UNIT 3

Low-Cost Bridge:
Low cost bridges may be defined as bridges constructed at low cost and capable of being
maintained at low cost. This type of bridge construction has been necessitated because of
following reasons:
i.) Lack of resources, time, money or skill.
ii.) Repairs to permanent works.
iii.) To facilitate the execution of permanent works.
iv.) Temporary need.
v.) Undertaking project surveys in the interiors.
Low cost bridges are constructed by utilising the local available material in the vicinity of
bridge site. Usually they are made of stones, bricks and timber.
They may also be constructed of steel wires, old telegraph posts, old rails etc,

Types of Low Cost Bridges:

1. Movable Span Super-structures:
In case of bridges with movable span super-structures, it is so arranged that the super-structure
of the bridge does not remain in a fixed position permanently. But it is possible to move the
super-structure so as to put the bridge out of use, when necessary.
Various types of bridges with movable-span super-structures:

i.) Bascule bridges:

In case of bascule bridge, the entire super-structure is rotated in a vertical plane about a
horizontal axis.
Depending upon the width of channel, the bascule bridge may either be single or double.
ii.) Cut- Boat Bridges:
The arrangement of cut-boat bridge is provided for boat bridges ie when the
super-structure of bridge is resting on the boats.
It is so arranged that some portion of the entire span of bridge can be moved on
the downstream side with the help of cables attached to adjacent. This small
portion is specially designed and constructed.
The cut-boat bridge is provided when it is necessary to provide some passage for
the navigation traffic. When the ships pass out, the movable-span is pulled back
and it is placed in its normal position.

iii.) Floating bridges:

In case of flying bridges, a boat or a raft is attached to a suspended cable by means
of the swinging cables. It is so arranged that the boat makes an angle of about 55
with the direction of flow.
The suspended cable is stretched across the river and it is kept above the level of
the highest flood of the stream.
The boat moves from one bank to the other by the pressure exerted by current of
flow. When the boat reaches the other end, the direction of swinging cables is
changed.
The flying bridges can be used only to carry light passenger traffic. They can be
adopted for short spans only and at places where enough materials are not
available for the construction of permanent bridge across the stream and the
available funds are also too small.
IV.) Lift Bridges
In case of lift bridges, the whole span is vertically lifted up by means of suitable
arrangement of the pulley and counter weight.

V.) Swing bridges:

In case of swing bridges, a central pier is provided with suitable bearings or
rollers. The super-structure consists of a pier of steel trusses and it can be rotated
in a horizontal plane about a vertical axis by some suitable equipment.
VI.) Transporter bridges:
In case of transporter bridges, a moving cage is suspended from an overhead truss with the help
of cable or wire ropes. This type of bridge is used within a harbour area to provide an
arrangement for shifting of men and materials across a channel.

Vii.) Traversing bridges:

In case of traversing bridges, it is so arranged that the whole bridge can fully or
partly be rolled forward or backward across the opening as shown in figure. The
bridge is provided with rollers on the approaches.
Causeways:
A Causeway is defined as a small submersible bridge at or about the bed level
which will allow the floods to pass over it. It is also known as an Irish causeway
or dip.
Types:
i.) Low level causeway:
The low level causeway (L.L.C) is a small submersible bridge without openings.
It is also known as a flush causeway as it is situated at bed level of a stream.
If the road surface of the low level causeway is made simply by spreading the
stones only, such a construction is known as the metal dip and it is adopted for
roads of not much importance.
ii.) High Level Causeway:
The high level causeway (H.L.C) is a small submersible bridge with openings.

Necessity:
➢ For most of the small streams which are crossed by roads of secondary importance, the
construction of a bridge on the basis of maximum flood discharge is not justified.
➢ It is also found for such streams that the high flood is occasional and the normal flow
is very little or the bed is dry most of the time. In such cases, it becomes economical to
construct a permanent bridge across the stream to tale up the average or normal flood
discharge.
➢ The causeways are found to be most suitable where low cost is the main consideration
such as village roads, minor district roads, hilly roads, roads sponsored by community
projects, etc. It is quite natural that the submersible bridges are not to be adopted for
state highways or national highways.
➢ It is quite evident that the whole bridge will be submerged at the time of maximum
flood and traffic will, therefore, have to be suspended during the duration of maximum
flood discharge.
➢ The approaches of the causeway are generally provided with a gradient of 1 in 20 and
strong paving is provided at the top surface so that the velocity of water at the time of
maximum flood does not dislodge the road.
➢ It is also to be seen that the formation level of road on either side of the causeway is
higher than the highest flood level or H.F.L.
Data to be collected:
Availability of fund
Flood statistics of the stream for 10 to 12 years
Importance of road
Nature of traffic, etc.

Conditions to be satisfied:
Following conditions, if satisfied, justify the construction of a causeway across the stream:
a.) Depth of water:
The seasonal flow of water in the stream should not be more and the depth of water should be
very small.
b.) Highest flood discharge:
It is essential to check that the highest flood discharge does not flow in the stream for more
than 8 to 10 days in a year and also for about 4 to 5 hours continuously during these days.
It should also be seen that the stoppage of traffic due to the passage of high floods is not likely
to exceed 3 days at a time and not more than 18 days during the course of the year.
c.) Normal flood discharge:
The normal or average flood discharge of the stream should not be more than 40 percent of the
highest flood discharge.

