independence from external
circumstances. Therefore, the conquest of the self comes first before the conquest of the
universe.
Descartes developed four rules which can lead to the establishment of the true knowledge and
the four rules are stated as follows:
a. Never accept anything to be true which you do not know to be clearly so
b. Divide a problem to workable parts and then work towards the solution.
c. Commence work on any project from the simplest towards the complex.
d. Number the solutions then check through once again to be sure.
And from Spinoza, we get three stages of knowledge. Spinoza states that three stages are as
follows:
a. Opinion: many people are guided in what they claim to know by the opinions of their
neighbours. They thus all willingly share mutual ignorance.
b. Understanding: This is where we get to understand the orderly nature of the university.
We are therefore able to relate the causes to effects.
c. Intuition: This is the highest stage of knowledge. Through inttion we look at the universe
as a whole and we transcend everything which is fragmentary and partial.
Furthermore, Spinoza states that, the life of reason is the life of an educated man. This has the
meaning for example that we do not bases our religious beliefs on fear. Reason indicates the
foolishness of any subjection to envy, anger, revenge and hated, because all these passions are
irrational and they tend to enslave man within himself. On the other hand, the superstitious man
is the unhappy because he is constantly afraid of anger of God.
The man of true wisdom and education will not pay too much attention to the present nor will he
be disturbed by momentary reverses.
PART FIVE
1. FOUNDATION OF MODERN EDUCATION.
The foundation of modern education noted strongly in the conditions which led to to the need for
improved standards in the education of the people. The conditions were created by the emergent
of industries in Europe. This is what is commonly referred to as ‘Industrial Revolution’. This is a
major aspects of the 18th and 19th centuries.
A major characteristic of this period was the growth of technology through the appearance of
inventions. For example:
a. The first railroad 1825
b. The first photograph 1826
c. Macormick’s mechanical reaper 1831
d. The First Atlantic cable 1859
e. Bell’s telephone 1876
f. Edisan’s incandescent lamp 1879
g. Daimler’s internal combustion engine 1885
h. Rantgen’s X-ray 1859
i. Karl Max’s Das Kapital 1867
These and many others were new developments at the time. They definitely led to the
improvements in transportation and communication. They permitted new volume in agricultural
and industrial production.
They also provided new comforts as well as new kinds of job, more wealth, better health. At the
same time, they demanded new skills, new training programmes.
In view of all these demands and education, the traditional literary forms of education would not
adequately serve the new mechanical age.
Another characteristic of the period was development of groups and organization of social and
political reforms. Although the group and organization succeeded, they did so after a lot of
struggle. They fought for:
a. The abolition of slavery in Europe and America
b. The organization of trade unions and having them organized
c. The extension of the franchise
d. The factory laws
e. The prison conditions ameliorated
These reformers assisted education development. Their activities challenged old practice and
made social innovations. Yet another important characteristic of the period was the intellectual
format and the release of ideas of utmost consequence for mankind in future.
For example:
a. In pure science, Farraday questioned the Newtonian universe. Tihis paved the was for
Einstein and the space age.
b. In philosophy, Hegel provided the theory for the German Superstate
c. In biology, Darwin’s origin of species which provided the theory of evolution
d. In political philosophy
e. In psychology, Freud developed psychoanalysis and a new approach to the study of
man’s behaviour
f. In religion, Cardinal Newman and the Oxford movement brought about the catholic
revival
The period was also notable for its production of works of art and literature. It was an age of
giants of culture as well as industry. Some of the notable penalties of this area includes the
following: Brayon, the Brontes, Beethoven, the pre-Raphaelites, Balzac, James Dostoevsky,
Whiteman, Hugo, Taltson e,t,c
It was also century of a nationalism which saw the welding together of provinces and regions and
the emergences of national identity as in Germany, Italy and Canada. It was also the high point
of the European powers. The proudes days of empire when security and strength of European
powers especially Britain seemed invincible. With the rise of nations, there came the possibility
and the reality of national systems of education.
Out of the 19th centre conglomeration of social and intellectual forces came new pedagogical
ideas and practices and acceleration of the trend towards popular education.
It was during this period that educational opportunities expanded. It begun to reach larger
members of the working class children. Although physical resources and trained teachers were
few.
Still limited, formal instruction could be brought to the numerous offspring of the lower orders
through the material system which was chiefly in religious or charity institutions.
In response to the changing conditions, these voluntary ventures were replaced by public
schools. And as industries grow, skill workers were required, as liberal social philosophies took
root, the notion of self-improved for all members of the society gained increasing acceptance.
Therefore, during the 19th century educational facilities were extended to move children and to
two new categories of students , i.e. infants and adults.
In Europe as well as in USA, there continued to be a suspicion that the ordinary man or woman
was not fit for education. That because of his social order, he did not seen any schooling.
However, these feelings and ideas soon became out molded with the advent of industrial
revolution of the ninetieth century.
In order to meet this new requirement in the society, education for the adults became necessary
for two categories of people:
a. Those who had not had a chance during their childhood to go to school.
b. Those who simply wanted to better their educational standards.
DEVELOPMENT IN EDUCATIONAL THOUGHT.

With the advent of industrialism led to the growth of population centres. This, coupled with
mechanization and the organization of the most aspects of social life, came to new threat of
conformity. The uniformity of the factory which counted men and women as faceless, mindless
hands which do specific job just like automatic was a new danger of individualism.
This was then seen to replace the old concept where ordinary people were seen as significant,
indistinguishable vessels. However, the liberal legacy continued where old documents held that
men were naturally good and that the individual is important. This is when the educational
thinkers conceive education as a procedure for introduction. The emphasized the unity of growth.
They denied the old doctrine of dichotomy of mind and body. And as they grouped far and
understanding of mental process, they applied methods of scientific observation rather than
philosophic speculation. They were in short, establishing the psychology of education.
Finally, this movement resulted to better methods of teaching, more careful teacher preparation,
attention to the student as well as to the subject matter, greater respect for early childhood,
educational research into the modifications to curricula and school organization.
The outstanding names in this connection include the following:
i. Johann H. Pestalozzi (1746-1827)
It can be said that Pestalozzi started off like in an enabling environment. The following factors
are noted. That he had a happy home life with his mother and father. In his mature life too, with
his wife. Then there came Emile and the social contract which were too important works from
Rousseau which also greatly helped influence Pestalozzi’s ideas.
It therefore very fitting for him to advance the view that, the most natural environment for the
child was a loving home which was the same time dominated by a firm discipline. Pestalozzi
recognized the importance of national security in education development.
Among the educational principles presented by Pestalozzi include the idea that, the aim of
education is to bring about a reformed society. This can be brought about by the individual
displaying virtue and justice in the state. That, education is the right of every child and should be
made available to all.
According to Pestalozzi, the process of mental growth must be considered in all instructions
begin with the value sense impressions. These then become distinct as certain objects form
individual unit of experience. THEN distinct impressions become clear images when secondary
qualities are imagined or represented in the mind. Subsequently, the clear images became
definite ideas that is, they can be defined such that, the object which were once individual units
are now seen in relation to other object.
Therefore, education is essentially a process of carination and the task of he teacher is to help
direct pupils activities towards the acqucision of definite ideas. Learning is a process of giving
significance to individual impression through ideas or from the other end, of giving substance to
ideas by first hand experience. In which case, it follows from the Pestalozzi’s theory of learning
that sense perception is the basis of knowledge and observation in the basis of instructions.
It can be noted at once that there are immediate implications for the curriculum content and
teaching techniques in this theory.
For example, a child begins his learning by his own experience of fact (sense impression) and
then proceeds to definite ideas. In this connection, all lesson must present concrete materials
within the child’s experience.
At the same time, materials presented for learning should be in a developmental order such that
the teacher begins from the simplest to the most complex and from the known to unknown.
Subject must be analyst into their simplest elements which the child can discover and learn more
easily than a complex entity.
Therefore, elements of number proceed arithmetic while line and curves introduce drawing and
writing. At the same time, sounds come before words ro sentences. However, the analyst of the
subject requires special training with together with the need for understanding the whole process
of development is an important aspect of Pestalozzi teaching education programmes. The
importance of the educational ideas of Pestalozzi is that, these ideas were both idealistic and
realistic and were first adopted in Prussia and soon spread worldwide. These ideas became the
basis of modern education ideas presenting a child centered form of education.
I. John F. Herbart 1776-1841
While Herbart remained indebted to Pestalozzi for his education ideas, yet he added some
changes through his educational theories which were mainly theoretical. Herbart was not
interested in social ethics than mere social changes. His work dealt mainly with the method and
the content of the secondary school.
For Herbart the aim of education was the development of moral character. Therefore, the teacher
should teach in such away to develop on the student desirable interest as possible. It is these
interests that generate actions and the more interest a person has the finer will be his character
and the better will be his behavior.
Pedagogic theory of Herbart can be summarized in three key words as follows:
a. Interest
b. Appreciation
c. Correction
Herbart stressed that instructions can only be truly educative when it can arouse interest in the
learner. A pleasant feeling which accompanies the reception of an idea makes it possible for the
idea to be strongly received. When there is interest, the student uses full attention and in such
case, there is no need for any external form of discipline.
However, interest can have some emotional elements but it does not interfere with reason,
because without reason no real learning can take place.
Learning involves new materials. But a child does not have interest in something remote from his
past experience. All new materials are interpreted intern of past experience. This is the process
which Herbart call ‘Appreciation’.
Past experience culminates in the mind and ‘appreciative mass’ which is drawn upon as new
ideas need not to be understood. Appreciation also influences the way in which the mind receives
ideas. And once the idea is received, they should not remain isolated but by the process of
correlation. they should be organized and made to create into the student a unified world view.
Herbart believed that any suitable subject can be learn provided it is presented in a systematic
way taking into consideration the process of learning. He identified stages through which all
instructions should proceed and his method, formalized and extended by his followers became
known as the five Herbartarian steps. These five steps are as follows:
a. Preparation: here, the mood of learning is set out, the necessary interest is raised,
previous material is recalled or past experience is brought into play
b. Presentation: here, the new and the old material for learning are combined
c. Generalization: Here, comparisons are made and general principles are formulated and
definitions or rules are made
d. Application; Here, the rules are tested by applying them to solve the new problems and in
performing the new task and carrying out the home work.
Accordingly, Herbart’s methodology turned attention to controlled development consequently,
Herby was replaced on the side of ‘Nature’ in the ‘nature vs. Nature’controvasy among the social
scientists.
The method advanced by Herbart was widely adopted and still is in use to our present times
II. Friedrich Froebel (1782-1852)
This is the third educator who broke away from the tradition of the subject-centered instruction.
He created new concern for the child. Like Herbart, he was deeply indebted to Pestalozzi.
Because he was more interested in the education of the very young, he opened a school after
1816, called the ‘Universal German Education Institute’. Here he developed his ideas which later
led to the establishment of the ‘First Universal German Kindergarten’ in 1840.
Basic to Froebel’s thought is the idea that 11 things live and have their being in and through
God, the divine unit. Therefore, the primary duty of the school is to make the child aware of this
ever-living unity, this divine affluence which is in all things.
The key to Froebel’s method which is based on the idea of the child is to consider the primary
interest of the child which is more inclined to action rather than book learning. Therefore, he
stressed teaching which took into consideration the motor expression of the child.
III. John Dewey 1859-1952
John Dewey born in Burlington 1859. He receive his early education locally and received his
B.A at the university of Vermont.
Dewey and his wife Mary founded an experimental school at university of Chicago where he
taught philosophy.
The objective of experimental school was to experiment a new approaches to curricular,

