UNIT 2: PERSONALITY

Meaning of Personality:
The term ‘personality’ has been derived from the Latin term ‘persona’ which means to ‘speak
through’. The Latin word denotes the masks worn by ancient Greece and Rome. It refers to the
overall impression that one individual makes on others. Personality is the sum total of
characteristics that are typical of an individual. Therefore a very common meaning of the term
personality is the role which the person (actor) displays to the public.

Definition:
According to Gordon Allport, “Personality is the dynamic organisation within the individual of
those psychological systems that determine his unique adjustment to his environment.”

According to Floyd L. Ruch, “Personality includes external appearance and behaviour, inner
awareness of self as a permanent organizing force and the particular pattern or organisation of
measurable traits, both inner and outer.”

According to Fred Luthans, “Personality means how a person affects others and how he
understands and views himself as well as the pattern of inner and outer measurable traits and the
person-situation interaction.”

According to Salvatore Maddi, “Personality is a stable set of characteristics and tendencies that
determine those commonalities and differences in the psychological behaviour (thoughts, feelings
and actions) of people that have continuity in time and that may not be easily understood as the
sole result of the social and biological pressures of the moment.”

In Psychology, personality is interpreted in different ways by different theorists. For example Carl
Rogers views personality in terms of self, an organised, permanent, subjectively perceived entity
which is at the heart of all our experiences. Freud describes the structure of personality as
composed of three elements the id, ego and super ego. In addition the social learning aspects of
personality are also emphasized by some theorists.
Taking all the aspects together, personality represents the sum total of several attributes which
manifest themselves in an individual, the ability of the individual to organize and integrate all the
qualities so as to give meaning to life, and the uniqueness of the situation which influences
behaviour of an individual.

Determinants of Personality:
Now that we have understood the meaning of personality, the next question is what determinants
go into the development of personality? Was the individual born with that personality or was it
developed afterwards as a result of his interaction with his environment? Generally the consensus
is that heredity and environment jointly affect the individual’s personality development.

The factors affecting personality development are illustrated as follows:

The impact of these factors is explained in detail as follows:

(A) Heredity:

The concept that heredity is a determinant of personality is embedded in our minds. In our day to
day life, so many times we use the term “Like father like son” as “Like mother like daughter.”
When we use these terms we generally refer to the traits like physique, eye colour, hair colour,
height, temperament, energy level, intelligence, reflexes etc. However, the importance of heredity
varies from one personality trait to another. For example, heredity is generally more important in
determining a person’s temperament than his values and ideals.
According to S.P. Robbins, the heredity approach argues that the ultimate explanation of an
individual’s personality is the molecular structure of the genes, located in the chromosomes.

(B) Environment:

If all personality traits are determined by heredity, they would be fixed at birth and would not be
changed throughout the life. But this is not so. The personality traits are not completely dictated
by heredity, environment also plays a very important role in the development of personality of a
person.

Environment comprises of culture, family, social and situational factors:

1. Culture: According to Hoebel, “Culture is the sum total of learned behaviour traits which are
manifested and shared by the members of the society.”

“It is a unique system of perceptions, beliefs, values, norms, and patterns of behaviour and a code
of conduct that influences the behaviour of individuals in a given society.”

Culture establishes norms, attitudes and values that are passed along from generation to generation
and create consistencies over time. Every culture expects and trains its members to behave in the
ways that are acceptable to the group. Persons belonging to different cultural groups generally
have different attitudes towards independence, aggression, competition, cooperation, artistic talent
etc. While growing, the child learns to behave in ways expected by the culture of the family in
which he was born. Most cultures expect different roles from males than from females. Similarly,
every culture has its own sub cultures with different views about such qualities as moral values,
style of dress, etc. Although culture has significant influence on personality development, a linear
relationship cannot be established between culture and personality due to the following reasons:

(i) Individuals within the same culture can differ in their behaviour and personality
formats because of the existence of several sub systems within the same culture.
(ii) The workers are not influenced by the same culture as managers are. Moreover, skilled
workers have different behaviour patterns than unskilled workers.
2. Family: One of the very important determinants of the personality of a person is his immediate
family. Families influence the behaviour of a person especially in the early stages. The nature of
such influence will depend upon the following factors:

(i) Socio-Economic level of the family

(ii) Family size

(iii) Birth order

(iv) Race

(v) Religion

(vi) Parent’s educational level

(vii) Geographic location.

To elaborate, a person brought up in a rich and prestigious family has a different personality as
compared to the people who belong to a poor family. The family size will also affect the behaviour
of a child. The personality of a single child is different from the personality of a person who is
brought up in a family of more than two siblings. Similarly, the personality of a person brought up
in a nuclear family will be different from that of a person brought up in a joint family. Studies have
also shown that first born children are more responsible, rational, independent, ambitious and more
sensitive to social acceptance. Empirical evidence also suggests that the home and family
environment, created by the mother and the father as well as their own behaviour is highly
influential on personality development of the child. Every child tries to identify himself with some
person whom he feels ideal in the family. Generally a child in the family tries to behave like his
father or mother. This identification process is fundamental to the understanding of personality
development.

3. Social: Socialization is a process by which an infant acquires from the enormously wide range
of behavioural potentialities that are open to him at birth, those behaviour patterns that are
customary and acceptable to the family and social groups. Initially socialization starts with the
contact of the infant with the mother when he grows up. Contacts with the other members of the
family and social groups influence his socialization process. These social groups include school
mates, friends, then friends or colleagues at work place, groups to which an individual belongs.
Because “A man is known by the company he keeps,” all these social groups influence the
behaviour of the individuals.

A lot of evidence has been accumulated which suggests that socialization may be one of the best
explanations of why employees behave the way they do in today’s organizations. There are some
norms and laws of every society in which the individual exists. Much of the behaviour arises out
of the respect for these norms and laws. Thus, we can say that social life has a considerable impact
on the individual’s behaviour.

4. Situational: Apart from the above factors, situational factors also play a very important role in
determining the personality of a person. Stanley Milgram’s research study indicates very
powerful role the situation may play in human personality. On the basis of his research study he
states that “A situation exerts an important press on the individual. It exercises constraints and may
provide push. In certain circumstances, it is not so much the kind of person a man is, as the kind
of situation in which he is placed that determines his actions.”

That is why it is often said that life is a collection of experiences. Every individual goes through
different type of experiences and events in his life. Some of the events and experiences can serve
as important determinants of his personality. A trauma suffered by a person in the childhood can
sometime change the structure of his own personality. In addition to this, certain incidents or
situations reveal a specific aspect of the personality of a person that was so far hidden. For
example, a very weak and coward person may spontaneously perform heroic action in saving some
one’s life without regard to his own safety.

