Topic 1:

Concepts and Issues

in Curriculum
Definitions
Planned, enacted and hidden
curriculum
Relationships between curriculum,
syllabus, course and programme

What is curriculum?
There are many definitions that are
correct. but for our purposes we
define curriculum as :
WHAT is taught to
students.

Definition of Curriculum
An

educational programme which

states the educational purpose of the
programme (the ends), the content,
teaching procedures and learning
experiences which will be necessary
to achieve this purpose (the means),
and some means for assessing
whether or not the educational ends
have been achieved.
(Richards et al)

 SUATU PROGRAM PENDIDIKAN YANG

TERMASUK
KURIKULUM
DAN
KEGIATAN
KOKURIKULUM YANG MERANGKUMI SEMUA
PENGETAHUAN, KEMAHIRAN, NORMA, NILAI,
UNSUR KEBUDAYAAN DAN KEPERCAYAAN
UNTUK
MEMBANTU
PERKEMBANGAN
SESEORANG MURID DENGAN SEPENUHNYA
DARI SEGI JASMANI, ROHANI, MENTAL DAN
EMOSI
SERTA
UNTUK
MENANAM
DAN
MEMPERTINGKATKAN NILAI MORAL YANG
DIINGINI
DAN
UNTUK
MENYAMPAIKAN
PENGETAHUAN
AKTA PENDIDIKAN 1996
PERATURAN-PERATURAN KURIKULUM
KEBANGSAAN
PENDIDIKAN 1997

Definition of the Malaysian

National Curriculum
an educational programme that
includes curriculum and co-curricular
activities which encompass all knowledge,
skills, norms, values, cultural elements and
beliefs to help fully develop a pupil
physically,
spiritually,
mentally
and
emotionally as well as to inculcate and
develop desirable moral values and to
transmit knowledge.
(Akta Pendidikan 1996)

How Do We Define
Curriculum?

Curriculum is
that which is taught at school;
a set of subjects;
content;
a sequence of courses;
a set of performance objectives;
a course of study;
everything that goes on within a
school;
everything that is planned by
school personnel;

How Do We Define
Curriculum?
Curriculum is
that which is taught both inside and
outside of school and directed by
the school;
a series of experiences;
undergone by learners in school;
and that which an individual learner
experiences as a result of
schooling.
Source: Oliva, P. F.(1982), Developing the
Curriculum. Boston: Little, Brown &
Company

How Do We Define
Curriculum?
Curriculum is all planned learning
for which the school is responsible.
Curriculum is all the experiences
learners have under the guidance
of the school.
John Delnay (1959)

How Do We Define
Curriculum?
According to Bandi & Wales
(2005), the most common
definition derived from the word
Latin root, which means
racecourse.
Bandi & Wales (2005) also stated
that for many students, the
school curriculum is a race to be
run, a series of obstacles or
hurdles (subjects) to be passed.

How Do We Define
Curriculum?
It is important to note that schools
in the Western Civilization have
been heavily influenced since the
fourth century B.C. by the
philosophies of Plato and Aristotle.
The word curriculum has been
used historically to describe the
subjects that are being taught
during the classical period of
Greek Civilization.

How Do We Define
Curriculum?
The interpretation of the word
curriculum has broaden in the 20th
century to include subjects other
that the Classics.
Today school documents,
newspaper articles, committee
reports, and many academic
textbooks refer to any and all
subjects offered; are prescribed as
the curriculum of the school.

Definition Wilson (1990) of

curriculum is:
Anything and everything that teaches a lesson,
planned or otherwise.Humans are born
learning, thus the learned curriculum actually
encompasses a combination of all below -- the
hidden, null, written, political and societal etc..
Since students learn all the time through
exposure and modelled behaviours, this means
that they learn important social and emotional
lessons from everyone who inhabits a school -from the janitorial staff, the secretary, the
cafeteria workers, their peers, as well as from
the
department,
conduct
and
attitudes
expressed and modelled by their teachers.
Many educators are unaware of the strong
lessons imparted to youth by these everyday
contacts.

Concept of curriculum
Introduction

The concept of curriculum is as

dynamic as the changes that occur in
society.
In its narrow sense, curriculum is
viewed merely as a listing of subjects
to be taught in school.
In a broader sense, it refers to the total
learning experiences of individuals not
only in schools but in society as well.