classroom procedures and in new teaching techniques. All ideas experimented at this school were
based on the new science of psychology.
Dewey advanced among others, the following principles in education:
a. The primary business of education is to train children in co-operative and mutually
hopeful living.
b. The primary tool of all educative activities is in the instinctive, impulsive attitude and
activities of the child.
c. Individual tendencies and activities are organized and directed through co-operative
living.
d. The school reproduce on the child’s plane the typical doing and occupations of the larger,
mature society which he is finally to enter.
e. It is through production and creative use that valuable knowledge is secured.
These Dewey’s educational ideas are elaborated in his writing of the time. However one of
Dewey’s tenets in his philosophy is the unit of a man and society. Therefore, for Dewey, there
is no difference between matter and mind or between body and spirit or between socity and
school or education and life. They are all one and the same thing.
Therefore education is thus essential for the survival of any group because, if the impulse of the
young were not shaped, they would develop in haphazard way and out of keeping with the
society and its components institutions.
There are some of the educational ideas advanced by Dewey. They have significantly affected or
in deed help shape modern educational practice.
Furthermore, Dewey recognizes the necessity for discipline in schooling. At the same time,
Dewey believes that external discipline is bound to fail because it falsely assumes that there is
absolute values wich are the responsibility of the teacher who is entitled to impose it upon the
child. In his denying this assumption, Dewey is noted to agree with Hamlet that, ‘There is
nothing that either good or bad, thinking makes it so’
However the discipline method has a strong individual element. But, there is also a social
component. For example, for a pupil to put persistent effort, it is necessary for him to know that
others are involved in the same problem. Therefore, in order to adjust his own actions, we would
do so in the light of shared goals. The method of instruction which suits the disciplined method
of learning require that the teacher to:
a. Eliminate mechanical drills, avoid competition for goals, threat and corporal punishment.
b. Make the pupil realize that he has a problem when he does not know the subject to be
learned
c. Arouse the interest of the pupil and stimulate impulse to strive towards mastery.
d. Learn the capacities and the interests of each individual pupil, because there is no
universally desirable or interesting subjects,
e. Structure the learning situation so that everyone, including the teacher, cooperates with
others in the group process of learning.
There is no one correct set of techniques for the classroom, but any which follows the above
precepts will succeed because it will provide a means for the pupil to learn by his own efforts.
This will be spontaneous not a forced achievement, and therefore more meaningful and lasting.
Maria Montessori (1870-1952)
Montessori was born at Chiavavalle in Central Italy in 1870. This is also the year in which Italy
became united. She went to a local school until her parents move to Rome. Her interest in
mathematics and science received a great boost in Rome. She then enrolled in technical school
for boys rather than in a seminar in genteel young ;adies.
IN the face of hostility and a great disapproval even from her own father and the university
authorities, she became the first female medical student in Italy.
Montessori was attracted to the social as well as the physical sciences and was a student of
anthropology. She put her training to good use by working with the slum children and those with
mental defects. Although Montessori was not interested in educational matters at first, yet after
realizing how proper teaching method, understanding and care could change the lives of the
retarded children in the society, she felt the same improvement could be made for ordinary
children.
In that connection, she set up a school in Casa dei Bambini in Rome in 1907. Her experiment in
teaching became notable and successful in the education of young children.
As a result of her success, many children’s houses developed throughout Italy. Subsequently
training colleges and international training courses in the Montessori method appeared in many
other countries such as England, Ireland, Holland, Denmark, Germany, France, U.S.A, India
Argentina and many others.
She continued improving on her methods through further experimentations. By the time she died,
she had been recognized by UNESCO as an educator. Montessori’s contribution to educational
thought was unique, yet within the mainstream of contemporary educational developments. Her
educational doctrines include the following:
a. Freedom of the child
b. She believed in spontaneous or auto-education
c. Child’s own mastery of the environment and not being enslaved by it.
Montessori’s method in the application of the theory called for individualized teaching for the
use of special apparatus. She suggested that, since her child has his own growth pattern, he must
also have his own educational program geared towards his own growth and unique physical
abilities and needs.
Therefore, in order for the teacher to provide the right kind of individualized environment, there
must be specially designed and carefully graded deductive materials. Such materials used in
teaching really assist in practical activities, sensory training and in intellectual development. At
the same time, they help the child to become independent in the adult world.
According to Montessori, the traditional school/learning will develop naturally from the sensory
activities. Writing should come first. When the child is ready, he will on his own initiative begin
to write the whole words. Reading arithmetic and the language studies will soon follow.
However, each child works individually and independently at self-selected activities proceeding
to the next stage when he is ready.
Unlike Dewey, Montessori was not often criticized as being Godless. She was not Devout
catholic who reconciled science and religion in her life and in her educational theory.
PART SIX
1. MAJOR WESTERN EDUCATIONAL INFLUENCES IN AFRICA.
Africa received many different visitors from many different countries and continents at different
times in its history. These people included such explorers as Bartholomew Diaz, Vasco Da Gama
etc. Some of the visitors simply used the coast of Africa en route elsewhere. other stopped and
even ventured into the interior for trade.
however, the most important visitors are those who came from Europe from around 1870 when
marked political and economic activities in Africa became even more intense. This intensity was
carried out to the maximum by the famous Berlin Conference of 1884. At this conference, the
European countries agreed to share out the continent of Africa into spheres of interest.
Some of these European countries who took part in this share include the following:
a. Great Britain
b. France
c. Germany
d. Italy
e. Portugal
f. Spain
g. Belgium
Of these foreign countries in Africa, we note that the two of them made much greater impression
on the development in most of the African countries. Therefore, it is these countries we note their
type of education influence on Africa. these countries are:
a. The British
b. the French
These foreign visitors to Africa at this time came into the continent not as traders or tourists but
as colonialists. in this case,, they came in to stay and own the areas shared out to them by the
Berlin conference.
However, they soon discovered that they alone could not manage their colonial administration
effectively without the help of the locals . but, the locals could not help them without being
educated into the new type of administration which they introduced. this led to the founding of
the colonial schools.
Therefore, the first Africans to be educated became administrators and office clerks.
missionaries too, were interested in opening up schools because education went hand in hand
with evangelism. In this connection, we can note how colonial education aimed at inoculating the
values of Western civilization in the minds of those Africans who were to serve the colonial
masters loyally. Therefore, the primary objective in the colonial education system was of no
advantage to Africans.
Above all else, colonial education was to serve as an instrument to improve foreign culture.
in general, we note that the policy framework of the British and the French education in Africa
differed greatly in the sense that the two approached education for the African from two different
angles. The British adopted the educational policy of the “adaptation” while the French adopted
that of “assimilation”.
(a) The British Education policy.
The British education system aimed of creating a group of African civil servant who could
operate administration which though based on British model, could at the same time be
concerned with adoption of African condition.
However, it must be noted here that the policy of adaptation in the British colonies was born out
of the experience in India. It had been realized that the transfer of the British model of education
TO India was responsible for the political agitation for independence in India. Therefore, the
British colonial office in London was not ready for the repeat anywhere in their new colonies in
Africa.
Therefore, Lord Lugard was charged with the responsibility of becoming an architect of the
British Imperial policies in Africa.
Lord Lugard recommended that, the school should as far as possible be conducted with
accordance with native customs with matters of dress and etiquette. This was to be based on the
fact that the pupils were not to become denationalized , or so that they do not begin to consider
themselves as being a class a part. The emphasis of education was in the production of people
who can adopt themselves in their local environment and who should learn to work towards the
improvements of the same.
In which case, the colonial education which was recommended by the lord Lugard policy to train
a generation of Africans who are able to achieve ideals on their own without enslaving
themselves to the European culture. A generation capable and willing to assume its own definite
sphere in public and civil work and shape its own future.
Notwithstanding the seemingly positive aspect of Lugard policy for Africans in the British
colony yet we note that Lugard was not just committed for the policy for its own sake. He was
the policy as a means of blocking political agitation. The policy was mainly based on the fact
that education based on European line produced mischievous results. It produces hostility and
ingratitude instead.
The question of adaptation in the education of Africans was further emphasized by Phelps-stock
commission of 1924. The commission required that education should teach the adaptation of
school practice to the need of rural life in general development in Africa. That, education should
aim at conservation of African community and its adaptation to the modern world in as far as this
did not uproot the Africa from its traditions but to encourage the co-operation of the community
with the new change.
(b) The French Education Policy.
The greatest difference between the British and French education policies in Africa was the
‘adaptation and the ‘assimilation’ approaches. We have seen the adaptation approaches of the
British education policy designed by Lord Lugard. Here we now examine the French side and its
assimilation approach.
The main objective of assimilation policy for the education in Africa in French colonies was to
create a political and professional elite of high intellectual quality which could be identified
closely with French cultural image. Although It was true that French system might not be
relevant or suitable for Africans was seen as irrelevant.
The French education policy for Africa was to create French African elite in Africa. the role of
the elite would be to mould African societies to French model. This would in turn lead to French
speaking elite who would be the governing class throughout the French African colonies. The
emphasis of the policy was to create and maintain standards in French colonies which are
equivalent to those in France. through the teaching of French language and cultivating French
culture.
In order to strengthen the system, the policy employed a large number of French teachers at all
levels of schooling.
Furthermore the teaching of the French languages was discouraged. This was based on the
recognition of the importance of the language in promoting the culture.
The excuse given for not promoting the local language was that, there were too many vernaculars
in the colony such that, that would be too expensive to train and staff schools with necessary
teachers. It was further emphasized that the vernaculars were unsuitable for technical training
and there were textbooks already available in in France where there were none in any of the
vernaculars.
Finally , under French system of education of assimilation, no attempt was made in French
Africa to adopt the educational curriculum at any level of African need and condition.
In 1929, a more comprehensive plan of the native education was devised and approved. The
main objective of the plan was to eradicate indigenous languages and cultural differences. This
was to be effected through the production of the French educated indigenous elites annually. It
was expected that this group of indigenous elite would in turn civilize others.
The chosen lot among Africans were to be educated in seclusion in special local boarding
schools to ensure that they were completely away from local African environment so that they
could acquire and properly master the French language and culture. IT was expected that this
elite group spread out into the interior the progressive process of assimilation woul reach the
masses through the development of Franco- African culture which in turn would evelove even
closer to French civilization.
Therefore, we note that in the school practice of the colonial powers reflected their main
education policy of adaptation and assimilation.
In the British colonies for example, the primary school level of curriculum laid emphasis on the
local environment and learning African language and the use of the same as a medium of
instruction. But, the case was not same higher up the ladder of schooling. However, at the higher
level of learning it became generally difficult to draw a line between the two policies. This was
due to the fact that at these levels the issue of maintaining standards became confused with the
need for identification with the European curriculum.
Consequently the establishment of higher education, the relevance of African tradition to
educational needs was rarely taken into consideration.
However, whereas we have made a special note with regard to clear differences in school
practice between two colonial powers in Africa, yet we find almost no difference at all with
regard to secondary school practice.
For example, few secondary schools were established in the colonies of the two powers, had a
great similarities. They clearly reflected the characteristics of the class schools in Britain and
France. For example in British colonies the boarding schools had the trapping of the British
public schools. These schools displayed among others the following
A belief that the main purpose of education is character training and that it should be primarily
based on religion.
(i) A conviction that, the function of secondary school is education for leadership which
in turn stresses the importance of service.
(ii) The idea that quality of character training leadership and service can be best be
developed in the communal life of a boarding school.
(iii) That what is taught outside the classroom hours e.g clubs, societies and in games
were part of character training. These activities inspired character formation and
leadership as well as training in the provision of service to others.
Although religion dominated the missionary schools a bias of religion character training
permeated the government secondary schools in accordance with traditions of the British public
schools. Therefore, the African children were forced to adopt a necessary price of obtaining
formal education. This therefore presented a firm British culture tinged with religion.
Consequently, it is noted that, the effects of school organization generally, and particularly the
boarding school, formed very important contributory factors in the process of the British form of
assimilation.
Education for sons of chiefs.
Another important aspect of British practice in their colonies, was the establishment of schools
for educating son of the local chiefs. The schools were intended to train the sons of local chiefs
to take over from their fathers. This was in accordance with the British system of the indirect
rule.
Examples of these schools are: Budo and Namiliango in Uganda and Malangali, Tabora and
Bukoba in Tanzania where the sons of the headsmen were trained in skills of administration. At
Bukoba central school, the tribal group of boys elected their own chiefs and sub-chiefs. In this
case the schools became self governing.
On the other hand, at Malangali, the chiefs appointed the group of resident Watambulio or the
elders to guide the headmaster. In this way, the syllabus was intended to incorporate much of the
tribal lares which the youth would have learnt before the coming of the Europeans.
As the French sphere of influence increased the sons of the chiefs were compelled to complete
the primary education and then were selected to for enrolment in secondary schools. Howerver,
this enrolment was after a report from the district administrator and this report had to be verified
by the inspector administrative affairs. Finally it is the highest colonial officials who made the
final selection.
The schools for the sons of the chiefs were under the jurisdiction of the highest political order
rather than the education authorities.
For example, the French west Africa, the lieutenant governor of Senegal had direct authority
over schools, while the inspector of administrative affairs exercised discipline instead of
inspector of education . And the final authority on all school matters rested with the governor
Unlike those in British colonies the curriculum and the organizational structure where within the
framework of assimilation. Not much was done to emphasize traditional elements of
administration.
(ii) African indigenous education in Kenya.
There was literacy nor formal schooling as we now know it during the period before the arrival
of colonists in Kenya. This factor must not be taken to mean that there was no form of coherent
educational system among African society
African societies had system of education which had basic similarities because of the ethnic
group had its own distinctive feature which reflected its particular life and culture.
The basic similarities in indigenous education included the following
(a) Strongly adopted to the local environment
(b) to conserve the cultural of the family, clan and the ethnic group
(c) To adopt children to their physical environment and to know how to use it
(d) The need for children to know that the future of their community depends on continuation
of understanding of their ethnic institution of laws and language values they inherit from
their past
However, we need to clarify here that while we talk of indeginuios education before coming of
white man we need to realize at the same time that this form of education is still very much in
practice at present in our modern Kenya.
Childhood education
the general attitude which the people have toward the new-born is that of interest,
encouragement and well being. In particular parents and close relatives usually take kin interest
in the welfare of the new born child and its development.
Usually, the arrival of the new born brightens and tends to strengthen the marriage since it
ensures family continuation.
Either immediately or thereafter a baby is given a name in accordance with his/her linage. The
mother is the person responsible for the education of the child throughout early ears of the child.
This responsibility begin with suckling which ends at the winning and taking all kinds of care
The child begin to interact with member of the family. Together they give child a lot of
encouragement in physical development. For example, the child is assisted to practice crawling,
sitting, standing and eventually to walk, the child is also assisted constantly to practice language
development.
Morally, the child is meant to confirm the moods of the customs and the standard of the
behaviour inherited in the family and clan. In propriety in behaviour was not tolerated. Children
are protected against any danger or any other kind of harm. During the period of the childhood in
the life of the child games occupy important place and training conformity.
As the child grows he get introduction in the practices to productive education. This includes
such traits like metal work, hide tailing, agriculture, hunting and gathering. The child learn how
to make miniature tools such as bow and arrow or harpoons. Under the supervision of older
members of the family, the child learn how to handle such tool in the field. The child gets
engaged into the protection of the new harvest in grain eating birds and beasts. He goes hearding
of cattle e.tc. Finally, to learn to distinguish between medical and poisonous plants.
GENDER ROLES.
on the other hand, the girls get involved into famine activities. For example they help the
mothers in kitchen duties, they fetch water and fire wood AND Took care of the younger
brothers and sisters. in some clans, the girls were introduced to such trades as basket weaving
and pottery.
It is through this apprenticeship and participation in the world of work, children develop physical
endurance, skills, a sense of observation and good memory. The progressive acquisition of a
trade provides the child with a social and economic functionality and the child is finally
integrated into the family and the clan. Thus a child become productive member of the family
and the society in general while at the same time becoming a self reliant individual in his own
right as citizen.
The Adolescence and Adulthood.
At about age of fifteen sets in the period of adolescence. For some African communities, this
period is marked by activities which initiate the youth into the way which leads to maturity and
eventallu adults.
The education of the young at this centre of physical exercises, sexual education and the
necessary awareness of the responsibilities of the adults.
In some communities the adolescence is the period in which is also marked by circumcision of
either the boys alone or the boys and the girls. This is deliberately made to be an emotional and
painful experience. This exercise some times takes up to two months.
This is designed to create an engravement onto an individuals personality of an initiate. For these
communities, without circumcision man would not be considered a full member of the society.
Therefore education for the youth was more intense during the period of adolescence.
Sometimes was spent in the acquicision of both the theoretical and the practical knowledge
which was imparted by the elders. The theoretical knowledge involved chiefly the recital of
certain general rules or behavior and etiquette with which an adult was expected to comply. The
initiates were systematically and specifically warned against ills which included the following:
(a) Incest
(b) Adultery
(c) Assault and theft
(d) Rules on the exogamy
(e) How to behave before seniors
The factors were taught both formally and informally. Therefore, the trails of initiation were
generally hard, but they helped the young men and women to become fully themselves. In other
words the training of the hardships of initiation helped the young graduate into the life of adults.
The content and the methods of instruction.
The content of indigenous education grew out of physical and social situations. Therefore, the
content was determined by both physical and social environment. In other words the objective of
this content was adaptability to the local conditions of the environment.
The methods of instruction in the African indigenous education were both formal and informal.
Among the informal method of instruction in this form of education were learning through play,
storytelling, imitation, legends and through proverbs e.t.c.
Formal method of teaching involved theoretical inculcation of skills. The formal method also
involved the giving of constant corrections and warnings against unacceptable social conducts.
DEVELOPMENT OF WESTERN EDUCATION IN KENYA.
The development of western education in Kenya is the responsibility of the Christian
missionaries. The missionaries belonged to different church organization from Europe. The
arrived into the country we now call Kenya from two different directions. They came in from the
coast of Mombasa in the east and from Uganda from the west.
Those missionaries who came in from the east were responsible for the establishment of the
mission stations and schools from Mombasa, the coast region and the central region in kenya.
And those who came from the west were responsible for the mission stations and schools in
Nyanza and the western province in western Kenya.
Although Portuguese introduced Christianity at the Kenyan coast as early as 16 th century, it did
not take root until the coming of missionaries 200 years later. Two important missionaries were
responsible for the introduction of Christianity at the coast. These were Ludwig Kraft and the
John Rebman.
The two missionaries belonged to the C.M.S ( church Mission Society). They arrived in Kenya at
the coast of Mombasa in 1840. They were on a missionary expedition by the C.M.S. They
established schools in Mombasa and Rabai. But, they did not stay at the coast for long. This was
due to the fact that Christianity was not well received at the coast.
There are two main reason why Christianity was not well received at the coast. These were:
(a) That the Africans at the coast were not ready to accept the new culture and abandon
theirs.
(b) That, the coastal region of Kenya had been under Islamic influence already over 800
years. Therefore the Islam saw the arrival of Christianity as arrival.
Therefore, for the two reasons, we still find that Christianity is in the minority at the coast.
After the establishment of the colonial rule in 1895, and the building of the Uganda railway
between 1895 and 1901, Christian activities by the missionaries from Europe begun moving up-
country from the coast.
In that connection, we find the following missionary developments:
(a) The church of Scotland (SCM) moved from Mombasa to Kibwezi and then to kikuyu in
central Kenya where they established a station in 1898. From kikuyu this missionary
organization moved to Tumutumu in Nyeri and then to Chogoria in Meru.
(b) On the other hand, the church mission society (CMS), founded stations at Kabete,
Waithaga, Kalulua, Mahiga and in Embu. This was between 1903-1910.
(c) At the same time, the United Methodist Church moved further inland to Meru
(d) African Inland Mission (AIM), established stations at Kagundo, Kijabe, Githuma and at
Kinyona.
(e) By 1910, the Catholic Holy ghost Fathers set up stations at Kabaa, Kilungu, Nairobi and
Kiambu
(f) The Consolata Catholic Mission went to Nyeri and Meru regions.
The picture of activities of the missionaries on the western part of Kenya was an off-shoot of the
church missionary establishment from Uganda
(a) By 1910, the CMS had established stations at, Maseno, Butere, and Ng’iya
(b) At the same time, the Mill Hill Mission (MHM) ESTABLISHED SECTIONS ATA Yala,
Mumias, Mugumu, Nyahururu and at Asumbi \
(c) The Seventh Day Adventists SDA had set stations at Gendia, Kamagambo and
Nyamechwa
(d) And the Friends African Mission got stations at Kaimosi and their headquarters in 1902.
As the Christian missionaries made inroads into the interior of the country establishing churches
and schools, the Islamic arrivers were doing the same but a long the line of up-coming centres.
This is why upto present times we find Koranic schools in the urban centres only. But because
Islamic schools dwelt on the religious matters of the faith a alone, they did not make much
impressions to Africans of the interior.
The central activities of the Christian missionaries were made up of three parts.These were:
(a) The church
(b) The hospital
(c) The Schools
The concern of this text is with the schools and educational development as an activity of
Christian missionaries at the beginning of the century. Therefore, it is at this point that we turn
our full attention to the development of education in Kenya and its role which the missionaries
played at the time in laying of the foundation of the type of education that now stands as Kenya’s
school system of education.
After establishing mission stations as we have noted here above, the various missionary
organizations now begun to scramble for spheres of influence in the same way as that of Berlin
conference. Their commodities of trade in scramble was the converts. The belief of all the
missionaries with regard to the Africans was that they were pagans who had no idea of
Godliness.
The missionaries regarded African as pagans, uncivilized, backward and uncultured or they saw
Africans as people without culture. Therefore, the approach of Christian missionaries was that
they provide education to the Africans such that through that education the missionaries can be
able to remove these bad elements, and thus make the African, Christian and hence, civilized.
It was for this reason that education of the time was predominantly, religious. In this form of
education, the lives of the upright and holy were highlighted and were frequently made reference
from the time to time so that they may become example for emulation. Actual teaching in the
schools was in the basis 3rs (reading, writing and arithmetic)
The 3rs were not taught as a base for further learning. The only objective for their being tought
was to enable the Africans:
a. To read the Bible
b. To be able to propagate the gospel
c. To be able to help win other Africans to the church.
The next step in missionary education was the industrial and technical education. This was
second to religion because it was meant to discipline Africans by removing laziness so as to
make them hard workers. This was designed to make the African into a better worker not an
artisan.
The colonial government did not particularly favour the kind of education given to the Africans
at the time where religion was predominant. Generally the government supported the efforts of
missionaries to try and educate the Africans. But the government particularly favoured the
industrial education which was offered by missionaries schools. From the mid 1910, the
government instituted system of grant-in-aid to assist those mission schools which offered
acceptable technical education.. At the same time, missionaries were members of the education
commission right from the first education commission in Kenya in 1909.
However, the education for Africans on the education of Africans as organized by European
missionaries was that of indifference, hostile and apathetic. The reason of this attitude included
the following:
a. The missionaries preached against African culture
b. The parents wanted their children to continue helping with the family chores
c. Manual work in mission schools took more time than classroom work
d. The Africans did not want to just serve as handworkers
In order to overcome this obstacle, the government and the missionaries decided to use the
chiefs. They made sure that all sons of chiefs and their headmen went to school first. Then, they
went round homes faring everybody else to the same. This approach produced positive results.
These results came when those who had gone to school came out and were employed in
European government offices, missionary offices and on the farms.
These people looked and behaved differently and this became an encouragement to the others to
go to school.
IMPORTANT HIGHLIGHTS IN MISSIONARY EDUCATION IN KENYA.
1. 1840: Ludwig Kraft who had settled in Mombasa was joined by john Rebman in 1844,
The two established the first school in Kenya at Rabai
2. 1862: Methodist church established a station at Rabai
3. 1875: CMS open station at Frere town
4. 1876: United Methodist Church open station at Jomvu
5. 1882:CMS open station at Sagala in Taita
6. 1888:Imperial British East Africa was formed
7. 1890: CMS established a station at Taveta
8. 1892: Roman Catholic mission opened up some station in Mombasa, Bura, in taita hills
9. 1893: Stuart Watt, an independent missionary established a station in Ukambani near
machakos
10. 1895: AIM led by Peter Scott arrived at Nzani in Ukambani. They set up a school and a
dispensary
11. 1898:Lutheran set up a station at Mlango. This station was later taken by AIM
12. 1899; Roman Cathlic church opened station in Nairobi and built a holy family church
13. 1900: a. Watson established a headquarter at Kikuyu for the church of Scotland
b CMS opened a station at Kabete and at Kihulhia. waithaka and in Embu
14. 1902: a. Hotchkiss who had been in AIM party to Nzani, led a Quaker party to Kaimosi
where they established a station
b The church of God party set up a station at Kima in Bunyore
15. 1907: a. The Nilotic independent church set up a station at Nyahera near Kisumu ( this
is the first church found by African missionaries)
b The SDA came from Uganda and set up station at Gendia, Kamagambo and
Nyanchwa
16. 1910: a. CMS established stations at Maseno, Butere, and Ng’iya
b MHM established statons at Yala, Mumias, Mugumu, Nyahururu and at Asumbi
17. A conference of protestants mission on education in kenya.
We therefore note that by year 1910, missionaries from different dinominations ahd spread in
many parts of the country and set up the schools without any assistance fromm the government.
We also note that some of the schools established at the time have continued to develop to the
present time.
By 1920, the missionary education which had started off by the mere handful of schools, had
greatly expanded such that their numbers had reached 2,266 by 1931. However, these were but
village schools whose classes reached only at std 3 and 4. Full primary reached std. 6 And only
32 schools had reached this level by 1931. Secondary schools were very rare in the country at
that time.
The first secondary school for aficans were established in 1926. This was alliance. It was
followed by Kabaa (later changed to Mang’u in 1930. Then Maseno in 1938 and Yala in 1939.
For many years these schools offered what was then called secondary education to Africans. This
was education in the junior secondary which was equivalent to the present form 2. These schools
did not present cansdidates for the certificate examination.
The first school among the ones listed above offered candidates for the Cambridge school
certificate in 1940. These were Alliance and Mang’u
The order of education system at that time was at follows:
a. Village schools: std. 1,2,3.
b. Primary schools: std. 4,5,6.
c. Junior secondary schools: std. 7,8
d. Senior secondary : Form 1 and II
THE GOVERNMENT PARTICIPATION IN EDUCATION IN KENY
While settlers begun arriving to settle in Kenya in 1903. They thus came to make a home here in
kenya. In this connection, they had to think and plan for the education for their children. It is also
these settlers who made the first colonial government in kenya. They thus begun to plan and
consider what type of education to be established in kenya.
To do that more effectively, a survey was necessary in oreder to report on general needs for the
education in the country at the time. This led to the appointment of the first education
commisiion in Kenya.
This commission was appointed in 1909, it was led or chaired by professor Nelson Fresser from
india. The government accepted his recommendations. The first action from the government was
to set up a department of education in 1911. This marked the beginning of the participation of the
government in educational development in Kenya
In particular, the first step which the government took in its efforts to improve education in the
country included the following major steps:
(a) The establishment of educational department in 1911
(b) The appointment of the Director of education to take part of the department of education
(c) Actaul government partici[ation in education in kenya took the form of opening and
maintaining some industrial educational schools in Kenya. The prominent once among
them were the following:
1. Machakos- 1915
2. Narok 1919
3. Kabete 1919
Special point to note about the opening of these schools is that they were opened in areas away
from the areas served by missionary activities.
From the among recommendations of Fresser commission, a dispute was created between the
government and the missionaries.
The dispute was about two important isseus which were the following:
(a) That, there was a strong recommendation for industrial education for the Africans
(b) That, there was a recommendation that the government should run and manage the
African schools
In order to settle these disputes, the governmet conved a confrerence in 1918. At this conference,
views of all races were represented. The resolution of the conference included one whrer the
government was to give grant-in-aid for all well managed schools by the missionaries providing
education for Africans.
The type of schools before 1924.
At the palce where the missionaries set up stations, villages soon sprung up.It is t at these places
that they also set up what later became village schools. The schools first tought mainly
catechism. Within time, literary education was included in their instruction. This centred on the
teaching based on the 3rs. But, the 3rs were just reading and writing to assist the reading of the
bible and then simple arithmetic.
This teaching had one objective only, to help new converts to be able to participate in the
evangelization exercise of the missionaries.
As we have seen earlier the schooling level at the village school was upto the class three of the
school. In addition to this, the missionaries ran central schools in three categories:
a. A general education course leading to a teacher training course
b. A general education course leading to the admission in secondary schools
c. A combined course of general and vocational education with increased technical bias
leading to a two year course at the industrial depot at Kabete
Whereas the missionaries and the settler government have so far been engaged in the activities of
the education of the Africans, it does not mean that even that time, the Africans sat and did
nothing as a passive recipient of proceeds.
Right from the start, the Africans were not happy with the type of education which was given to
them by the missionaries. The following reasons created the discontentment with the missionary
education:
a. That, the education was too religious
b. that, Christian teaching negated African culture especially with the attacks on female
circumcision
c. The result of mission education were not as instant as the African indeginuios education
except for a few cases
d. The Africans disliked the manual aspects of the mission education
Because of these reasons, the Africans demanded literary education as was provided in the
secular schools. The government was very slow in heeding the African call except for their own
schools established in the areas where the missionaries hed been rejected.
The first action of the Africa took the contract to sloth of the missionary education was to
withhold their children from the missionary schools. Then, the afrians started their own
independent schools beginning in Nyanza. After 1925, the reaction of Africans took two lines of
actions. These lines of actions started and organized as follows:
a. Those who wanted quick results.
This group championed the establishment of African Independent Schools (AIS) and they also
fought to restore the African culture . The independent school movement from Nyanza to central
Kenya where it received better and stronger organization.
Two organizations came up:
1. The Kikuyu Independent Schools Association (KISA)
2. The Kikuyu Karing’a Educational Association (KKEA)
Under these organizations, the number of the independent schools rose to 34 by 1933 with a total
enrolment of 2,500 pupils. By 1939, the pupil enrolment had risen to 12,964
b. Those to work through the system
Those who wanted to work through the established machinery requested to Local Native Council
(LNC) to establish secular eduction schools for African children.
The government at the local level accepted the call charged local rates to raise money for the
establishment of such schools. However, it was only the LNC of North Nyanza, South Nyanza
and South Nyeri which were allowed to establish the schools as requested by the Africans. This
led to the establishment of: Kakamega Government school, Kagumo and Kisii. This came
between 1930 and 1934. These schools engaged in purely literary education as any industrial
eduation was completely discouraged.
By 1939, these schools were already proving that they were providing better education than most
mussion schools such that during primary school examination for that year the 3 schools
outshone all those of mission schools except Maseno.
Therefore, by 1939, there were four educational agencies working on the education of African in
Kenya. These agencies were the following:
a. Missionary organization
b. The Government
c. The Local Native Councils
d. The African Independent School Movements
e. Although predominantly religiously based, the missionaries commanded the greater share
of the education for the Africans at this time and indeed , upto independence in 1963.
The Phelps-Stok Commisiion (1924)
This commission was a product of a philanthropic foundation in United States of America. It was
devouted to the improvement of the education of the Blacks in America, Africans and the
American Indians. The foundation formed the ten man commission to tour Tropical Africa. The
purpose of the tour was to assess the progress being made into the education of Africans.
The objective of the commisiion was two-fold namely:
(a) To find out what and how much educationwork was being done for the Africans in each
of the territory they visited.
(b) To find out educational needs of the people with reference to:
1. Religion
2. Social
3. Health
4. Economics
c. To ascertain to what extent the above factors were being implemented and to suggest
ways and means for further improvements.
The commission visited amny African countries between 1921 and 1925. The commission
visited kenya in 1924.
The recommendation of the commisiion included the following:
1. That, there should be more corpoeraztion between the government and the missionaries.
2. That, education shuld be adopted to the needs of local people
3. That, the best of the people’s tradition should be preserved
4. That, through education, the students should be prepared for the world at large
5. That, the natives should be trained in skilled work so as to reduce or stop the importation
of the Indians
6. That, the Africans should be educated about their environment
7. That, the attention of the government should be drawn to the negelgable expenditure on
the African education.
The effects of this education included the following:
1. Educational Advisory Committees set up