The role of psychiatrists in personality shaping and changing is wide known. From the preceding
discussion of the determinants of personality, it is clear that personality is a complex concept that
reflects many influences both from within and outside the individual.
 IDEAL PERSONALITY TRAITS AND SKILLS THAT A LAWYER MUST
POSSESS
Lawyers have existed since ancient times, developing rules in an attempt to maintain peace and
order in communities. Today, lawyers can be found all over the world. What does it take to be
successful in this demanding field? Some of the qualities top lawyers have include:

Analytical Skills: A great lawyer has excellent analytical skills and is able to readily make sense
of a large volume of information. Both the study and practice of law involve absorbing large
quantities of information, then having to distil it into something manageable and logical. At times,
there will be more than one reasonable conclusion or more than one precedent applicable to
resolving a situation. A lawyer must therefore have the evaluative skills in order to choose which
is the most suitable.

Creativity: A great lawyer is creative and able to think of reasonable solutions when problems
and unique situations arise. The very top lawyers are not only logical and analytical, but they
display a great deal of creativity in their problem solving. The best solution is not always the most
obvious and in order to outmaneuver your challenger it is often necessary to think outside the box.

Research Skills: Preparing a legal strategy generally requires an extensive amount of research.
Anyone involved in the legal profession should have excellent research skills to be able to find
and comprehend pertinent information. Similarly, being able to research quickly and effectively is
essential to understanding your clients, their needs, and to preparing legal strategies. Preparing
legal strategies requires absorbing and comprehending large amounts of information, then
distilling them down into something manageable and useful.

Interpersonal Skills: Great lawyers and paralegals have excellent interpersonal skills and can
develop trusting relationships with everyone they work with. Law is not an abstract practice.
Irrelevant of how well someone does academically, at the end of the day lawyers work with people,
on behalf of people, and the decisions that are made effect peoples’ lives. They must be personable,
persuasive and able to read others. This allows them to gauge juror’s reactions and the honesty of
witnesses. This allows them to decide upon the best approach to take in order to achieve the desired
outcome: either clients taking their advice or reaching a favourable negotiation with the opposition.
Logical Thinking Ability: A great lawyer is able to think logically and make reasonable
judgments and assumptions based on information presented.

Perseverance: Those working in the legal profession must have perseverance. Often, cases require
many hours of work with heavy research and lots of writing. A good lawyer or legal assistant must
be willing to put in the time it takes to get the job done. “Perseverance is not a long race; it is many
short races one after the other.” Even studying to become a lawyer takes a great deal of
perseverance and commitment – and that’s before you even start work! When working on a case,
you must have the perseverance to complete the work necessary to drive it to a successful finish.

Public Speaking and Communication Skills: A great lawyer has excellent public speaking skills
and is comfortable addressing a courtroom. They can also easily handle speaking in front of other
groups. Lawyers must be orally articulate, have good written communication skills and also be
good listeners. In order to argue convincingly in the courtroom before juries and judges, good
public speaking skills are essential. Communication and speaking skills can be developed during
your studies by taking part in activities such as mooting or general public speaking.

Lawyers must also be able to write clearly, persuasively and concisely, as they must produce a
variety of legal documents. But it’s not all about projection. To be able to analyze what clients tell
them or follow a complex testimony, a lawyer must have good listening skills.

Pursue Continuous Education: Great lawyers stay updated in the legal field and also pursue
continuous training and education.

Reading Comprehension Skills: Lawyers, paralegals, and other legal professionals should have
strong reading comprehension skills to easily understand the complex information encountered in
legal research and documents.

Writing Skills: A great lawyer or legal assistant has excellent writing skills which are used in
preparing compelling arguments, briefs, motions, and other legal documents.

Judgement: The ability to draw reasonable, logical conclusions or assumptions from limited
information is essential as a lawyer. You must also be able to consider these judgements critically,
so that you can anticipate potential areas of weakness in your argument that must be fortified
against. Similarly, you must be able to spot points of weakness in an opposition’s
argument. Decisiveness is also a part of judgement. There will be a lot of important judgement
calls to make and little time for sitting on the fence.

Seven Lamps of Advocacy

Legal profession is regarded to be a noble one. A good advocate should possess some
essential qualities. Judge Abbot Parry in his book “The Seven Lamps of Advocacy” called these
important characteristics of advocacy as “seven lamps of advocacy” and listed them as honesty,
courage, industry, wit, eloquence, judgment and fellowship.

1) Honesty: Honesty means the quality of straightforwardness; freedom from deceit, cheating or
stealing and not telling lies. The best advocates of all generations have been devotees of honesty.
Example for honest character is Abraham Lincoln, who founded his fame and success on what
some called ‘preserve honesty’. The nobleness of legal profession lies in honesty itself. An
advocate should not do illegal practices. He should not do any act which will lead to professional
misconduct. He should disclose the real facts and legal profession to his clients frankly. Honesty,
integrity and character are inseparable. These there virtues together are essential for the success of
an advocate.

2) Courage: Courage is the quality that enables a person to control fear in the face of danger, pain,
misfortune, etc.; an advocate must possess courage. He should face the pressures from outside with
courage. Sometimes he has to fight against State. He should not fear about the executive and
politicians. He must perform his duty to safeguard the interests of his client. Advocacy is a form
of combat, where courage in times of danger is half won battle. Courage is as good a weapon in
the forum as in the war camp, According to Charles Hutton’s. ‘He hath in perfection the three
chief qualifications of an advocate; Boldness, -- Boldness and Boldness’.

3) Industry: Advocacy is needed a life of industry. An advocate must study his brief in the same
way that an actor studies his part. Success in advocacy is not arrived at by intuition but through
industry. Industry is the quality of being hard-working; being always employed usefully. Lord
Eldon says, “An advocate must live like a hermit and work like a horse”. Advocacy is an
intellectual profession. Intelligence and knowledge will be sharpened with hard-work and
strenuous efforts. Advocacy is the profession which requires ‘Study’ and ‘Study’ throughout the
career. An advocate must know about every trade. He must acquire the knowledge of every field.
He must learn about all professions. Industry brings a good fame and name to an advocate. Law
changes day-to-day. To acquire up to date knowledge an advocate must refer international and
national journals, reference books of his library and the bar library.

4) Wit: Wit means clever and humorous expression of ideas; liveliness of spirit. Wit flows from
intelligence; understanding and quickness of mind. Wit lessens the work load of an advocate. It
relaxes his mental strain. Often the wit of an advocate will turn a Judge from an unwise course,
where Judgment or rhetoric would certainly fail. The lamp of wit is needed to lighten the darkness
of advocacy.

5) Eloquence: The success of an advocate depends upon his eloquence. Eloquence means fluent
speaking and skilful use of language to persuade or to appeal to the feelings of others. Fluent
speaking impresses the listener. An advocate must be fluent, skilful in using appropriate words to
impress the Court. Eloquence attracts the attention of the listener. Eloquence is related to the art
of oratory. ‘Eloquence of manner is real eloquence’ and there is a physical as well as psychological
side to advocacy.