Curriculum from Different Points of

View

There are many definitions of

curriculum. Because of this, the concept
of curriculum is sometimes characterised
as fragmentary, elusive and confusing.
The definitions are influenced by modes
of thoughts, pedagogies, political as well
as cultural experiences.

Traditional Points of View of

Curriculum
In the early years of 20th century,
the traditional concepts held of the
curriculum is that it is a body of
subjects or subject matter prepared
by the teachers for the students to
learn. It was synonymous to the
course of study and syllabus
Robert M. Hutchins views curriculum
as permanent studies where the
rule of grammar, reading, rhetoric
and logic and mathematics for basic
education are emphasized.

Basic Education should emphasize

the 3 Rs and college education should
be grounded on liberal education.
On the other hand, Arthur Bestor as
an essentialist, believe that the
mission of the school should be
intellectual training, hence curriculum
should focus on the fundamental
intellectual disciplines of grammar,
literature and writing. It should also
include mathematics, science, history
and foreign language.

This definition leads us to the view of

Joseph Schwab that discipline is the
sole source of curriculum.
Thus in our education system,
curriculum is divided into chunks of
knowledge we call subject areas in
basic education such as English,
Mathematics, Science, Social Studies
and others. In college, discipline may
include humanities, sciences,
languages and many more.

Traditional curriculum design does not

reflect these realities, it often does not
provide students with opportunities to
develop the kinds of critical thinking skills
and problem-solving abilities that are
central to thinking and learning (Jones,
Palinscar, Ogle, & Carr, 1987).
Furthermore, traditional curriculum design
does not include opportunities to build the
kinds of personal and collaborative skills
that support learning (Tinzmann, Jones,
Fennimore, Bakker, Fine, & Pierce, 1990).

Progressive Points of
View of Curriculum
On the other hand, to a progressivist,
a listing of schools, subjects, syllabi,
course of study, and list of courses or
specific discipline do not make a
curriculum. These can only be called
curriculum if the written materials are
actualized by the learner. Broadly
speaking, curriculum is defined as the
total learning experiences of the
individual.

This definition is anchored on John Deweys

definition of experience and education. He
believed that reflective thinking is a means
that unifies curricular elements. Thought is
not derived from action but tested by
application.
Caswell and Campbell viewed curriculum as
all experiences children have under the
guidance of teachers. This definition is
shared by Smith, Stanley and Shores when
they defined curriculum as a sequence of
potential experiences set up in the schools
for the purpose of disciplining children and
youth in group ways of thinking and acting

Marsh and Willis on the other

hand view curriculum as all the
experiences in the classroom
which are planned and enacted
by the teacher, and also
learned by the students.

Islamic concept of curriculum

According to Islam, basic values
are permanent and so will be the
educational objectives.
In traditionalism, sources of values
are traditions of their forefathers,
while in Islam, pleasure of ALLAH is
the source of Value.
According to Islam only the
prophetic knowledge is absolutely
reliable.

Islamic concept of curriculum

So content will essentially consist of the
knowledge, contained in the Quran and
Sunnah.
Knowledge gained through other
sources will also be tested on this
criteria (Quran & Sunnah) and may
conditionally made a part of curriculum.

History of Curriculum
Three focus points for Curriculum Decisions
1. The Nature of Subject Matter
Content of the curriculum, and what
subject matter to include in the curriculum.
The subject matter of history should be
based on events that actually happened in
the past.
2. The Nature of the Society
If the curriculum is to have utilitarian
values, then it must lead the student not
only to knowledge of the external world for
its own sake, but also to knowledge that
can be applied in the world.

3. The Nature of the Individuals

The third basic focal point around
which decisions about curricula can
be made is the nature of the
individual.
The curriculum is also a set of
suggestions to the teacher about
how to take advantage of the
present opportunities worthwhile,
growth for each student in the long
run.

BASIC ELEMENTS OF
CURRICULUM
Aim:

One sentence (more or less)

description of overall purpose
of curriculum, including
audience and the topic.
Rationale:
Paragraph describing why aim
is worth achieving. This section
would include assessment of
needs.