2. A tax levy was made to finance education of the Africans
3. The British government issued a statement on the education of Africans in the colonies.
The statement was called ‘The Educational policy in tropical africa’ alternatively the
statement was called ‘The 1925 Momorandum’.
This statement or policy carried 13 principles which became the basis for the educational policy
in all the British African colonies.
The Beecher Commission (1949)
The objective of the commission was stated as follows:
‘To work out an educational plan for the next 10 years for Africans’
The chairman was a missionary by a name Archdeacon Beecher. He was a sympathizer of the
African course in the education development of Africans. The commission reported its findings
and recommendations in 1950.
The main paints in the recommendation included the following:
1. That, the education system in the country should take the following forms:
Lower primary cycle 4 years.
Upper primary circle, 4 years
Secondary circle, 4 years
in other words this commission created an education whose cycles were 4:4:4.
2. That, terminal examinations to be instituted at the end of every circle
3. That, Africans should be prepared for future leadership of their country
4. That, the Christian principles to remain the basis of education in Kenya
5. That, the fees should be charged to enable finance the education system, but that the fees
structure should be at varying levels depending on the availability of each district
The effects of the recommendations of the commission included the following:
1. There were variations to allow for separate development in the districts
2. Enrolment in the schools went up
3. More schools were opened by LNCs
4. About 80% of the children were at lower primary
5. As usual, the numbers of the girls at the school remained low.
However, this commission did a lot to encourage the Africans to go to school generally to seek
knowledge wherever it could be found. This is due to the fact that the commission came up at the
time of great re-awakening in Kenya both educationally and politically.
Maybe it is not worthy to point here that education was never sought most earnestly in the
history of education in Kenya that during those periods of 50s
The Binns Commission 1952

