HISTORY AND TYPES OF BRIDGES

BRIDGE - it is a structure built to span obstacles like rivers, valleys, or for the purpose
of providing passage of traffic.

Types of super structures:

- Materials
- Span
- Level of crossing
- Function
- Inter span Relation
- Utility
- High Flood Level (HFL)
SUPER STRUCTURE - the portion of the structure that is the span and directly
receives the live load
SUBSTRUCTURE - abutment, piers and other support structures
ARCH BRIDGES - is curve shaped bridge, in which horizontal thrust is developed and
is restrained by the abutments at each end of the bridge.
GIRDER BRIDGES - the deck slab is supported by means of girders.
TRUSS - is a member consisting connected elements to form triangular units
SUSPENSION BRIDGES - deck slab is suspended with the help of cables and
suspenders. These will give good appearance. For long span bridges, this type of
suspension is suitable.
TIMBER BRIDGES - bridges constructed using timber. These are generally
constructed for short spans or as temporary bridges. They are not useful for heavy
loads.
MASONRY BRIDGES - constructed by using bricks or stones. These are generally
constructed for short spans and in low depth canals.
STEEL BRIDGES - are constructed using steel bars or trusses or steel cables. These
are more durable and bear heavy loads.
PRESTRESSED CONCRETE - concrete material is placed under compression before
applying the loads
CULVERT BRIDGES - when the bridge span length is below 6 meters
MINOR BRIDGES - if the bridge span length is in between 8 to 30 meters
MAJOR BRIDGES - the span is generally about 30 to 120 meters.
LONG SPAN BRIDGES - when the span of bridge is more than 120 meters
OVER BRIDGE - to pass over another route (railway or highway), a bridge is
constructed to allow traffic.
UNDER BRIDGE - if over bridge is not possible, an underground type bridge is
constructed to pass another route.
• Alcántara Bridge - is a Roman arch bridge in Toledo, Spain, spanning the Tagus
River.
• Burwood Railway Bridge - is heritage-listed railway underbridge with a span of
21.9 meter
FOOT BRIDGE - is generally constructed for humans to cross the roads or rail route or
any canal by foot. Vehicles are not allowed in this bridge.
• Venice Ponte Vecchio Bridge - is the most famous historic bridge in the city of
Florence.
• Rialto Bridge - is one of the oldest bridges that spans the Grand Canal of the
Italian city of Venice
HIGHWAY BRIDGE - is used for road transportation. These are constructed over
rivers or another routes to allow road way traffic.
• San Juanico Bridge - is said to be the longest bridge in the Philippines with a
span of 2,200 meter. (Samar to Leyte)
• Buntun Bridge - is the longest river bridge in the Philippines with a span of 1,369
meter. (Tuguegarao City to Solana in Cagayan)
RAILWAY BRIDGES - are constructed for rail transportation. Truss type bridges are
preferred for railways but however r.c.c bridges are also used.
AQUEDUCT BRIDGES - are nothing but water carrying bridges which are constructed
to transport water from source to system.
• Pont du Gard - is large, three-tiered, Ancient Roman aqueduct bridge, which
continues to stand tall for two millennia, showcasing to the world not only
architectural feats of our ancestors but also the entire history of France.
SIMPLE BRIDGE - is like simply supported beam type which consist two supports at
its ends. For shorter spans, simple bridges are suitable.
CONTINUOUS BRIDGE - if the bridge span is very long, then we have to build more
supports in between end supports. This type of bridge is termed as continuous bridge.
CANTILEVER BRIDGE - have only supported at one end and another end is free to
space. Generally, two cantilever portions are joined to make way to the vehicles or
humans.
TEMPORARY BRIDGE - are constructed at low cost for temporary usage. These
bridges are maintained at low cost.
PERMANENT BRIDGE - these bridges are constructed for long term use and
maintained at high level. Steel or R.C.C bridges are come under this category.
LOW LEVEL BRIDGE - the super structure of bridge is generally below high flood
level. So, whenever floods occurred these are submersed in water. So, these are also
called as submersible bridges.
HIGH LEVEL BRIDGE - is non submersible against floods. It is well above the high
flood level and constructed in important routes.