BASIC ELEMENTS OF
CURRICULUM
Goals and objectives:
List of the learning outcomes expected
from participation in the curriculum.
This section includes a discussion of
how the curriculum supports national,
state, and local standards.
Audience and pre-requisites:
Describes who the curriculum is for
and the prior knowledge, skills, and
attitudes of those learners likely to be
successful with the curriculum.

BASIC ELEMENTS OF
CURRICULUM
SUBJECT-MATTER:

Designation of what area of

content,
facts,
arena
of
endeavour, that the curriculum
deals with. (This is a further
elaboration of the "topic"
description in the Aim.)

BASIC ELEMENTS OF
CURRICULUM
MATERIALS:
List materials necessary for successful
teaching of the curriculum.
Include a list of web pages. Often, the
web site will NOT be the only materials
needed by the students. They may need
books,
tables,
paper,
chalkboards,
calculators, and other tools. You should
spell these additional materials out in your
teaching guide.
Also include the actual materials
(worksheets and web pages) prepared by
the curriculum developer, any special
requirements for classroom setup and
supplies, and a list of any specific
hardware and software requirements

BASIC ELEMENTS OF
CURRICULUM
INSTRUCTIONAL PLAN:
Describes the activities the
learners are going to engage in,
and the sequence of those
activities. Also describes what
the TEACHER is to do in order to
facilitate those activities. (This is
like the traditional "lesson plan"
except for a curriculum it may
include more than one lesson.)

BASIC ELEMENTS OF
CURRICULUM
PLANS FOR ASSESSMENT AND
EVALUATION:
Includes plan for assessing
learning
and
evaluating
the
curriculum as a whole. May include
description of a model project,
sample exam questions, or other
elements of assessment. Also
should include plan for evaluating
the curriculum as a whole,
including feedback from learners.

Quality curriculum
Greater depth and less superficial
coverage
Focus on problem solving
Facilitates the mastery of essential
skill and knowledge
Coordinated
Articulation multi-level sequence
study
Emphasize academic and practice
Effective integrated curricula
Mastery of a limited numbers of
objectives

EDUCATION AND
CURRICULUM
RELATIONSHIP

It is the content of what is taught along

with an overall process of how that
content is to be taught, and instruction
being the more detailed plans and the
way those plans are implemented in
order to teach the curriculum content.
It becomes easy to understand that
the two must be compatible in order to
maximize students learning.

Figure 4 depicts the three curricular processes of

planning, enacting and evaluating a curriculum.
These curricular processes are recursive while at
the same time they overlap and mutually
influence each other.

The purpose of
planning - to guide and support enactment and to
provide a basis for evaluation.
evaluating - to determine the effectiveness of the
learning and teaching in the classroom so as to
become more effective.
The findings of the evaluation affect future
planning, which in turn affects enactment

In this view, enactment learning and teaching in

the classroom is the key to a successful curriculum
and so it is placed at the center of the diagram.
Decisions about curriculum center on the teacher
and learners who enact it.
Teachers are well-informed about the plan, value
the plan and have the skills to use it.

The implementation view of

curriculum is widespread
As a result, when we talk about a curriculum,
we usually mean a design or an educational
program, not an enacted curriculum, the
teaching-learning experiences in the
classroom.
The distinction between design and enactment
is important. Without enactment, the design is
simply a document or a set of ideas, and there
is no actual curriculum.

The implementation view of

curriculum is widespread
The curriculum enacted in the classroom is
guided or influenced to a greater or a lesser
degree by the design.
For a design to support successfully teaching
and learning, it should be realistic to target
users - teachers and students.
Curriculum planning needs to go hand in hand
with teacher involvement

Planned
Curriculum
Hidden
curriculum

Scenario 1 : What message, values

and attitudes are transmitted?
A primary school teacher calls for
volunteers to assist her with
classroom duties. She selects boys to
do the more physical tasks (clean the
blackboard, move chairs) and girls to
perform the gentler tasks (handing out
paper, collecting pencils).

Scenario 2 : What values and

attitudes will be acquired?
A high school principal has formed a
student council to assist with running
of the school. Students are elected by
their peers, without teacher veto.
When
the
council
meets,
representatives elect a leader, again
without teacher interference. The
principal accepts the advice of the
student council and does her best to
implement it.