This commission came up and made its recommendation in the light of Beecher commission. In
which case, the Binns commission more or less re-enforced the recommendation of the Beecher
commission.
The major recommendations of the Binns commission included the following:
1. That, the religious basis of education be stressed
2. practical work be introduced in the curriculum
3. that, the examination oriented system of education be changed
4. That, education should aim at improving agriculture which is the basis of Kenyan
economy.
The Ominde Commission
This is the first educational commission to be undertaken by and for Kenya’s independent
government. The commission was also chaired by a Kenyan African called, professor Simon
Ominde.
The objective of the commission was stated as follows:
“To carry out a survey of existing educational resources and advice the new government
regarding the formation and implementation of workable education policies”
With this objective in mind, the commission set out to work and eventually come up with the
following recommendations : In total the commission came up with 160 recommendations .
For our purpose we shall highlight a few of these recommendations.
1. That, education should foster and promote a sense of national unity
2. That, education for a secular state should have RELIGUIOS BASIS
3. That, education in the republic should be managed by the state
4. That, education should foster national development.
5. That, education should promote Kenya’s cultural heritage
6. That, local teachers should replace the expatriate teachers because the can be able to
express the cultural aspirations of the peoples of Kenya
7. That, primary education should be for all children
8. That, curriculum should break away from racially conditioned tradition
9. That, education should be based on individual abilities in order to produce a well –
rounded citizen
In order to understand the effects of this commission fully, we needed to note here that whereas
Kenya was one country, yet colonial policy of “divide and rule : had segmented all sectors of
public so much that there was need for the commission to emphasize the need for ‘national unity’
as expressed throughout most of the recommendations of the commission.
Therefore, it is enough to say here that, the effects of recommendation of the commission are
evident in most areas of our education system.
The Ndegwa Commission 1917