6) Judgment: Judgment is an intellectual capacity, ‘the inspiration which enables a man to

translate good sense into right action’. In judgment one has to estimate, consider and form an
opinion about the issues with good sense and ability. An advocate could be in a position to judge
the merits and demerits of the case on hearing the brief and seeing the document. He should inform
his client the legal position openly after judging the issues. Here judgment is not ‘giving the
decision of the case by the Judge in the Court’. Judgment means the study of the case in deep by
considering all shades of the consequences. In nothing does the lawyer more openly exhibit want
of Judgment than in prolixity. Judge Abbot Parry has referred to judgment as one of the seven
lamps; but he refers to it essentially as an intellectual capacity, ‘the inspiration’ which enables a
mean to translate good sense into right action e.g. ‘seeing the right point of his case’ and the like.

7) Fellowship: Fellowship means the membership in friendly association or companionship. The

advocates are opponent parties before the bench but not enemies with each other. Their conflict
ends as they come out of the door steps of the Court. Daniel Webster says, “Lawyers on opposite
sides of a case are like the two parts of shears, they cut what comes between them, but not each
other”. There is no discrimination of age, ability, experience and riches etc. between the advocates.
All are equal. Courts give them all equal respect. Among advocates, there is just the same rough
familiarly, the general ardour of character, the same kind of public opinion expressed in exactly
the same blunt, unmistakable manner. By keeping the lamp of fellowship burning, advocates
encourage each other by sharing the knowledge to walk in the light of the seven lamps of advocacy.

8. Tact: K.V.Krishnaswamy Aiyer, in his book “Professional Conduct and Advocacy” adds one
more lamp i.e. tact. Tact means handling people and situations skillfully and without causing
offence. An advocate must be in a position to tackle and win his client, opponent party, opponent
advocate in a smoother way. Many people of unequal ability have failed for want of tack. An
advocate should not quarrel with Court or loose temper over trifle things in the Court and outside.
Men of unquestioned ability have suffered for quarrelling with the tribunal or for standing on their
dignity over trifles, for getting their clients, or for losing their tempers; they are men of parts but
more properly refers to the human side of putting into action the result of one’s judgment.

THEORIES OF PERSONALITY
• Three Trait Theory by Gordon Allport and Henry S. Odbert
• Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
• Social Learning Theory (Albert Bandura)
• Psychoanalytic Theory by Sigmund Freud

THREE TRAIT THEORY: ALLPORT

Along with Henry S. Odbert, in 1936, Allport worked through two of the most comprehensive
English language dictionaries available. From these dictionaries, the researchers extracted around
18,000 personality-describing words, which they then reduced to approximately 4,500
personality-describing adjectives. These adjectives were then described as observable and
relatively permanent personality traits.

Gordon Allport then divided these traits into a three-level hierarchy. These were:
⇒ Cardinal Traits: These are the dominant traits of a person's life. They shape a person's
behavior in such a way that a person is known specifically for these traits. In some cases, they
become synonymous with the person who is then identified by these traits. For example, the word
Freudian, an adjective that is related to deeply hidden desires or feelings, is linked to Sigmund
Freud. Similar descriptive terms include Machiavellian, narcissistic, etc. Allport suggests that
these traits are rare. When present, they shape a person's sense of self, emotional makeup, attitudes,
and behavior completely, and often define their lives. Some historical figures who demonstrated
such traits include Abraham Lincoln for his honesty, Marquis de Sade for sadism and Joan of Arc
for heroic self-service.

⇒ Central Traits: Unlike cardinal traits, central traits are ones that make up your personality.
They are easily detected characteristics of a person. According to Allport, every person has around
5 to 10 central traits, and they are present in varying degrees in every person. These include
common traits such as intelligent, shy, and honest. They are responsible for shaping most of our
behavior.

⇒ Secondary Traits: Dispositions which are significantly less generalized and less relevant are
known as secondary traits. These could be certain circumstantially-determined characteristics. For
example, a person whose cardinal trait is assertiveness may display signs of submissiveness when
the police stop him from speeding. This is just a situational trait that may or may not be displayed
for other interpersonal encounters. According to Allport, these hard-to-detect traits are "aroused
by a narrower range of equivalent stimuli and they issue into a narrower range of equivalent
responses".

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

Maslow first introduced his concept of a hierarchy of needs in his 1943 paper "A Theory of Human
Motivation" and his subsequent book Motivation and Personality. This hierarchy suggests that
people are motivated to fulfill basic needs before moving on to other, more advanced needs.

While some of the existing schools of thought at the time (such

as psychoanalysis and behaviorism) tended to focus on problematic behaviors, Maslow was much
more interested in learning about what makes people happy and the things that they do to achieve
that aim.

As a humanist, Maslow believed that people have an inborn desire to be self-actualized, that is, to
be all they can be. In order to achieve these ultimate goals, however, a number of more basic needs
must be met such as the need for food, safety, love, and self-esteem.

There are five different levels of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.

From Basic to More Complex Needs

Maslow's hierarchy is most often displayed as a pyramid. The lowest levels of the pyramid are
made up of the most basic needs, while the most complex needs are at the top of the pyramid.
Needs at the bottom of the pyramid are basic physical requirements including the need for food,
water, sleep, and warmth. Once these lower-level needs have been met, people can move on to the
next level of needs, which are for safety and security. As people progress up the pyramid, needs
become increasingly psychological and social. Soon, the need for love, friendship, and intimacy
become important. Further up the pyramid, the need for personal esteem and feelings of
accomplishment take priority.

Like Carl Rogers, Maslow emphasized the importance of self-actualization, which is a process of
growing and developing as a person in order to achieve individual potential.

Deficiency Needs vs. Growth Needs

Maslow believed that these needs are similar to instincts and play a major role in motivating
behavior. Physiological, security, social, and esteem needs are deficiency needs, which arise due
to deprivation. Satisfying these lower-level needs is important in order to avoid unpleasant feelings
or consequences. Maslow termed the highest level of the pyramid as growth needs. These needs
don't stem from a lack of something, but rather from a desire to grow as a person. While the theory
is generally portrayed as a fairly rigid hierarchy, Maslow noted that the order in which these needs
are fulfilled does not always follow this standard progression. For example, he noted that for some
individuals, the need for self-esteem is more important than the need for love. For others, the need
for creative fulfillment may supersede even the most basic needs.
 1. Physiological Needs

The basic physiological needs are probably fairly apparent—these include the things that are vital
to our survival. Some examples of the physiological needs include:

• Food
• Water
• Breathing
• Homeostasis

In addition to the basic requirements of nutrition, air and temperature regulation, the physiological
needs also include such things as shelter and clothing. Maslow also included sexual reproduction
in this level of the hierarchy of needs since it is essential to the survival and propagation of the
species.
The Physiological Needs such as breathing, food, drink, sleep, sex, excretion are largely (and
obviously) biological and physical requirements. When they are not fulfilled, people become
preoccupied with filling those needs above all else. For example, starving people in a war zone
can be oblivious to danger when in search of food (Maslow, 1987, pp. 15-17).