Values, attitudes, beliefs, norms,

behaviours
Negative - gender stereotyping,
racial polarisation, social status,
power, control, silence, submission,
extroverted, introverted
Positive gender equity, leadership
role, student autonomy, respect,
empowerment, independence,
silence, submission, extroverted,
introverted, multiculturalism,
democracy

HOW CURRICULUM
DIFFERS FROM
SYLLABUS
COURSE OF STUDY
EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMME
TEACHING
INSTRUCTION

SYLLABUS VS
CURRICULUM

Curriculum
Curriculum is a focus of study,
consisting of various courses all
designed
to
reach
a
particular
proficiency or qualification.
Syllabus
A syllabus is simply an outline and
time line of a particular course. It will
typically give a brief overview of the
course objectives, course expectations,
list reading assignments, homework
deadlines, and exam dates.

Curriculum & syllabus

curriculum is a very general concept which

involves consideration of a whole complex of

philosophical, social and administrative factors
which contribute to the planning of an
educational program. Syllabus, on the other
hand, to that subpart of curriculum which is
concerned with a specification of what units
will be taught (as distinct from how they will be
taught, which is a matter for methodology)
(Allen 1984: 61)

45

Curriculum & syllabus

A syllabus is a list of content areas to be
taught and assessed in a single course
A description of the contents of a course of
instruction and the order in which they are to
be taught.
Can be supplemented with a small number
of objectives and preferred learning
activities
A sub-section subsumed under curriculum
Also known as curriculum document
46

Curriculum & syllabus

Curriculum includes content and a
detailed statement of curriculum intent
expressed and analysed in terms of aims,
goals and objectives
Includes other elements such as detailed
learning activities/instructions, materials,
possible experiences and evaluation
procedures.
Provides recommendations for
interrelating the above.
Subsumes syllabus and course of studies

COURSE OF STUDY VS
CURRICULUM
A course is a set of inventory
items grouped together for ease
of assignment and tracking.
Curriculum refers to the training
assigned to a student.
A curriculum can consist of
more than one course.

CURRICULUM VS
TEACHING
Curriculum
Curriculum is a focus of study,
consisting of various courses all
designed to reach a particular
proficiency or qualification.
Teaching
An academic process by which
students are motivated to learn
in ways that make a sustained,
substantial,
and
positive
influence on how they think,
act, and feel.

INSTRUCTION VS
CURRICULUM
Curriculum
Curriculum is literally defined in
education as a set of courses regarding
different classes or subjects offered in
different educational
institutions such as a school or a
university.
Instruction
Instructions are a basic aspect of the
learning process. They are all
formulated to guide students in their
gradual learning process in their
respective fields.

Curriculum as a
Discipline

Graduate and undergraduate

students take
courses in:
Curriculum development
Curriculum theory
Curriculum Evaluation
Secondary School Curriculum
Elementary School Curriculum
Middle School Curriculum
Community College Curriculum
Curriculum in Higher Education

Tutorial Questions
Q.1
Curriculum is always, in every society, a
reflection of what the people think, feel,
believe, and do.
Elaborate on the above statement. Discuss
its implications for administrators and
teachers.
Q2
What is the hidden curriculum? Evaluate the
value of the hidden curriculum to students
52

Parting Thoughts
A curriculum includes some notions
of where the traveler is going, how
the traveler might get there, and
what life might be like not only on
arrival but also along the way. These
can be included in a written
curriculum guide. Of course, the
curriculum also includes making the
trip.

References:
Cortes, C.E. (1981). The societal curriculum:
Implications for multiethnic educations. In Banks,
J.A. (ed.) Educations in the 80's: Multiethnic
education. National Education Association.
Eisner, E.W. (1994). The educational imagination:
On design and evaluation of school programs. (3rd.
ed) New York: Macmillan.
Longstreet, W.S. and Shane, H.G. (1993).
Curriculum for a new millennium. Boston: Allyn and
Bacon.
Oliva, P. F. (1982). Developing the Curriculum.
Boston: Little, Brown & Company
Oliva, P.F. (1997). The curriculum: Theoretical
dimensions. New York: Longman.
Wilson, L. O. (1990, 2004, 2006). Curriculum
course packets ED 721 & 726, unpublished.