The objectives of the commission were stated as follows:
“To look into problems of the Republic services in Kenya and recommend on measures to be
taken for improvement”
The commission made 45 recommendations which are stated as follows:
1. That, the DEB should be responsible for the administration of the primary schools in the
District
2. That, the primary school inspection should be overhauled urgently
3. That, the minimum qualification for entry in teacher colleges should be K.J.S.E
4. That, secondary school syllabus should be diversified so as to include the technocal and
vocational subjects
5. That, all secondary schools should be maintained from 1st July, 1972
6. That, the development of courses in agriculture and in industrial arts should be
accelerated
7. That, the teaching of commercial and business studies should be stepped up
8. That, the planned expansion of the primary teachers colleges should be revived and
increased. Funding of these colleges should be reviewed
9. That, the size of Teachers Service Commission should be increased to 5 members
10. That, there should be a detailed examination of the university development
11. That, the regulation regarding Teachers’ Service Remuneration committee should be
amended immediately
12. That, there should be a new salary structure for the teachers
The effects of the recommendation of these commission were accepted by the government and
most of them were implemented.
The Bessie Commission 1972
The objectives of this commission were short and clear. It was stated as follows:
“To review the curriculum in Kenya’s education system”
Some of the recommendations of the commission included the following:
1. That, education must serve the need of national development
2. That, education must foster national unity
3. that, education must prepare the youths in their roles in the society
4. That, education must assist to promote social equality and development of a personal
sense of responsibility
5. That, education must assist in preservation of national culture
A part from the general recommendations which the commission made, it also made some
recommendations which were directly related to primary education in Kenya. Some of these
recommendations include the following:
1. That, major attention should be given to the primary education
2. That, primary curriculum should be broadened so as to help school leavers fit into the
society
3. That, primary curriculum should be planned in three parts:
a. The lower primary 1,2,3
b. The middle primary 4,5
c. The upper primary 6,7,8
4. That, the revision of primary syllabus should take into consideration the needs of the
rural schools.
5. That, further development works be taken in the following subjects:
a. Kiswahili
b. Religious education
c. African folklore
d. Music and dance
6. That, the children in class 2 and 3 should stay in school in the afternoon
7. That, geography and history be combined into ‘social studies for the middle class of
primary education
8. That, science syllabus be prepared and recast
9. That, two double periods be allocated to science related to agriculture
10. That, facilities be provided at schools for small livestock enterprise in a space of not more
than one acre for cash crop also.
11. That, another double period be allocated for science lesson related to mathematics and
physical sciences
12. That, a course be devised for boys and girls to be called “Home and Community studies”
Most of the recommendation of this commission were implemented and are still in force to date
Wamalwa Commission 1971
The objectives of this commission was short clear, and straight to the point. It was stated as
follows:
“To review and report on the training needs of the country”
The review which the commission dealt with include the following areas of the public service:
a. The civil service
b. The teaching service
c. The local government service
d. The statutory boards and corporations
Some of the recommendations made by the commission include the following:
1. That, the present system whereby the school leavers are selected for pre-service training
courses should be streamlined
2. That, the better methods of staffing of the training institutions should be introduced
3. That, there should be a closer cooperation between private and public sectors of training
4. That, a new autonomous training organization should be given the responsibilities for
training and personnel research
5. That, the government sponsor and training programmes should be reviewed
The effects of the recommendation of this commission are that, the recommendations were
accepted by the government. And that most of the recommendation were accepted, implemented
and are reflected in the areas concerned to date.
The Gachadhi Commission 1976
This commission had the responsibility of defining Kenya’s education system by defining its
educational objectives and policies. The commission also suggested the means by which these
objectives could be achieved. The commission makes more than 300 recommendations. Here
below we make reference to a few of them.
The recommendation of the commission includes the following:
1. That, education should foster and promote national unity
2. That, education should assist the young to grow into self-discipline, self-respecting and
law abiding mature minded and creative person
3. That, through education the youth should be encouraged to real knowledge to purposes
of life.
4. That a system of National Youth Service should be evolved and organized at national
level
5. That, the parents should be convinced about the value of National Youth Service\
6. That, the youths should be deployed in the areas of the greatest interest and need
7. That, students should be exposed to practical rural problems of development
8. That, greater use should be made of university personnel at national development
9. That, harambee secondary schools should be integrated into the national education
system
10. That, the funds for harambee secondary schools should be controlled and they should be
required to submit audited accounts to the ministry of education
11. That, training should be integrated with the local environment and to strengthen the
teaching agriculture, animal husbandry and the home science by making them
examinable subjects
12. That, the current curriculum should be reviewed
13. That, secondary education should be diversified in relation to the manpower need of the
country for development
14. That, national standards of education should be defined and all schools should be
required to attain this standard
15. That secondary education should be made co-educational
16. That, opportunity for girls in the schools should be increased
17. That, primary schools should prepare boys and girls for agriculture, budgeting, family
welfare and community development.
18. That, the medium of instruction should be the language of the catchment area of the
school
19. That, a practical method of assessment for all subjects be devised in the primary schools
20. That, admission to provincial schools be truly provincial
21. That, secondary schools curriculum should be diversified so as to be more practical
oriented
22. That, the Kiswahili be made compulsory and examinable
23. That, the future of Kenyatta college should be to develop into a full university
24. That, plans should be made to develop external university programme

The effects of these commissions is that it is one of the most important among the other and the
most of its recommendations were accepted and implemented.
The Waruhiu Commission 1980
The objective of this commission was to;
“To look into the state of salary structure in public sector”
This commission made the largest number of recommendations. They totaled to 528 of them.
Most of these recommendations were on the service on public sector.
Whereas the government implemented nearly all the recommendation on the salaries, all or some
of the recommendation on the education and the teaching profession were not implemented.
The Mackey Commission 1981
The objective of this commission was stated as follows:
“To investigate and recommend on possibility of the establishment of the second university in
Kenya”
The recommendation of this commission were accepted and most of them implemented. It is the
recommendation of this commission which formed the guidelines of education, administration
and management of education system currently enforce
Afew of these recommendations are stated as follows:
1. That, “A’ level segment in Kenya education system be scrapped
2. That, in order to streamline education system in Kenya the present primary education
system be extended from the present 7 to 8 years. The structure of education system
which will be created by this change will be as follows:
a. Primary school 8 years
b. Secondary school 4 years
c. University school 4 years
3. That, a council of higher education be set up
4. That, university should be constituted by taking over the existing institutions
5. That, Kiswahili is a language and subject be made compulsory at the second university
6. That, presidential working party found an overwhelming support for the establishment of
the second university
7. Therefore, the party recommends the establishment of the second university in Kenya
with a bias in technology
The effects of this commissions are clear and evident. A few major aspects of this commission
included the following:
1. That, second university in Kenya was established in Eldoret and called, “Moi University”
2. The schools system was changed from that of 7,4,3 to that of 8:4:4.
3. The “A” level of secondary school education was dropped