Cable Bridges
CABLE SUSPENSION BRIDGE - a type of bridge in which the deck is hung by
suspension cables on vertical suspenders. These suspension cables are attached to
opposite towers along the span and further secured into solid bed rock or anchorage to
stabilize the structure.
• Puente Colgante - completed in 1852 that connected the Manila Districts of
Quiapo and Ermita across the Pasig River in the Philippines. Owned by Ynchausti
y Compañia and designed by Spanish Engineer Matias Menchacatorre. Renamed
as Quezon Bridge in 1939.
CABLE STAYED BRIDGE - the suspension cables from the towers are attached
directly to the deck instead of being in between towers. Although it is fundamentally
stronger than the cable suspension bridge, it has a shorter and limited span.
Classification According to Span Numbers:
a. Single-Span b. Two-Span c. Three or Multi-Span
Classification According to Stiffening Girders:
a. Two-Hinge - commonly used for highway bridges.
b. Continuous - often used for combined highwayrailway bridges.

Classification According to Suspenders:

a. Vertical - commonly used in suspension bridge.
b. Diagonal - improves the seismic performance of bridges.
c. Combined Suspension and CableStayed - increases stiffness of bridges.
Classification According to Anchoring Conditions:
a. Anchored - anchorages built at both ends of the bridge where the main cable is
attached.
b. Self-Anchored - no anchorage built and main cables are directly connected to the
stiffening girders.
Main components:
TOWER - intermediate vertical structures which supports the main suspension cables
and transfers the external loads to bridge foundations.
ANCHORAGE - massive concrete block which anchor main suspension cables and act
as end supports of a bridge against movement in the horizontal direction.
MAIN SUSPENSION CABLES - made of highstrength steel that are suspended
between towers and are finally connected to the anchorage or the bridge itself.
SUSPENDERS - cable connecting the stiffening girder with the main suspension cable,
which is mainly used to transfer the live load applied on the deck to the main cable.
STIFFENING GIRDERS OR TRUSSES - deck structure that supports and distributes
vertical live load.
General Sequence of Construction:
1. Foundation of Towers and Anchorage
2. Construction of Towers and Anchorage
3. Pilot Line along the Bridge’s Length
4. Catwalk along the Pilot Line
5. Main Suspension Cables using Spinning Wheel
6. Vertical Suspenders
7. Deck and Girder Installation
CABLE STAYED BRIDGE - A cable-stayed bridge is a structural system with a
continuous girder (or bridge deck) supported by inclined stay cables from the towers (or
pylons).
Parts of Cable Stayed Bridge:
- Deck
- Tower
- Stay cable
- Foundation
Basic Components:
• Cable Arrangement Types • Pylon Types • Deck Types • Substructure Types
CABLES - are usually either arranged in a singleplane or two-plane system.
SINGLE-PLANE - is commonly employed with a divided road deck, and requires only a
narrow pylon and pier.
TWO-PLANE SYSTEM - the cable can either be arranged to hang vertically or slope
towards the top of the tower or pylon.
Classification of Cable:
• Radial : cables connect evenly throughout the deck, but all converge on the top
of the pier.
• Harp : cables are parallel, and evenly spaced along the deck and the pier.
• Fan : a combination of radial and harp types.
• Star-shaped : cables are connected to two opposite points on the pier.
DECK - generally has a hollow box cross section. Provides torsional resistance across
the deck width.
Reinforced Concrete Bridges
REINFORCED-CONCRETE BRIDGE - a bridge with reinforced-concrete spans and
concrete or reinforced-concrete abutments
REINFORCED CONCRETE - concrete in which is embedded in such a manner that the
two materials act together in resisting forces.
Five major parts of a Reinforced Concrete Bridge:
1. BEAM/GIRDER - is that part of superstructure structure which is under bending
along the span.
 2. BEARING - it is the load bearing member which supports the deck.
• Span is the distance between points of support (eg piers, abutment).
• Deck is bridge floor directly carrying traffic loads