2. Security and Safety Needs

As we move up to the second level of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, the requirements start to
become a bit more complex. At this level, the needs for security and safety become primary. People
want control and order in their lives, so this need for safety and security contributes largely to
behaviors at this level.

Some of the basic security and safety needs include:

• Financial security
• Health and wellness
• Safety against accidents and injury
• Finding a job, obtaining health insurance and health care, contributing money to a savings
account, and moving into a safer neighborhood are all examples of actions motivated by
the security and safety needs.

Once the basic needs are fulfilled, other needs invariably arise (Maslow, 1987, pp. 17-18). In
Maslow's hierarchy, the safety needs come after the physiological needs. Maslow used the word
"safety" to mean more than just physical safety. Economic, social, vocational, psychological
security all fall underneath this second tier of human needs. While safety needs are less immediate
or demanding than the physiological needs, when one loses one's job, family, home, life savings,
health insurance, etc, one is likely to feel terribly insecure and unprotected. Fulfilling the safety
needs might be likened to providing a bumper or airbags on a car; while you don't always need
them, having them gives you some confidence that you can face minor bumps and bruises along
the road of life (Maslow, 1987, pp. 18-20)..

Together, the safety and physiological levels of the hierarchy make up what is often referred to as
the basic needs.

3. Social Needs/Belongingness and love needs

The social needs in Maslow’s hierarchy include such things as love, acceptance and belonging. At
this level, the need for emotional relationships drives human behavior. Some of the things that
satisfy this need include:

• Friendships
• Romantic attachments
• Family
• Social groups
• Community groups
• Churches and religious organizations

In order to avoid problems such as loneliness, depression, and anxiety, it is important for people
to feel loved and accepted by other people. Personal relationships with friends, family, and lovers
play an important role, as does involvement in other groups that might include religious groups,
sports teams, book clubs, and other group activities.

As social beings, family, friendships and intimate connections get many people through the ups
and downs of life. Numerous studies have shown that the healthiest, happiest people tend to be
more involved in their communities. While there is debate on whether one causes the other is
unclear, there is some sense that having wider social connections and relationships are an important
part of being happy. Lack of interactions, human relationships and the sense of belonging may
result in depression or loneliness while an abundance of love and community often sustain people
through difficult times (Maslow, 1987, pp. 20-21).

4. Esteem Needs

At the fourth level in Maslow’s hierarchy is the need for appreciation and respect. When the needs
at the bottom three levels have been satisfied, the esteem needs begin to play a more prominent
role in motivating behavior. At this point, it becomes increasingly important to gain the respect
and appreciation of others. People have a need to accomplish things and then have their efforts
recognized.
In addition to the need for feelings of accomplishment and prestige, the esteem needs include such
things as self-esteem and personal worth. People need to sense that they are valued and by others
and feel that they are making a contribution to the world. Participation in professional activities,
academic accomplishments, athletic or team participation, and personal hobbies can all play a role
in fulfilling the esteem needs.

People who are able to satisfy the esteem needs by achieving good self-esteem and the recognition
of others tend to feel confident in their abilities. Those who lack self-esteem and the respect of
others can develop feelings of inferiority.

Maslow felt there was a clear distinction between love and respect or esteem. He felt that an ability
to feel self-esteem and personal uniqueness sprung from being loved and embraced by families
and communities. As individuals, we naturally wish to excel or be exceptional, to be noticed for
our unique talents and capabilities. Once one has some measure of self-esteem and confidence,
one gains the psychological freedom to be creative and to grow as well as to be more generous to
others (Maslow, 1987, pp. 21-22).

Together, the esteem and social levels make up what is known as the psychological needs of the
hierarchy.

5. Self-Actualization Needs

At the very peak of Maslow’s hierarchy are the self-actualization needs. "What a man can be, he
must be," Maslow explained, referring to the need people have to achieve their full potential as
human beings. According to Maslow’s definition of self-actualization:

"It may be loosely described as the full use and exploitation of talents, capabilities, potentialities,
etc. Such people seem to be fulfilling themselves and to be doing the best that they are capable of
doing... They are people who have developed or are developing to the full stature of which they
capable."

Self-actualizing people are self-aware, concerned with personal growth, less concerned with the
opinions of others, and interested fulfilling their potential.
What a man can be, he must be. This need we may call self-actualization…It refers to the desire
for self-fulfillment, namely, to the tendency for him to become actualized in what he is potentially.
This tendency might be phrased as the desire to become more and more what one is, to become
everything that one is capable of becoming. (Maslow, 1954, Motivation and Personality, p. 93)
The top 'pier' of Maslow's hierarchy is dubbed "self-actualization." Maslow studied happy people
in order to determine what it was that made them happy or, self-actualized (Maslow, 1987, p. 22).

Maslow refers to peak experiences as the experience of happiness. He notes above that self-
actualized people tend to experience a steadier, grounded sense of well-being and satisfaction with
life. According to Maslow, self-actualizing people perceive reality accurately; they have a sense
of awe, wonder and gratitude about life. They are not self-centered but rather problem-centered
and focus on how to improve and are not deficiency-centered. They are independent thinkers and
are not overly influenced by the general culture. Their sense of humor is not sarcastic or hurtful
but rather "life-affirming" with a philosophical sense of humor. They have a deeply felt sense of
kinship with the human race.

Criticisms of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Maslow's theory has become wildly popular both in and out of psychology. The fields of education
and business have been particularly influenced by the theory. While popular, Maslow's concept
has not been without criticism.

Chief among these:

1. Needs Do Not Necessarily Follow a Hierarchy: While some research showed some support
for Maslow's theories, most research has not been able to substantiate the idea of a needs hierarchy.
Wahba and Bridwell reported that there was little evidence for Maslow's ranking of these needs
and even less evidence that these needs are in a hierarchical order.

2. The Theory is Difficult to Test: Other criticisms of Maslow's theory note that his definition of
self-actualization is difficult to test scientifically. His research on self-actualization was also based
on a very limited sample of individuals, including people he knew as well as biographies of famous
individuals that Maslow believed to be self-actualized.

So why was Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs So Influential?

Regardless of these criticisms, Maslow’s hierarchy of needs represents part of an important shift
in psychology. Rather than focusing on abnormal behavior and development, Maslow's humanistic
psychology was focused on the development of healthy individuals.

While there was relatively little research supporting the theory, the hierarchy of needs is well-
known and popular both in and out of psychology. In a study published in 2011, researchers from
the University of Illinois set out to put the hierarchy to the test.

What they discovered is that while the fulfillment of the needs was strongly correlated with
happiness, people from cultures all over the world reported that self-actualization and social needs
were important even when many of the most basic needs were unfulfilled.

Such results suggest that while these needs can be powerful motivators of human behavior, they
do not necessarily take the hierarchical form that Maslow described.

SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY

Do the violence that children observe in television programs, movies, and video games lead them
to behave aggressively? This is a hot question today, but it was also of great interest 50 years ago
when a psychologist led an experiment known as the Bobo doll experiment to determine how
kids learn aggression through observation.

I. Introduction
1. The social learning theory emphasizes the importance of observing and modeling the
behaviors, attitudes, and emotional reactions of others. Thus it focuses on learning by
observation and modeling.

Factors that influence a Childs Behavior

1. Children learn by observing the behavior of others and the outcome of those behaviors.

1. Biological Factors - Children's behavior is affected by traits inherited from their parents.
2. Parental Factors - Children's behavior is strongly influenced by factors such as physical,
sexual and mental abuse suffered at the hands of parents or other family members.
 3. Social Factors - Because of a desire to be accepted in the group, a child may act in ways
she would not at home.
4. Emotional Factors - The process through which children enhance their ability to integrate
thinking, feeling and behaving to achieve important life tasks.
5. Environmental Factors - Teasing and other bullying actions are often manifested by
children who do not have secure home and/or school surroundings.

II. Observational Learning: (The Modeling Process)

An observer's behavior can be affected by the positive or negative consequences–called vicarious

reinforcement or vicarious punishment– of a model's behavior

1. Attention - The individual notices something in the environment.

2. Retention - The individual remembers what was noticed.
3. Reproduction - The individual produces an action that is a copy of what was noticed.
4. Motivation - The environment delivers a consequence that changes the probability the
behavior will be emitted again (reinforcement and punishment.)

III. Conclusion

Are our actions predetermined for us or do we truly have choices regarding our behavior? Social
learning theorists recognize the significant impact which society, other people, have on the
development of an individual's personality. The giving or lack of affection in a child's life, coupled
with specific praise or criticism for particular actions and behaviors, whether from a real or
artificial source, can significantly impact the development of personality.
What Was the Bobo Doll Experiment? Are aggression and violence learned behaviors? In a
famous and influential experiment known as the Bobo doll experiment, Albert Bandura and his
colleagues demonstrated one way that children learn aggression. According to Bandura's social
learning theory, learning occurs through observations and interactions with other people.
Essentially, people learn by watching others and then imitating these actions.

Aggression lies at the root of many social ills ranging from interpersonal violence to war. It is little
wonder then that the subject is one of the most studied topics within psychology. Social
psychology is the subfield devoted to the study of human interaction and group behavior and the
scientists working in this field have provided much of the research on human aggression.

Bandura's Predictions

The experiment involved exposing children to two different adult models; an aggressive model
and a non-aggressive one. After witnessing the adult's behavior, the children would then be placed
in a room without the model and were observed to see if they would imitate the behaviors they had
witnessed earlier.

Bandura made several predictions about what would occur:

1. He predicted that children who observed an adult acting aggressively would be likely to
act aggressively even when the adult model was not present.
2. The children who observed the non-aggressive adult model would be less aggressive than
the children who observed the aggressive model; the non-aggressive exposure group would
also be less aggressive than the control group.
3. Children would be more likely to imitate models of the same-sex rather than models of the
opposite-sex.
4. Boys would behave more aggressively than girls.
Method Used in the Bobo Doll Experiment: The participants for the experiment were 36 boys
and 36 girls enrolled at the Stanford University Nursery School. The children ranged in age
between 3 and almost 6 years, and the average participant age was 4 years 4 months.

Procedures Used in the Bobo Doll Experiment: Each child was tested individually to ensure
that behavior would not be influenced by other children. The child was first brought into a
playroom where there were a number of different activities to explore.

The experimenter then invited an adult model into the playroom and encouraged the model to sit
at a table and join in the activities. Over a ten minute period, the adult models began to play with
sets of tinker toys. In the non-aggressive condition, the adult model simply played with the toy and
ignored the Bobo doll for the entire period. In the aggressive model condition, however, the adult
models would violently attack the Bobo doll.

"The model laid the Bobo on its side, sat on it, and punched it repeatedly in the nose. The model
then raised the Bobo doll, picked up the mallet, and struck the doll in the head. Following the
mallet aggression, the model tossed the doll up in the air aggressively, and kicked it about the
room. This sequence of physically aggressive acts was repeated three times, interspersed with
verbally aggressive responses."

In addition to the physical aggression, the adult models also used verbally aggressive phrases such
as "Kick him" and "Pow." The models also added two non-aggressive phrases: "He sure is a tough
fella" and "He keeps coming back for more."

After the ten-minute exposure to the adult model, each child was then taken to another room that
contained a number of appealing toys including a doll set, fire engine, and toy airplane. However,
children were told that they were not allowed to play with any of these tempting toys. The purpose
of this was to build up frustration levels among the young participants.

Finally, each child was taken to the last experimental room. This room contained a number of
"aggressive" toys including a mallet, a tether ball with a face painted on it, dart guns, and, of
course, a Bobo doll. The room also included several "non-aggressive" toys including crayons,
paper, dolls, plastic animals, and trucks. Each child was then allowed to play in this room for a
period of 20 minutes while raters observed the child's behavior from behind a one-way mirror and
judged each child's levels of aggression.

What Were the Results of the Bobo Doll Experiment?

The results of the experiment supported three of the four original predictions.

1. Children exposed to the violet model tended to imitate the exact behavior they had
observed when the adult was no longer present.
2. Bandura and his colleagues had also predicted that children in the non-aggressive group
would behave less aggressively than those in the control group. The results indicated that
while children of both genders in the non-aggressive group did exhibit less aggression than
the control group, boys who had observed an opposite-sex model behave non-aggressively
were more likely than those in the control group to engage in violence.
3. There were important gender differences when it came to whether a same-sex or opposite-
sex model was observed. Boys who observed adult males behaving violently were more
influenced than those who had observed female models behaving aggressively.
Interestingly, the experimenters found in the same-sex aggressive groups, boys were more
likely to imitate physical acts of violence while girls were more likely to imitate verbal
aggression.
4. The researchers were also correct in their prediction that boys would behave more
aggressively than girls. Boys engaged in more than twice as many acts of aggression than
the girls.

So What Do Bandura's Results Suggest?

The results of the Bobo doll experiment supported Bandura's social learning theory. Bandura
and his colleagues believed that the experiment demonstrates how specific behaviors can be
learned through observation and imitation. According to Bandura, the violent behavior of the adult
models toward the dolls led children to believe that such actions were acceptable. He also
suggested that as a result, children may be more inclined to respond to frustration with aggression
in the future.
In a follow-up study conducted in 1965, Bandura found that while children were more likely to
imitate aggressive behavior if the adult model was rewarded for his or her actions, they were far
less likely to imitate if they saw the adult model being punished or reprimanded for their hostile
behavior.