VOCATIONAL AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN KENYA
Technical education refers to the teaching and training in applied sciences and the teaching
procedure and the acquisition of skills in this field. It emphasizes the understanding of the
practical application of the basic principles of mathematics and sciences. Its objective is the
preparation of graduates for occupation
On the other hand, vocational education emphasizes importing skills for a single occupation or a
single trade. This is the kind of education which is emphasized by the current education system.
It is this kind of education which is responsible for the current popular widespread jua kali
activities in the country
However, it is this same education that has become so popular that was completely refused by
the Africans. Although the Africans rejected this education at first, may be it was due to the
manner in which it was handled then by both the government and the missionaries.
There are foru reasons which are given to explain the rationale behind the reaction of Africans
against this type of education. The reasons are stated as follows:
1. That, the colonial government did not favour the provision of purely academic education
to the colonial subjects after the experience in India
2. That, the type of technical education ensured the supply of cheap labour to the settler
estates
3. That, racially the Europeans held the views that Africans were different from them.
Therefore they did not merit access to the same knowledge.
4. That, the Christian missionaries believed in the virtue in working with the hands.
Therefore, they saw technical education as a means of achieving this aim
By virtue of the above mentioned points, that kind of technical education became the policy in
the British colonies.
This then became the education for all the British colonial people. For example, the first
education commission in Kenya was advice by the colonial government to also consider the
possibility of developing industries among them.
It was therefore not strange to find that the commission recommended to the colonial
government, an industrial apprenticeship scheme through indenture. This approach was designed
to kill two birds with one stone.
1. To discourage self-conceit and insolence
2. Not to produce elitists among the Africans
And soon after the Frezer commission published its own recommendations, the following steps
were undertaken:-
1. That, government made experimental grants-in-aid to selected mission schools for
technical education
2. That, a department of education was set up in 1911 to take charge of all education matters
3. In 1912, an industrial training school was set up to train basic skills such as blacksmith,
carpentry, agriculture and typing
4. In 1913, Machakos school opened for advanced technical training
5. The education commission of 1919 echoed the recommendations of Freser commission
6. In 1924, Native industrial training depot (NITD), was opened at Kabete. It was to provide
specialized training in various trades which were rather advanced.
7. The courses to be offered at NITD included the following:
a. Carpentry
b. Joinery
c. Masonry
d. Bricklaying
e. Blacksmith
f. Welding
g. Electrical installation
h. Motor vehicle mechanic
i. Tailoring
j. Leather Work
8. During the 30s, Kabete was sending out a group to carry out work around the country to
practice in their fields of specialization
9. Kabete was promoted to offer five year courses to prepare those to be employed in the
government services
10. Kabete became a military training unit during the second world war. After this war, it
became a rehabilitation centre for the returning service men until 1948.
11. in 1948, Kabete was returned to its normal course with KAPE as the minimal
requirement entry.
12. Between 1949 and 1963, Kabete apprentices helped erect similar technical schools in the
following places:
a. Thika
b. Sagalagala
c. Kwale
d. Eldoret
e. Machakos
13. In 1949, the Willoughley Committee on technical education in Kenya recommended the
building of a technical and commercial institute for all races in Nairobi
14. In 1955, Kabete and Thika begun a four year course leading to “O” level examination
15. The effects of Willoughby report led to the establishment of the Royal Technical college
in Nairobi in 1956. This college offered advanced courses in engineering and in scientific
and applied subjects.
16. In 1961, Kenya polytechnic was opened. This college offered further courses in the
following areas:
a. Civil engineering
b. Electrical engineering
c. Telecommunication
d. Sciences
e. Commerce
f. Technical teacher training
17. In 1949, Mombasa technical school opened for the Muslims only. Secondary schools
technical courses were added in 1958. Following the recommendations of the Ominde
Commission, religious requirement for the entry of this institution was dropped
The Beecher commission recommended among others, the establishment of the intermediate
schools which were expected to appreciate the value of land and manual work as areas which
would help to incorporate within the school curriculum courses for vocational education.
To achieve this they used the following subjects:
a. Agriculture
b. Handicraft
c. Carpentry
d. Cookery
These subjects remained the curriculum of the schools until time of independence
In spite of the development outlined here, the Kenyan African did not approve of the technical
education given to them. And they were right. This education was designed to produce inferior
Africans who are incapable of political dialogue or any political advancement
This suspicion was barked by the facts that these subjects led to village industries, masonry and
carpenters. Advanced industrial and technical training was considered unsuitable for the
Africans. Furthermore, those Africans artisan who graduated did not find offers from suitable
jobs as promised.
THE DEVELOPMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION

The first teachers who taught in the mission schools in kenya were the first trained in India in an
institution at Saharanpur. This was the centre for the freed slaves. It was run by the church
missionary society (CMS). But, as the level of the mission schools increased, the need for more
teachers increased too.
Therefore, a hasty training for teachers to man the catechist village schools became very
necessary. For that matter, it became necessary to use more able pupils in the classes to help
teach. In this case, the quick learners who were thus used in this way were, in fact training on the
job.
This practice went long for a long time and even the education commissions of the time did not
recommend the establishment of teachers colleges, in spite of the acute need.
However, it was the Phelps-stock commission which recommended for the first time an urgent
training of teachers in the country. As a result of this recommendation, a two year teacher
training course was started at Jeans school, Kabete in 1925. This was opened under the auspices
of the Department of Education.
It was from this example that missionaries organizations in the country also joined the exercise
of opening up teacher training centres.
Alliance which begun in 1926, after the three years begun training in:
a. Agriculture
b. Clerical work
c. Teacher training
In the like manner, the Holy Ghost mission begun another teacher training at Kabaa. Here, like
the case at Alliance the pupils in the higher classes were also taught the subjects of teacher
education. They also undertook practical teaching during their school holidays.
By the time of the 2 world war the picture of training teachers in Kenya was that there was an
appendix of a class in every primary school the secondary section. A full list of the schools
which such appendices was the following:
1. Alliance CMS
2. Kabaa Holy Ghost
3. Kamagambo SDA
4. Kaimosi FAM
5. Butere CMS
6. Maseno CMS
7. Kaloleni CMS
8. Tumutumu Church of Scotland
9. Eregi MHM
10. Yala MHM
11. Githunguri African Independent School
Following special recommendation by D.E.B Kagumo was opened to train primary teachers in
1944 to train for all denomination. Furthermore, past war political pressure led to rapid
expansion in the school system. Makerere was made to expand the department of education to
train T1 teachers for the secondary schools.
The Beecher report recommended the establishment of teacher training centres in Kenya. This
recommendation led to the establishment of many isolated small train centres throughout the
country. The intending organization to establish any such centres were to certify the following
criteria:
1. That there is a suitable site
2. That, there is a locality which is interested in the establishment of such a centre
3. That, there is a local language in which the local area will be served.
It was not usual that the many isolated teacher raining centres were set up by all the
different missionary organizations in the country. Just as each had its own schools, so
was the training centre.
Therefore, as we would be expected, there were many problems of coordination on matters of