Suspension bridges:
For crossing small streams or valleys, the timber suspension bridges may be
provided in the hilly area. The bridges can take up light traffic and they are usually
not stiffened.
Suspension bridges consist of sets of cables hanging in a curve from which the
road-way is supported.
They can be divided into the following two main classes:
a.) Unstiffened
b.) Stiffened
In case of unstiffened suspension bridges the moving load is transferred directly
to the cables by each suspender in turn.
In stiffened type suspension bridges moving loads are transferred to the cables
through the medium of trusses. The unstiffened bridges are used for:
i.) Light construction, such as foot bridges, forest train structures, etc. where the
moving load is negligible.
ii.) Very long spans where the ratio of dead load to moving load is so great as to
render stiffening unnecessary.
Types of timber suspension bridges:
i.) Ramp bridge:
In case of ramp bridge, the roadway rests on cables. As the bridge is connected with the banks
by ramps or sloping lengths, it is known as ramp bridge.
The bridge floor is provided with wooden planks. This type of bridge proves to be cheap in
cost because it requires small quantities of materials and can be completed in short time with
unskilled labour.
The only disadvantage of this type of bridge is that it does not possess stiffness and hence, it is
distorted when the traffic moves over it.

ii.) Sling bridges:

In case of a sling bridge, the roadway is supported on rope slings or cables.
The bridge floor consists of wooden planks which are supported at their ends on wooden
beams. On either side of roadway, a wooden beam is provided.
The wooden beam is connected to the cable through suspenders and cables are taken over the
towers and they are then suitably anchored into the ground. The bridge railing is fixed to the
suspenders.

iii.) Trestle Suspension bridge:

In case of trestle suspension bridge, the cable supports the trestles as shown in figure below.
The trestle suspension bridge does not distort under traffic, but its weight is comparatively
more.
Culverts:
A Culvert is defined as a small bridge constructed over a stream which remains dry for most
part of the year.
A culvert is thus a cross drainage work having a total length not exceeding 6 m between the
faces of abutments or extreme ventway boundaries when measured at right angles to the axis
of ventway.
The culverts are provided as the cross-drainage structures in the following two cases:
i.) For draining small pockets or catchments with no definite stream channels and also where
the height of the bank is small, and
ii.) For small streams with rigid boundaries or semi-rigid boundaries.
According to functions or purpose, the culverts may be classified as highway culverts or
railway culverts.
Types of Culverts:
1.) Arch culverts
2.) Box culverts
3.) Pipe culverts
4.) Slab culverts

1. Arch culverts:
An arch culvert of stone masonry may be adopted for span ranges of 2 m to 6 m. The arch
culvert is provided with the abutments, wing walls and parapet.

2. Box culvert:
In case of box culverts, the rectangular boxes are formed of masonry, R.C.C or steel. The R.C.C
box culverts are very common and they consist of the following two components:
i.) The barrel or box section of sufficient length to accommodate the roadway and the kerbs.
ii.) The wing walls splayed at 45 for retaining the embankments and also for guiding the flow
of water into and out of the barrel.
These are provided if soil is soft and the load has to be spread over a wide foundation area. An
R.C box culvert is a cheapest alternative if a pipe cannot be cast.
The abutments, top and bottom slabs are all made into a monolithic rigid frame.
They can be used for a single span of 3 m and a double span of 6 m.
They should also be provided with splayed wing walls at 45 to retain the embankments and
also to guide the flow of water into and out of the barrel.
The following points should be noted:
➢ Foundation: The box culverts prove to be safe where good foundations are easily

available.

➢ Height: The clear vent height i.e the vertical distance between top and bottom of the

culvert rarely exceeds 3 metres.

➢ Span: The box culverts are provided singly or in multiple units with individual spans

ranging from 1 m to 4 m. When the total span exceeds about 6 m or so, it requires thick

sections which will make the construction uneconomical.

➢ Top: Depending upon the site conditions, the top level of box culvert may be at the

road level or it can even be at a depth below the road level with filling of suitable