Criticisms of the Bobo Doll Experiment: As with any experiment, the Bobo doll study is not
without criticisms:

• Because the experiment took place in a lab setting, some critics suggest that results
observed in this type of location may not be indicative of what takes place in the real world.
• The study might suffer from selection bias. All participants were drawn from a narrow pool
of students who share the same racial and socioeconomic background. This makes it
difficult to generalize the results to a larger, more diverse population.
• Since data was collected immediately, it is also difficult to know what the long-term impact
might have been.
• Acting violently toward a doll is a lot different than displaying aggression or violence
against another human being in a real world setting.
• It has also been suggested that children were not actually motivated to display aggression
when they hit the Bobo doll; instead, they may have simply been trying to please the adults.
• Some critics argue that the study itself is unethical. By manipulating the children into
behaving aggressively, they argue, the experimenters were essentially teaching the children
to be aggressive.

The Structure of the Mind According to Freud

The famed psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud believed that behavior and personality were derived
from the constant and unique interaction of conflicting psychological forces that operate at three
different levels of awareness: the preconscious, the conscious, and the unconscious. He
believed that each of these parts of the mind played an important role in influencing behavior.
In order to understand the ins and outs of Freud's theory, it is essential to first understand what he
believes each part of personality did, how it operated, and how these three elements interact to
contribute to the human experience. Learn more about each of these levels of awareness and the
role that they play in shaping human behavior and thought.

Freud's Three Levels of Mind

• The preconscious consists of anything that could potentially be brought into the conscious
mind.
• The conscious mind contains all of the thoughts, memories, feelings, and wishes of which
we are aware at any given moment. This is the aspect of our mental processing that we can
think and talk about rationally. A part of this includes our memory, which is not always
part of consciousness but can be retrieved easily at any time and brought into our
awareness.
• The unconscious mind is a reservoir of feelings, thoughts, urges, and memories that
outside of our conscious awareness. Most of the contents of the unconscious are
unacceptable or unpleasant, such as feelings of pain, anxiety, or conflict. According to
Freud, the unconscious continues to influence our behavior and experience, even though
we are unaware of these underlying influences. The unconscious can include repressed
feelings, hidden memories, habits, thoughts, desires, and reactions.

Freud likened the three levels of mind to an iceberg. The top of the iceberg that you can see above
the water represents the conscious mind. The part of the iceberg that is submerged below the water
but is still visible is the preconscious. The bulk of the iceberg that lies unseen beneath the waterline
represents the unconscious.

In order to better understand the conscious and unconscious mind, it may be helpful to take a closer
look at the man who popularized the terms and his theories about how the mind works.

Sigmund Freud was the founder of psychoanalytic theory. While his ideas were considered
shocking at the time and continue to create debate and controversy even now, his work had a
profound influence on a number of disciplines, including psychology, sociology, anthropology,
literature, and even art.
How Do the Conscious and Unconscious Mind Work?

What exactly happens at each level of awareness? One way to understand how the conscious and
unconscious mind operate is to look at what are known as slips of the tongue. Many of us have
experienced what is commonly referred to as a Freudian slip at some point or another. These
misstatements are believed to reveal underlying, unconscious thoughts or feelings.

Consider this example: James has just started a new relationship with a woman he met at school.
While talking to her one afternoon, he accidentally calls her by his ex-girlfriend's name.

If you were in this situation, how would you explain this mistake? Many of us might blame the
slip on distraction or describe it as a simple accident. However, a Freudian analyst might tell you
that this is much more than a random slip of the tongue.

The psychoanalytic view holds that there are unconscious, inner forces outside of your awareness
that are directing your behavior. For example, a psychoanalyst might say that James misspoke due
to unresolved feelings for his ex or perhaps because of misgivings about his new relationship.

Freud believed that while the unconscious mind is largely inaccessible, the contents of the
unconscious could sometimes bubble up in unexpected ways such as in dreams or inadvertent slips
of the tongue.

As previously mentioned, the unconscious includes thoughts, emotions, memories, desires,

and motivations that lie outside of our awareness, yet nevertheless continue to exert an influence
on our behaviors. So by mistakenly calling his new girlfriend by his ex's name, James might be
revealing unconscious feelings related to that previous relationship.

The Conscious and Preconscious

The contents of the conscious mind include all of the things that you are actively aware of at any
given moment. At this moment, for example, you might be consciously aware of the information
you are reading, the sound of the music you are listening to, or a conversation you are having. All
of the thoughts that pass through your mind, the sensations and perceptions from the world around
you, and the memories that you pull into your awareness are all part of that conscious experience.
The closely related preconscious mind contains all of the things that you could potentially pull into
conscious awareness. You might not be consciously thinking about memories from your high
school graduation, but that is information that you could easily bring into the conscious mind if
you needed or wanted to do so. The preconscious also acts as something of a guard, controlling
the information that is allowed to enter into conscious awareness.

One thing to remember about the conscious and preconscious mind is that they represent only the
tip of the iceberg. They are limited in terms of the amount of information they hold.

The Unconscious Mind: What Lies Beneath the Surface of Awareness

If the conscious mind represents the tip of the iceberg, it is the unconscious mind that makes up
the massive bulk of the iceberg that lies invisible and unseen below the surface of the water.
Memories, thoughts, feelings, and information that is too painful, embarrassing, shameful, or
distressing for conscious awareness is stored in the enormous reservoir that makes up the
unconscious mind.

While this information is not consciously accessible, Freud still believed that its influence could
play a powerful role in conscious behavior and well-being. He linked psychological distress to
unresolved feelings of conflict that were outside of awareness, and many of the therapeutic
techniques he utilized focused on bringing unconscious urges, feelings, and memories into
conscious awareness so that they could then be dealt with effectively. Techniques such as free
association and dream analysis are centered on bringing unconscious influences to light. Freudian
slips, or accidental slips of the tongue, are sometimes thought of as being a sign of unconscious
thoughts and feeling bubbling up to the surface of awareness.

Id, ego and superego

Perhaps Freud's single most enduring and important idea was that the human psyche (personality)
has more than one aspect. Freud's personality theory (1923) saw the psyche structured into three
parts (i.e., tripartite), the id, ego and superego, all developing at different stages in our lives. These
are systems, not According to Freud's model of the psyche, the id is the primitive and instinctual
part of the mind that contains sexual and aggressive drives and hidden memories, the super-ego
operates as a moral conscience, and the ego is the realistic part that mediates between the desires
of the id and the super-ego.

Although each part of the personality comprises unique features, they interact to form a whole,
and each part makes a relative contribution to an individual's behavior.

What is the id?

The id is the primitive and instinctive component of personality. It consists of all the inherited (i.e.,
biological) components of personality present at birth, including the sex (life) instinct – Eros
(which contains the libido), and the aggressive (death) instinct - Thanatos. The id is the impulsive
(and unconscious) part of our psyche which responds directly and immediately to the instincts.
The personality of the newborn child is all id and only later does it develop an ego and super-ego.