curriculum. This need led to the establishment of Kagumo and Siriba as centres of co-ordination
of all matters regarding the training of all teachers. The first duty of these centres was to advice
on how to consolidate the small isolated teacher training centres.
It was also discovered that having two centres for curriculum co-ordination in the country had
disadvantages . This led to the establishment of Kenya Institute of Education (K.I.E).
Subsequently, the small training colleges were persuaded to merge into fewer larger centres. And
following the Ominde commission recommendation, the government begun considering the
economic capacity of the18 teachers’ colleges which had came out of the merger of small
missionary centres.
The consideration which the government was to make was a long the following points:
a. The type of curriculum for the colleges
b. What facilities for the proper use of the colleges
c. The nature for the staffing of the colleges
Training of the graduate teachers.
Secondary school teachers were trained overseas till the early sixtees. A few of the were trained
at Makerere. Makerere was the only school for higher learning in East Africa. It also trained for
primary schools as well.
In 1929, there was a conference of Director of Education in Dar-es-Salaam. This conference
expressed the view that Makerere should be made a general training institute for the advance
training for the Africans. And in 1937, the De- la- Warr Commission broadened the functions of
Makerere.
Makerere was awarded status of the university college status under special relationship with the
university of London. This relationship led to the establishment of a department of education to
offer B.ed degree and diplomas.
With these kind of graduates, inevitably they had to teach in the secondary schools
At the same time, a scheme for the provision of secondary school teachers was created with the
title of “Teachers for East Africa”. OR “TEA” . Under this scheme the teachers were recruited
from UK and USA. Before being posted to various schools in East Africa, they were first given
an orientation at Makerere.
In 1966, a department of education was opened at the university college of Nairobi. This
department was to train in Art and Sciences. In 1970 they introduced post graduate course. Later
in the seventies, they opened up another faculty of education in Kenyatta University College.
The period just before and soon after independence saw a great expansion in the numbers of
secondary schools creating an even greater need for secondary school teaches in the country.
This factor require that another local source for supply of secondary schools had to be devised to
supplement the graduate teachers.
Therefore, a new scheme was established in 1963. This was a three year course for holders of a
school certificate. The course led to the S1 certificate in training. This course was housed at the
Central Teacher Training College. The course was later transferred from CTTC to Kenyatta
University College. This created a new breed of teachers in a new grade of S1 in Kenya.
A second course in the Si in Kenya Science Teachers College (KSTC) IN 1968. This was a new
college established by funds from Swedish government.
Chronological order of this development since independent is the following:
1. 1963; Holders of the school certificate begin at 3 year S1 course at the Central Teachers
Training college
2. 1967: a. Conversion of the former European primary schools in Kericho into primary
teachers’ college
b the construction of the first teachers college in Kenya at Shanzu by Kenyan
government.
3. 1968 The construction of the new teachers’ science college in Nairobi by Swedish
government
4. 1977: A faculty of education is established in Kenyatta university
5. 1981:a. The conversion of primary teachers’ college at Siriba in Maseno in diploma
teachers; college for arts.
b The conversion of primary teachers’ college in Kagumo into diploma college for arts
6. 1986:The conversion of secondary school sites into a new primary teachers’ college at
Migori in south Nyanza
7. 1985:The establishment of Moi University also established a faculty of education
8. 1986; The establishment of Kenyatta university also expanded the department of
education into faculty of education.
9. The establishment of Egerton university also included a faculty of education.
10. 1991: The government established six new primary teachers’ colleges in Kenya as
follows:
a. Narok teachers college
b. Baringo teachers college
c. Muranga teachers college
d. Bondo teachers college
e. Tambach teachers college
f. Garissa teachers college
THE DEVELOPMENT OF UNIVERSITY EDUCATION IN KENYA.
Just like secondary school education, university education for Kenyan Africans was completely
ignored by the then colonial government. For example, on the East African scene Makerere was
established as a technical school in 1921. It was renamed Makerere college in 1922. And it
offered its first candidates for the Cambridge school Certificate (DSC) IN 1935.
The De-La-Warr report of 1937 recommended that Makerere begins giving diploma courses
which included diploma certificate in education. And the Asquith commission recommended that
Makerere be elevated to the university status in 1945. This was effected in 1949. But, university
degree courses begun in Makerere in 1950.
The students in these courses were admitted after C.S.C for duration of four years. The courses
led to BA and B. Sc degrees.
On the other hand, Nairobi begun a Royal Technical College in 1956. The college offered
courses in technical and commercial subjects leading to diploma certificates. Together with Dar-
es-Salaam they became university colleges in East Africa in 1963.
Finally, the three became separate universities in the three countries in the 1970
Thereafter, we find that Tanzania opened up one more university in addition to Dar-es-Salam
university. This is the Sokoine University of agriculture in Morogoro in 1984.
Look wood report recommended the merger of the three east African colleges into one east
African university in 1962. This was effected in June 27 th 1963 bu Julius Nyerere who was the
president of Tanzania became the first chancellor of the university of east Africa.
However, this educational pact was short lived because request soon came from Kenya and
Tanzania for parity. These request finally led to the collapse of the EAU in 1970 thereby giving
way to the establishment of the independent east African universities in 1970.
It was in the 80s when a great lip to the development of higher education was made in Kenya.
This followed the establishment of diploma colleges in science at Kenya Science Teachers’
College (KSTC) in Nairobi in 1968.
This was followed by the two more diploma colleges in Art at Siriba and Kagundo in 1981.
Then there came the Mackay commission in 1981 for a second university in Kenya. The
recommendations of this commission were implemented in 1984 with the creation of Moi
University in Eldoret.
The creation of Moi university was followed by Kenyatta university in 1986, and the Egerton
university in 1987 and finally by the Jomo Kenyatta university of Agriculture in 1988.
THE DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATION IN KENYA AFTER INDEPENDENCE.
During the colonial are, education was stratified along racial lines. These were, the Europeans,
the Asians and the Africans. The stress in education favoured the Europeans. This was the order
set by the first education commission by professor Nelson Fraser. This commission gave
legitimacy too and set the scene for racialism through education.
Therefore, very little was done in the way of development of African education.
This factor in the African education had the effect that by independence time in 1963, Kenya had
very few qualified personnel who could man public services in the country. This made the
demand of education even greater.
To illustrate the extent of the disparity during the colonial government, we find out record that
between 1947 and 1957, the national allocation for education was given as follows:
a. For the Africans who formed 97% was 38%
b. For the rest who formed 3% was 62%
This level of the allocation in national expenditure in education was based on three important
objectives :
a. That some Africans had to work as local clerks and junior officials to facilitate and
enforce the smooth running of the colonial administration.
b. That, the Africans had to learn only enough to be able to teach fellow Africans
c. And that the rest of Africans were to serve as manual workers or labourers to boost
colonial economy.
Therefore, it was assumed by the colonial government that in order to function in the capacities
described here above, a bare minimum of skills and knowledge was sufficient. It was the type of
education which was specially designed to make the Africans submissive and subservient and
thus, to make the African continually feel inferior and to accept the superiority of his white
masters.
In which case, a part from the teaching of the 3rs,African Education consisted of the basic skills
in the following areas
i Handicrafts
ii Agriculture(digging or simple gardening)
iii carpentry
iv masonry
v shoe making
vi tailoring
vii simple hygiene
viii road maintenance
on the other land, European education was intellectual ,elitist and a direct replica
of what happened in Europe. Eventually the European children went to Europe for
higher education.
it was therefore not strange that when his time came, the Africans also looked to
Europe for their education .
The education of the Asian was placed somewhere between the two. However, two important
factors enabled the Asians to prosper. These were the following:
a. Their economic power
b. Their religion
Furthermore, only a small number of the African children went to school at the same time and
the rate of attrition was high. At the same time, the European children operated on the universal
education standard. On the other hand, opportunities were made available for the children of the
immigrants.
When it came to higher education, the European children did not go to Makerere. They went to
Europe leaving Makerere for Africans only.
Although Makerere was left for Africans only, yet at the same time entry conditions were made
to be very stiff. This made it possible for only a small number of the quakifying Africans to join
every year. The stiff conditions were made up of many examinations which the Africans had to
pass before joining Makerere for their higher education.
Colonial education also encouraged European culture rather than African cultures. This factor
was effected through:
a. The European language
b. The dress
c. The religion
It appears as if this type of colonialism may not have come to an end in spite of the many years
since political independence was achieved in Kenya.
Factors that helped shape educational policies.
There are several factors which helped shape educational policies which eventually led to the
change in the colonial educational practice which the Kenyan Africans did not approve. The
basic factors which could not be accepted was the fact that, colonial education was stratified a
long racial lines. This practice was definitely at variance with the political aspirations of the
Kenyan Africans in their independent states.
There were mainly five Major factors that helped shape the education policies at independence.
they were stated as follows:
a. That, there was a desire on the part of the new African leaders to prove and to protect the
independence of their new state.
b. That, there was a great desire at the time of the independence for more and better
secondary school education.
c. That, the new African politicians had campaign on an education system based on a seven
year free education for primary school in Kenya
d. That, at the dawn of independence, many white Europeans who occupied most of the top
posts in the public and the private sectors, did not want to work under African bosses.
Therefore, many of them suddenly left their jobs. This created an awkward situation in
the public service.
e. That during the whole period of the colonial rule in Kenya, education for the Africans
was pyramidal. In this way, it presented many bottle-necks. Some of the problems in that
education system included the following:
i Many examinations
ii Unaffordable school fees
iii Lack of opening after the end of an educational circle
Among other things, this meant that the new African government administrators had to find local
skilled manpower to fill the gaps created by the departing and departed expatriates. Obviously
this is one area where appropriate education was expected to greatly contribute.
As it can be noted therefore, these conditions and many others combined to stifle the efforts
made by the majority of the pupils in the system. This therefore hindered the attainment of the
basic functional literacy. It was then necessary that the African government in Kenya prepares
definite plans to water down the effects of the colonial education. They could only do that by
making education egalitarian.
Furthermore, the points listed here above are factors arising out of internal conditions. However,
there also international factors which also prevailed at the time which in their turns helped
influence the type and nature of the education which was to be developed by the newly
immerging countries in Africa.
As newly independent countries among the free nations of the world, Kenya had to note the
following:
a. That, as a new nation, it had to be accepted by UNESCO. This could be done only by the
new nations accepting the UNESCO principles on education.
b. That education is a human right which must not be denied to any child.
c. That, the new nation was expected to accept and help implement the resolutions of
UNESCO’S conferences which were held in Addis Ababa in 1961 and Tanarive in 1962.
The resolution was that: “The new nations in Africa had to strive to achieve the UPE by
the year 1980
It was the UNESCO requirement that the three East African newly independent states achieve
through education the following:
a. Localization of the curriculum so as to promote African culture
b. Develop and expand secondary education so as to produce high and middle level
manpower form the local personnel
c. Kenya as well as the other two East African countries of Uganda and Tanzania had been
ideologically and culturally part of the Britain. Where they going to remain the same in
their independent states?
Therefore, it is this background of these factors that that education for the independent Kenya
was planned and developed.
However, in order to effectively participate in the planning and the development of education
for the independent Kenya, the government sponsored education commissions to asses the
condition present in the society in general and to make recommendations to the government. It is
from these recommendations of such commissions that the government determines the level and
the direction to be taken with regard to the planning and the development of the relevant type of
national education at any one time.
There have been several Educational Commissions in Kenya since independence. The
commissions have made varied recommendations to the government with regard o the
educational development in Kenya. But for our purposes here, we will make reference to three of
these conditions.
These are the following:
a. The Ominde commission
This commission had the objective of assessing educational needs of the newly independent state
and recommend to the new government regarding the direction and the nature of the action
which the government could take.
The recommendations of the commission were made from the background of the fact that
education in Kenya upto the time of independence was:
i Racially stratified
ii The schools for the education for the Africans were managed by the various sponsoring
church organizations
iii Teachers were trained, recruited and paid by the owners of the school
b. The Gachathi commission 1976
This commission was reviewed and made recommendation regarding the national educational
objectives and policies.
These had not been seriously addressed in an of the previous commissions.
c. The MACKEY commission 1981
This commission set to specifically examine the possibility of the establishment of the second
university in Kenya. Therefore, in order to speed up the development of education, the
government encouraged the local people to participate in the establishment of the school. This
encouragement was carried through the historic spirit of Harambee.
The first action which was taken by the newly independent government with regard to education
was to abolish the racially based school system. In stead the government created an integrated
national system of education. This meant the creation of unified syllabus and the teaching
profession.
The 4;4 system of the education in the primary circle was replaced in 1964 by a continuous
seven year system ending with the Kenya certificate of primary education or KCPE.
This change led to a change in the number of the candidates who sat the examination such that,
the change was 62,000 in 1964 to 133,000 in 1966. At the same time, there was a growth rate of
5.5% between 1964 and 1968 in primary education.
The actual change in figure of the pupils as revealed by the school enrolment were as follows:
1. 1963 891,553 pupils
2. 1968 1,209,849 pupils
And when free universal primary education was achieved in 1974 there was sharp increase in the
school enrolment in all the primary schools in the country. It was also noted that the enrolment of
the girls in the schools also went up steadily such that by 1986, it was 48% up from 34% in 1963.
School development here could be said to have gone up in lips and jumps after independence for
the primary education in Kenya.
Secondary education did not remain behind in this education race. But, the activities in this area
had begun earlier than at the time of independence, we find that, by 1949, at the time of the
Beecher report only three secondary school were sitting for the Cambridge school certificate
(CSC). These were:
a. Alliance
b. Mang’u
c. Maseno
However, following the Beecher commission the numbers rose from 3 to 22 in 1955 and to 61 in
1961. And by 1956, the following schools became full secondary schools:
a. Kakamega
b. Kagumo
c. Kisii
d. machakos
And by 1962 the higher school certificate HSC as “A” status had been granted to the following
secondary schools in Kenya:
a. alliance
b. kangaru
c. Kakamega
d. Kisii
e. Maseno
f. Shimo la Tewa
Furthermore, a recommendation were made such that form one places were to be increased from
57 in 1965, to 145 in 1967 and then to 253 in 1979. This increase was expected t o boost school
enrolment from 33500 in 1965 to 65,500 by 1970.
At the same time, form vi and v places were to be increased by eight new form v every year to
reach 2286 by 1970.
At the same time, the government encouraged the people through harambee efforts, to put up
schools in their localities. The government barked this effort by bursary schemes to enable the
needy children attend high cost schools in the country.
In this way, enrolment in the aided schools rose from 15856 in 1960, to 52294 in 1970. But, the
level of the enrolment for girls did not seem to have improved much because they remained at
about 30%
The Development of Higher education
Nairobi university in Nairobi, is the first institution of higher learning in Kenya. It was started as
a royal technical college in 1956. In 1961, it was merged with the other two of the Dar-es Salaam
and Makerere in Kampala Uganda. This merger was for the creation of the university of the east
Africa. The venture which was short lived.
When that unity broke away then Nairobi university college was inaugurated as a university of
Nairobi in Kenya in 1970.
The development of this university took the following creation. That, by 1978 and 79, the
university had attained fully developed faculties. these were the following:
1. Agriculture
2. Engineering
3. Arts
4. Science
5. Vetenary
6. Commerce
7. Education
8. Architecture
9. Law
10. Medicine
There are also institutes and schools as follows:
1. African studies
2. development studies
3. Adult Studies
4. Journalism
By 1986, the faculties had been grouped into six colleges spread over five campuses.
After the university of Nairobi, there came Moi university in Eldoret as the second university in
Kenya. This was soon followed by Kenyatta University, Egerton university near Nakuru and
finally came Jomo Kenyatta university of agriculture and Maseno university in 2001.
To date Kenya prides over six properly constituted public university with international
accreditation. Over and above these, there are few private universities in Kenya which also serve
to promote the development of higher education.
These universities include the following:
a. The international university of USA
b. The Daystar University sponsored by catholic church
c. The university of East Africa at Baraton, sponsored by SDA church
d. Africa Nazarene University, sponsored by Nazarene church of Africa
STAGES OF EFFECTS OF WESTERN EDUCATION ON THE KENYAN AFRICANS.
It is expected that, the effect of going to school is noted in an individual’s changed behavour and
the change is expected to be a positive one. Similarly, the individual who goes to school sets out
some objectives which are to be achieved by the end of the exercise.
We need to note here that Kenyan Africans were introduced to western form of education by the
Europeans themselves. The Europeans also displayed in the person, the product that form of
education. Therefore, the Africans saw, approved and admired what they saw in Europeans.
Stage One
While the Mzungu (white man) or the European was very busy working out detailed scheme
about the African education, the Africans saw at the time that the early form of meaningful
education was that one which made him similar to Mzungu. Right from the days of missionaries,
the Kenyan Africans went to the missionary schools because they wanted to be like Whiteman.
This desire was made even more real and attainable by evidence of those from among them who
finished schools irrespective of the level and were employed by the white men, looked different,
behaved differently and even dressed differently. This class of Africans appeared and even talked
like white men. Therefore going to school at this time was based on one objective only. That of
attaining the white man status.
It was for this reason that that the Africans rejected the form of education meant for the blacks.
This was the attitude which lasted till about fifties. It was reported that at some time during the
second half of the forties the late president Kenyatta supported this attitude politically when he
addressed a public meeting saying
“Take your children to school. Let them learn the tricks of the white man so that they can come
back to Kenya and fight the white man by the same trick”
Therefore, during the first stage of Kenyan history of education, we went to school so as to be
like white man was the motive and educational guiding star.
Stage Two
The second stage in Kenya’s educational progression came at about the beginning of the sixties.
This was a time when independence was just around the corner. It lasted till about the middle of
seventies.
The special aspect of this stage was to go to go to school for the purpose of filling up the many
white collar jobs. these jobs were available in both private and public sectors. The government
even organized crash programmes in which to train the then urgently needed local manpower,
Therefore, during this stage, we went to school in order to obtain a certificate which would be
able to fill up the white collar jobs. And in deed these white collar jobs were available.
Two factors contributed to this situation at the time. These were the following:
a. That, at the dawn of independence, many expatriates left the country thus creating many
jobs.
b. That, there was a small population of Kenyans which was reported at the time to be
about 7.5 million.
Stage Three
This stage comes up somewhere after independence. We note that Kenya’s population took on a
rapid increase such that from about 7.5M at independence it was reported to be about 15 million
by about 1975. This figure was reported to have jumped to 20 million by about 1984.
Therefore, it was a factor of common sense that somewhere a long the line of development in
Kenya,pupolation would overtake that rate of economic expansion.
This factor begun to show itself from about 1975. This factor manifested itself in many
complains which begun to be openly public that there were no jobs. People even begun to
question the type of education system at the time. Hence the Gachadhi commission of 1976.
Pressure had started mounting for the need for the graduates through school who could be self-
reliant. It was expected that such would be the person who could be able to meet the conditions
of the changed situation in Kenya’s economic and population expansion.
In addition to the recommendations of the Gachadhi commission, there also came within four
years the recommendation of the Mackey commission. Among others, the Mackay commission
made recommendations where a stress was made to make provision through education, the
teaching of subjects of agriculture, business education and the technical subjects. These courses
are to be taught in both the primary and secondary school cycle.
This has the meaning that from these two commissions a stress was made that Kenyans should
go to school to realize their own selves, which is the true meaning and the purpose of going to
school.
Although, upto the time of writing, this particular stage has not been fully realized, a point has
been made. that, self-reliance is the only purpose to be achieved through education. It is therefore
a stage where entire education system and the teachers in particular, where teachers will need to
learn to translate the principles of education such that the end product of their teaching becomes
a truly self reliant Kenya citizen of the next millennium.
APPENDICES
Revision Test Items
1. What do you understand by the term ‘History of Education”?
2. What are some of the main feature of education during the pre-historic period?
3. How has education influenced social values through history
4. Discuss some feature of ancient education which may be applicable and practiced in
Kenya’s education system?
5. Religion was part and parcel of ancient education in Egypt. Explain whether or not
there is any similarity with the stress in religion in Kenya’s education system
6. Discuss relationship between education and religion in either ancient India or china
7. Socratic method in teaching is still used in educational practice today. Explain the main
features of this method.
8. Compare the Spartan education system to that of Kenya, then discuss any similarities
and differences in the two education systems
9. A Jewish education system is said to be based on consciousness. Discuss the validity of
this claim
10. Compare and contrast the Hebraic and the Christian educational ideals in many societies
around the world
11. Explain at least 5 factors which influenced the establishment of universities in Europe
12. Explain the significance of the factors of refinances to the development of education at
the time
13. Explain the dominance of coenius in modern educational practice
14. What the contribution of Herbart to the 19th century movement in education
15. Explain Dewey education ideas and show which ideas are in practice in Kenya’s
education system
16. Describe the important characteristics of African indigenous education
17. African indigenous education is said to be mainly participator. Give an elaborate
description to explain this fact.
18. Explain the colonial educational policies of ‘ adaptation and Assimilation’
19. Compare and contrast the British and the French colonial policies on African education
20. Colonial government policies in Africa education and technical vocational education
were rejected by Africans. Explain this rejection.
21. Describe the development of teacher education since 1920
22. Explain educational development in Kenya with reference to either:
a. Primary education
b. Secondary education
23. Higher education in Kenya is mainly a factor of eighties. Give a detailed description of
this statement and show its validity
24. What justification is there for the establishment of racially stratified education system in
Kenya by the colonial government. Explain
25. Explain the importance of the Ominde commission
26. What are the main features of education recommended by the Beecher commission.
27. The 8;4;4 system of education stresses the idea of self reliance. Is this the first time that
an education system recommends self-reliance in education system in Kenya? Explain.
28. Explain what adult education is in Kenya
29. Name any two African educators and give a brief account about them.
30. Should we or should we not teach history of education. Explain why or why not
31. Ghana and Senegal are two African countries. Explain educational approach which they
followed during their colonial era
32. Explain the educational and professional significance of history of education as a course
of teacher education
33. The following are the educational thinkers whose ideas have helped to shape modern
education
a. Pestalozzi
b. Froebel
c. Comenius
d. Herbart
e. John Locke
f. Montessori
g. Rousseau
h. Dewey
i. Emmanuel Cant
j. Ivan Tillich
Discuss the ideas of any two of them and show how their idea relate to the education
system in Kenya
34. Cost sharing is not a new phenomenon in Kenya’s education system. Explain how it was
done in the past.
35. Major changes in Kenya’s education development in education took place after
independence. Explain Kenya’s educational development after independence
36. What aspects of Greek education did Rome adopt. Explain how those aspects influence
moral and the cultural life of Rome.
37. Explain the educational contribution of the following ancient educators
a. Plato
b. Socrates
c. Aristotle
38. Identify any five (5) common elements from the ancient education system you have
learnt. Discuss the relevance to modern education in Kenya.
39. Ancient history of education is an obsolete subject because conditions have changed.
Whatever views you may hold, substantiate your answer to reference to the Greco-
Roman education
40. Describe the government contribution to the development of African education Kenya
during the colonial era
41. “Harambee” is a national slogan. Explain its origin and role in educational development
in Kenya
42. After the Berlin conference on Africa event into political spheres of interest. Explain how
this factor influenced educational development in Africa
43. The period in History between about AD 300 and AD 1200 is known as the ‘Dark Ages’.
Why is it so called
44. Explain the significance of monasteries in education
45. Give an account on the contribution of Islam to the development of education
46. Explain the factors that led to the establishment of monasteries in Europe
47. Describe the relationship between the church and the development of education during
the dark ages in Europe and during that period before independence in Kenya
48. Two forces led to the collapse of ancient learning and civilization in Europe. Explain
these forces
49. Since 1908 successive governments in Kenya have been advice on reforms in education
by a commission.
Explain the latest education commission in Kenya
50. Explain the significance of African indigenous education
51. Modern universities in Africa cannot borrow any thing from the characteristics of
Medieval European universities.
Assess this claim critically and shw whether or not it is valid
52. Of what contribution is education to the factors of Renaissance
53. Both the colonial government and missionaries recommended technical and vocational
education. WHY?
54. Explain at least three 3 types of schools which were established by church during 11 th
century AD
55. Give an account of ancient centres of learning. EXPLAIN how and when these centres
came to an end.
56. Discuss some of the conditions which led to the development of education in ancient
Egypt.
57. It was the relationship between the ancient Roman and the ancient Greeks that ed to the
development of modern type of education commonly referred to as “waster education”
With specific example, explain how this comes about
58. Dr. Julius Nyerere of Tanzania is one of the African educators. Critically examine his
educational ideas from the background of education for the development in Africa
59. It is on record that, higher education was neglected by the colonial government in Kenya.
Explain how that may be so
60. The dark ages period is also known as, the period of ‘preservation’.
Explain how this may be so?
61. Discuss why History of education is a necessary course for teacher education
62. What is the relationship between monasteries in Europe and the development of
education
63. Give the historical accounts of the Missionaries activities in Kenya and how these
activities relate to education
64. Modern education in Kenya can correctly be referred to as ‘MISSIONARY
EDUCATION’ explain to justify this statement.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Mayer F. A history of educational thought. Charles E Merril. Publishing Co. 1973
Rusk B. Alternative in Education. London university Press LTD. 1971
Wilds E.N and Lottich K.V The foundation of modern education. New York Halt 1970
Burrow R. Radical education. London 1978
Morrish I. Education since 1800. London 1976
Bokongo S.N and D.N Sifuna A History of education in Kenya. Nairobi 1986
Sifuna .D.N Short Essay on education EK.A New York 1978
Ocitti J.P African Indegenous education. Nairobi 1977
Kenyatta J. Facing Mount Kenya. London 1962
Nyerere J.K Freedom and Unity.
Freedom and Development
Education for self-relaince
Wilds E H and Lottich K.V The foundation of modern education. New York Halt 1961
Power E Main current in History of education 1970
King K. The African Artisan, Nairobi: 1977
Furley O.W. A history of education in East Africa New York: 1978
Smith E.W Indegenous education in Africa. London 1934
Tanzania The Arusha Declaration. 1967
Indere F.F and Sifuna D.N A History of Development of teacher education. Nairobi. 1974
Morrison D.R Education and Politics in Africa. London 1976
Keino E. The Contribution of ‘Harambee’ to educational development in Kenya.
Nairobi 1969
Mbiti J.S African Religion and Philosophy. Nairobi 1969
Njoroge R.J and Bennaars G.A.F . Philosophy and Education in Africa. Nairobi 1986
Bertrand Russell. History of Western, Philosophy. London 1967
Margaret Gillet. A History of education. Toronto 1966