material.
3. Pipe Culvert:
For small streams crossing the road or railway embankments, one or more pipes may be placed
to act as the culvert. The diameter of pipe is kept not less than 300 mm.
The exact number of pipes and their diameters will depend on the discharge and height of bank.
The pipe culvert is useful when there is no defined channel as in case of flat country.
The pipes are the cheapest and quickest form of culvert to construct and they are provided when
the discharge is low, say upto about 10 m3/sec.
Following points should be noted while designing pipe culvers:
i.) Concrete bedding: It is necessary to provide the concrete bedding of suitable depth below
the pipes.
ii.) Construction at ends: At both ends of pipe culvert, it is preferable to provide masonry
head walls with arch at top when the depth of filling is small. The construction of head walls
at the ends of the road formation width assists to retain the earth and prevents the stream water
to damage the embankment. If the depth of filling is more, it will not be economical to provide
high head walls and is such cases, the length of the culvert should be increased in such a way
that the embankment, with its natural side slopes, is accommodated without high retaining
walls. In both the cases, the splayed wing walls may be provided along with the head walls at
the ends.
iii.) Earth Cushion:
An earth cushion of minimum depth of 450 mm should be provided at the top of pipes.
iv.) Material of Pipe:
The pipes may be of R.C.C., cast iron, steel or wood. The cast-iron pipes are suitable up to a
diameter of 750 mm and R.C.C. pipes are suitable up to a diameter of 1800 mm.
iv.) Slab Culverts:
A Slab culvert consists of stone slabs or R.C.C. slab, suitably supported on masonry walls on
either side.
The slab culverts of simple type are suitable up to a maximum span of 2.5 m.
However, the R.C.C. culverts of deck slab type can economically be adopted up to spans of
about 8 m.
However, the thickness of slab and dead weight may sometimes prove to be the limiting factors
for deciding the economical span of this type of culverts.
The construction of slab culverts is relatively simple as the framework can easily be arranged,
reinforcement can be suitably placed and concreting can be done easily. This type of culvert
can be used for highway as well as railway bridges.
Depending upon the span of culvert and site conditions, the abutments and wing walls of
suitable dimensions may be provided. The parapet or handrails of at least 750 mm height should
be provided on the slab to define the width of culvert.

v.) Scuppers:
A scupper is the cheapest type of culvert and it is provided when the width of stream to be

crossed is only about 900 mm to 1000 mm. It is used on unimportant roads.

The abutments are constructed with coursed dry rubble masonry and to reduce the width at the

top, they are corbelled from both the sides till a gap of 500 mm to 600 mm remains.

The gap is then covered up by stone slab or R.C.C. slab. The hand packed dry stones are laid

over the slab as well as around the scupper. The retaining walls are constructed on both the

ends of the scupper.

Loading for railway Bridges:
Railway bridges in india are designed, constructed and maintained as per the standards laid
down by the Ministry of railway, Government of india.
Indian railway use the following three types of Railway tracks:
Broad gauge – 1676 mm
Metre gauge – 1000 mm
Narrow gauge – 762 mm
These railway tracks are also known as Main line and Branch line according to traffic
intensities. As per bridge rules specified by Indian Railway Board, the following loads should
be taken into account, wherever applicable while computing stresses in bridge members:
1. Dead load
2. Live load
3. Impact load
4. Loads due to curvature of track
5. Loads on parapet
6. Wind load
7. Racking force
8. Longitudinal loads
9. Seismic load
Dead load:
➢ The dead load stresses generally form about 15 % of the total stresses. In case of bridges
having less than 90 metres spans dead load stresses do not exceed 40 % of the total
stresses.
In spans over 90 metres, the proportion of dead weight exceeds 40 % and it is, therefore, not
desirable to rely on rough empirical formulae.

Live load:
➢ Indian railway board specifies the following loadings for the design of railway bridges
including combined railway and road bridges.
For broad gauge (1676 mm)
a.) Standard M.L ( Main Line) : 22.9 tonnes axle loads and a train of 7.67 tonnes per metre
run behind the engines.
b.) Standard B.L ( Branch Line): 17.3 tonnes axle loads and a train of 5 tonnes per metre
run behind the engine.
IRS Bridge rules recommends the use of equivalent uniformly distributed loads (EUDL) on
each track and also the coefficient of dynamic augment (CDA) for spans varying from 1 to 130
m for both BG and MG.
The equivalent loads specified for the computation of bending moment and shear forces can
directly be used in place of the various wheel loads of the rolling stock.
Hence, except in the case of special bridges like the Rigid frame, balanced cantilever and
suspension bridges, the designer can directly use the equivalent loads in place of the basic
wheel loads.
CDA = 0.15 + ((8)/(6+L)) <1.0 where L = Span
Bridges located in the seismic zones have to be designed to resist the stresses produced due to
seismic effects conforming to the recommendations in the Indian standard code IS:1893-2002
(Latest Revision IS:1893-2016).
Bridges planned in the coastal areas have to be designed to withstand the effect of wind
pressure. The basic wind pressure is to be obtained from the meteorological records or from
the Indian standard code IS:1987-1987.

Width of Carriageway:
For high level bridges constructed for the use of road traffic only, the width of carriageway
shall not be less than 4.25 m for a single lane bridge and 7.5 m for a two lane bridge and shall
be increased by 3.5 m for every additional lane of traffic for multiple lane of bridge.

Width of Footpath:
When a footpath is provided, its clear width shall not be less than 1.5 m. For urban and
populated areas having large concentration of pedestrian traffic, the width of footpath shall be
suitably increased.
Equivalent loads:
An equivalent loading consisting of a uniformly distributed load or a knife edge load would
lead to simple design computations. The maximum bending moment and the shear force for
design obtained from such an equivalent loading must, however, yield nearly the same values
as would be given by the more elaborate loading of the IRC bridge code.