The id remains infantile in its function throughout a person’s life and does not change with time
or experience, as it is not in touch with the external world. The id is not affected by reality, logic
or the everyday world, as it operates within the unconscious part of the mind.

The id operates on the pleasure principle (Freud, 1920) which is the idea that every wishful
impulse should be satisfied immediately, regardless of the consequences. When the id achieves its
demands, we experience pleasure when it is denied we experience ‘unpleasure’ or tension. The id
engages in primary process thinking, which is primitive, illogical, irrational, and fantasy oriented.
This form of process thinking has no comprehension of objective reality, and is selfish and wishful
in nature.

What is the ego?

The ego is 'that part of the id which has been modified by the direct influence of the external
world.'(Freud, 1923, p. 25) The ego develops to mediate between the unrealistic id and the external
real world. It is the decision-making component of personality. Ideally, the ego works by reason,
whereas the id is chaotic and unreasonable.

The ego operates according to the reality principle, working out realistic ways of satisfying the
id’s demands, often compromising or postponing satisfaction to avoid negative consequences of
society. The ego considers social realities and norms, etiquette and rules in deciding how to behave.
Like the id, the ego seeks pleasure (i.e., tension reduction) and avoids pain, but unlike the id, the
ego is concerned with devising a realistic strategy to obtain pleasure. The ego has no concept of
right or wrong; something is good simply if it achieves its end of satisfying without causing harm
to itself or the id. Often the ego is weak relative to the headstrong id, and the best the ego can do
is stay on, pointing the id in the right direction and claiming some credit at the end as if the action
were its own. Freud made the analogy of the id being a horse while the ego is the rider. The ego is
'like a man on horseback, who has to hold in check the superior strength of the horse.' (Freud,
1923, p.15)

If the ego fails in its attempt to use the reality principle, and anxiety is experienced, unconscious
defense mechanisms are employed, to help ward off unpleasant feelings (i.e., anxiety) or make
good things feel better for the individual.

The ego engages in secondary process thinking, which is rational, realistic, and orientated towards
problem-solving. If a plan of action does not work, then it is thought through again until a solution
is found. This is known as reality testing and enables the person to control their impulses and
demonstrate self-control, via mastery of the ego. An important feature of clinical and social work
is to enhance ego functioning and help the client test reality through assisting the client to think
through their options.

What is the superego?

The superego incorporates the values and morals of society which are learned from one's parents
and others. It develops around the age of 3 – 5. The superego's function is to control the id's
impulses, especially those which society forbids, such as sex and aggression. It also has the
function of persuading the ego to turn to moralistic goals rather than simply realistic ones and to
strive for perfection.

The superego consists of two systems: The conscience and the ideal self. The conscience can
punish the ego through causing feelings of guilt. For example, if the ego gives in to the id's
demands, the superego may make the person feel bad through guilt. The ideal self (or ego-ideal)
is an imaginary picture of how you ought to be, and represents career aspirations, how to treat
other people, and how to behave as a member of society. Behavior which falls short of the ideal
self may be punished by the superego through guilt. The super-ego can also reward us through the
ideal self when we behave ‘properly’ by making us feel proud. If a person’s ideal self is too high
a standard, then whatever the person does will represent failure. The ideal self and conscience are
largely determined in childhood from parental values and how you were brought up.

EXAMPLES OF ID, EGO AND SUPEREGO

The id, ego, and superego are names for the three parts of the human personality which are part of
Sigmund Freud's psychoanalytic personality theory. According to Freud, these three parts combine
to create the complex behavior of human beings.

Id: Meeting Basic Needs

The id is the most basic part of the personality, and wants instant gratification for our wants and
needs. If these needs or wants are not met, a person becomes tense or anxious.
Sally was thirsty. Rather than waiting for the server to refill her glass of water, she reached across
the table and drank from Mr. Smith's water glass, much to his surprise.

A hungry baby cried until he was fed.

A toddler who wanted another helping of dessert whined incessantly until she was given another
serving.

Michael saw a $5 bill fall out of Nick's backpack as he pulled his books out of his locker. As Nick
walked away, Michael bent over, picked up the money, and slipped it into his pocket, glancing
around to make sure no one was looking.

On Black Friday, customers were so obsessed with getting a good deal that they shoved others out
of their way and trampled them, not thinking twice about hurting people if it meant they could get
want they wanted.

In line at the salad bar, Amy was so hungry that she shoved a handful of croutons in her mouth as
she waited for the line to move.

Bart was stuck in traffic. He just wanted his vehicle to move! Enraged at the situation, Bart pulled
his car onto the shoulder and sped forward, not caring that he was clipping people's side mirrors
as he tried to get ahead of the cars in front of him.

Ego: Dealing with Reality

The ego deals with reality, trying to meet the desires of the id in a way that is socially acceptable
in the world. This may mean delaying gratification, and helping to get rid of the tension the id feels
if a desire is not met right away. The ego recognizes that other people have needs and wants too,
and that being selfish is not always good for us in the long run.

Sally was thirsty. However, she knew that her server would be back soon to refill her water glass,
so she waited until then to get a drink, even though she really just wanted to drink from Mr. Smith's
glass.
Even though Michael needed money, he decided not to steal the money from the cash register
because he didn't want to get in trouble.

In line at the salad bar, Amy really wanted to shove a handful of croutons into her mouth. However,
since her boss was there, she decided to wait another minute or two until she sat down to eat.

Mary really wanted to borrow her mom's necklace, but knew her mom would be angry if she took
it without asking, so she asked her mom if she could wear it.

Katie's mom had given her $25 to purchase groceries for dinner that night. At the mall, Katie saw
shoes that she really wanted, and was tempted to use the money from her mom to make the
purchase. However, if she spent the money on shoes, she wouldn't have enough to buy the
groceries, so she decided she better not buy the shoes.

Tim really wanted to slug Mark for what he had just said. However, Tim knew if he hit Mark, he
would be kicked off the baseball team, and since he loved baseball, he unclenched his fists and
walked away.

Superego: Adding Morals

The superego develops last, and is based on morals and judgments about right and wrong. Even
though the superego and the ego may reach the same decision about something, the superego's
reason for that decision is more based on moral values, while the ego's decision is based more on
what others will think or what the consequences of an action could be.

Sarah knew that she could steal the supplies from work and no one would know about it. However,
she knew that stealing was wrong, so she decided not to take anything even though she would
probably never get caught.

Maggie couldn't remember the answer to test question #12, even though she had studied. Nate was
the smartest kid in the class, and from where Maggie sat, she could see his answers if she turned
her head slightly. When Mrs. Archer turned her back, Maggie almost cheated, but her conscience
stopped her because she knew it was wrong. Instead, Maggie took a guess at the answer and then
turned in her paper.
While away on business, Tom had many opportunities to be unfaithful to his wife. However, he
knew the damage such behavior would have on his family, so made the decision to avoid the
women who had expressed interest in him.