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EDF 210 Handout:-Lecturer Barasa Sam Omachar

EDF 210 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

MEANING OF HISTORY OF EDUCATION

 Gottschalk, L. (1967).defines history as ‘’that part of human past which can be

1|Page Lecturer Barasa Sam Omachar

 Aristotle defined education as a creation of a sound mind in a sound body. It

Various scholars have come up with different

1. Sifuna and otiende (1992). Have defined it as ‘‘a

2. Otiende, Karagu and Wamahiu (1992:4) A study that deals with

2|Page Lecturer Barasa Sam Omachar

of educational institutions,life and work of educators and

POINTS TO NOTE INCLUDES:-

What is the scope of history of education?

3|Page Lecturer Barasa Sam Omachar

Why should a prospective teacher study

 To professionally prepare teachers that they can be able to critically explore

4|Page Lecturer Barasa Sam Omachar

 It contributes to the strengthening of both the personal and the professional

 Encourages freedom of critical thought and imaginative thinking in the exercise of

5|Page Lecturer Barasa Sam Omachar

 Therefore history of education is an account of the living growth of educational

6|Page Lecturer Barasa Sam Omachar

7|Page Lecturer Barasa Sam Omachar

This noun means among others, the following:

8|Page Lecturer Barasa Sam Omachar

GRECO-ROMAN PRESENT COMMON

9|Page Lecturer Barasa Sam Omachar

It is at this time when the great heritage

a. The Ancient Egypt.

4 Ancient Hebrew Education.

A. The Muslim Influences.

RENAISSANCE AND EDUATION

DEVELOPMENT IN EDUCATIONAL THOUGHT.

The objective of experimental school was to experiment a new approaches to curricular,

1. Educational Advisory Committees set up

The Binns Commission 1952

The Ndegwa Commission 1917

24. That, plans should be made to develop external university programme

3. The “A” level of secondary school education was dropped

THE DEVELOPMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION

Therefore, as we would be expected, there were many problems of coordination on matters of

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