When Michael saw the $5 bill lying on the floor with no one around it, he turned it into the school
office in case anyone came looking for it. He wouldn't want to lose $5, and hoped that whoever
had lost it would ask about it in the office.

The cashier only charged the couple for one meal even though they had eaten two. They could
have gotten away with only paying for one, but they pointed out the cashier's mistake and offered
to pay for both meals. They wanted to be honest and they knew that the restaurant owner and
employees needed to make a living.

On the playground, two kids were making fun of Joseph because he wore glasses. John was
tempted to join in so that he could make himself look good, but when he thought about how bad
Joseph must already feel, he knew that he couldn't.

Will had worked hard all season to break the school record in cross-country. During his last race
he had the opportunity to cut a corner and therefore lower his time, because no officials were
watching that part of the course. As much as he wanted to break the school record, Will knew he
wouldn't feel good about himself if he cheated, so he stuck to the course and ran as fast as he could.

The id, ego and superego work together in creating a behavior. The id creates the demands, the
ego adds the needs of reality with the superego adds morality to the action which is taken.

WHAT IS A DEFENSE MECHANISM?

For many of us, any situation that brings uncertainty triggers an unconscious protective measure
that allows us to cope with unpleasant emotions – these are our defense mechanisms. And in the
short-term, many mechanisms can be adaptive. We don’t dwell. We don’t say or do something
with potentially damaging ramifications. We keep ourselves in a better state.
Yet in the long run, the effect is actually the opposite, as routine use of defense mechanisms can
actually reduce the effectiveness of emotional processing. This is why it is key to become more
cognizant of your personal tendencies. How do you handle stressful situations? Do you live in a
state of denial when bad news comes your way? Do you find yourself constantly making excuses
for your behavior?

You may never rid yourself of your defense mechanisms. Think of them as hard-wired into your
system. But with more self-awareness, you can understand how these processes are helping and
hurting you, and how to truly tend to your emotional well-being.

Take a look at some of the most common defense mechanisms:

1. DENIAL: When a situation or fact becomes too much to handle, you may simply refuse
to experience it. By denying reality, you are essentially protecting yourself from having
to face and deal with the unpleasant consequences and pain that accompany
acceptance. If you tell yourself “I’m just a social drinker,” instead of dealing with your
serious drinking problem, or that “Every couple eventually loses the romance” instead of
facing your failing marriage, for example, you are utilizing denial as a defense mechanism.
And while this may alleviate any short-term pain, in the long run, denial can prevent you
from making positive change and can have potentially destructive ramifications.

2. REPRESSION: There is a fine line between denial and repression. But where denial
involves the outright refusal to accept a given reality, repression involves completely
forgetting the experience altogether. With repression, your mind makes the decision to
bury the memory in the subconscious, thereby preventing painful, disturbing or dangerous
thoughts from entering awareness. This is often the case with child abuse or other traumatic
experiences that occurred early on in development. While repression, much like denial,
may serve immediate purposes, particularly if you were tormented by a painful experience,
if you do not eventually process and deal with the experience it can have severe
consequences later on.
3. DISPLACEMENT: Have you ever endured a stressful day at work, then come home and
taken out your frustration on your loved ones? What about a time where you had an
argument with your partner, then got in your car and found your patience waning with
every driver on the road? With displacement, you transfer your emotions from the
person who is the target of your frustration to someone or something else entirely.
Subconsciously, you believe that to confront the source of your feelings may be too
dangerous or risky, so you shift the focus toward a target or situation that is less
intimidating or dangerous. While displacement may protect you from losing your job,
burning a bridge or saying or doing something that could cause irreparable damage, it will
not help you handle the emotions you are experiencing, and you will also end up hurting
someone completely innocent. It’s better to face the issue head on, with the person you’re
actually frustrated with.

4. PROJECTION: Imagine you find yourself in a situation where you feel like a fish out of
water. You feel uncomfortable and a bit anxious. You start to see that others are staring at
you, with what you perceive as a critical, judgmental eye. They do not say anything or do
anything that is objectively negative, but your insecurity about yourself causes you to
“project” your feelings onto others. And the feelings may even become so intense that you
caustically question, “What are you staring at?” Most of us have found ourselves in a
situation in which we project our feelings, shortcomings or unacceptable impulses
onto the people around us. And the reason we do so is because to recognize that particular
quality in ourselves would cause us pain and suffering. While projection can also work in
a positive way, when you project feelings of love, confidence and care onto others, when
it impacts us in a negative way, it only compounds the stress and anxiety and prevents us
from dealing with the root of the emotions. This is one of the most damaging defense
mechanisms, as it can lead to heightened feelings of paranoia and anxiety.
5. REACTION FORMATION: With reaction formation, you are going beyond denial and
behaving in the opposite way to which you think or feel. Typically, reaction formation
is marked by a blatant display. For example, the man who preaches his disdain for
homosexuality overtly may be a defense against confronting his own homosexual feelings.
By casting stones at someone or something else, you are trying to take the pressure off
yourself instead of directly dealing with the issue.

6. REGRESSION: In times of stress, you may find that your behavior becomes more
childish. This is known as regression. With regression, you revert back to an earlier level
of development and earlier, less demanding behaviors as a way of protecting yourself
from having to confront the actual situation. Imagine, for example, having an argument
with your partner, and instead of using conflict resolution tools, you stomp off, slam the
door and give your partner the cold shoulder. The problem with regression is that you may
regret letting your childish behavior become self-destructive, and this can eventually cause
even more problems than you started out with. You might also find yourself relying on
regression habits when spending time with people you knew when you were young, like
family members or close friends.

7. RATIONALIZATION: In the simplest terms, rationalization occurs when you try to

explain your bad behavior away. Consider, for example, that you have an irrationally
angry reaction to a situation in front of someone you like and want to respect you. Then to
try to justify your behavior, you blame someone else for provoking you. Even if that may
be true, it is not the actual reason for your outburst, it’s an excuse. Rationalization is a
particularly common mechanism for those with more sensitive egos. In most cases, this
won’t actually help you to pass the blame or justify your behavior. Instead, the opposite
effect will occur – those around you will view you as childish or egotistical if you’re unable
to own your mistakes.
 8. SUBLIMATION: Sublimation occurs when you transform your conflicted emotions,
unmet desires or unacceptable impulses into productive outlets. It’s the situation where
you have a stressful day at work, so you go on a long run to cool off. Or you have a fight
with your partner, so turn to writing music. When used to handle a situation you cannot
effectively do anything about, sublimation is actually a positive form of defense. But when
used routinely to avoid addressing an issue that must be resolved to move forward, it can
have negative repercussions.

The first step in changing your defense mechanisms is accepting that you’re using them in the first
place. Once you identify how you’re coping with stress or negative situations, you can more easily
change your state. Over time, you’ll be able to handle your problems more directly, which will
help lead you to feeling more fulfilled overall.