3. PIER CAP - is the component which transfers loads from the superstructure to
the piers.
4. PIER - is that part of a part of the substructure which supports the
superstructure at the end of the span and which transfers loads on the
superstructure to the foundations.
5. PILE CAP AND PILES
• Pile foundation - is the most commonly used foundation system for
bridges.
• Pile - is a slender compression member driven into or formed in the
ground to resist loads
Types of Reinforced Concrete Bridges:
• ARCH BRIDGES- good for short spans
• DECK SLAB BRIDGE - simplest type of bridge. Used mostly for culvert or small
bridges with a span not exceeding 8 meters.
• DECK GIRDER BRIDGE(T-BEAM BRIDGE) - used for spans between 10 to
20 meters. The numbers of longitudinal girders depends upon the road width.
• BALANCE CANTILEVER BRIDGE - Used for spans between 25 to 50 meters.
Generally a parabolic profile for the main girders is used. This type of bridge is
used where width of river is large.
• CABLE STAYED BRIDGES - has one or more towers (or pylons), from which
cables support the bridge deck.
• INTEGRAL BRIDGES - are constructed without any joints between spans or
between span and abutments.
Methods of Bridge Construction:
• CAST-IN-SITU METHOD OF BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION - is a flexible method
of bridge construction where complex and unusual geometrical shapes of dams
can be constructed easily.
• BALANCED CANTILEVER METHOD OF BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION - this
method is used for constructing bridges with span 50 to 250m. The bridge
constructed can either be cast-in-place or precast.
 • PRECAST METHOD OF BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION - the bridge is constructed
with the help of precast concrete elements
• SPAN BY SPAN CASTING METHOD - is associated with cantilever
construction method but with many advancements in the technique, it is
considered as most economic and rapid in construction.
• INCREMENTAL LAUNCHING METHOD - method of bridge construction is
employed mainly for the construction of continuous concrete bridges or steel
girder bridges
• CABLE-STAYED METHOD - cables are used to carry the bridge deck from one
or both sides of the supporting tower
• ARCH METHOD - arch shaped bridge construction is one of the most
economical choices when the bridge under consideration is required to cross over
landscapes that are inaccessible
Factors Affecting Selection of Bridge Construction Methods:
1. The scale of the bridge
2. The obstacles to be crossed
3. The regularity of the span lengths
4. The horizontal and vertical profiles of the bridge decks
5. The nature of the soil strata
6. The local weather
7. The local cost of materials
8. The local labor markets
9. The accessibility of the site
10. The time allowed for construction.
Bridge Planning Design
TRAFFIC STUDY - is a detailed examination and analysis of a transportation system
supported by data collection
HIGHWAY BRIDGES - have the main objective of carrying traffic
TRAFFIC LOADING - is a primary source of stress on the structure – quite often the
largest one.
MACROSCALE - such as economic development
MICROSCALE - such as individual driver behaviour
LOAD RATING - is a measure of bridge live load capacity

The process to compute site-specific bridge traffic loading consists of the

following steps:
• Traffic data collection
• Generation of a database
• Simulation of load effects
• Extrapolation
• Model calibration
MONTE CARLO SIMULATION - is a computerized mathematical technique that allows
people to account for risk in quantitative analysis and decision making.
EXTRAPOLATION - the action of estimating or concluding something by assuming
that existing trends will continue or a current method will remain applicable
Aspects in Building Bridges:
• Economic Aspects: It is appropriate to define the best comprise between
economic and technical aspects, and to establish the mechanical resistance of
bridges in order to improve safety.
• Technical Aspects: The bridge is a structure allowing vehicles to cross an object
or a river. The vehicles induce interactive internal forces in the bridges.
CONGESTION - is due to insufficient road capacity (recurrent congestion, typically
predictable and frequent)
SHORT-SPAN BRIDGES - are governed by free-flowing traffic, plus an allowance for
dynamic effects.
LONG-SPAN BRIDGES - are governed by congested conditions, with no allowances
for dynamic effects, due to the slow speed of the vehicles involved in critical loading
events
Avoiding Traffic Congestion During Road and Bridge Construction:
• Post warnings ahead of time
• Leverage the ABCs
• Use the right equipment
• Improve signage
• Leverage utility installation experts
• Provide training
ACCELERATED BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION - is a paradigm shift in the project
planning and procurement approach where the need to minimize mobility impacts which
occur due to onsite construction activities are elevated to a higher priority
Environmental considerations are:
• Air pollution
• Water pollution
• Noise pollution
AIR POLLUTION - is a mixture of solid particles and gases in the air. Car emissions,
chemicals from factories, dust, pollen, and mold spores may be suspended as particles.
WATER POLLUTION - is the contamination of water bodies (e.g. lakes, rivers, oceans,
aquifers and groundwater)
NOISE POLLUTION - is caused when noise which is an unpleasant sound affects our
ears and leads to psychological problems like stress, hypertension, hearing impairment,
etc

Hydrotechnical Aspects of Bridges

HYDROTECHNICAL DESIGN PARAMETERS
• Channel Capacity
• Historic Highwater Observations
• Basin Runoff Potential Check
CHANNEL CAPACITY - basic technique to estimate physical capacity of the stream to
deliver flow to the crossing under flood conditions, governs for most sites
BRIDGE SCOUR - is the removal of sediment such as sand and gravel from
around bridge abutments or piers
ROCK RIPRAP - one common practice for pier scour prevention is to place large
stones, known as riprap, around the base of the pier. It is one of the most common
and traditional methods for preventing scour and can be a very effective one.
GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING - branch of civil engineering concerned with the
engineering behavior of earth materials
SOIL MECHANICS - is a branch of soil physics and applied mechanics that describes
the behavior of soils.
ROCK MECHANICS - is a theoretical and applied science of the mechanical behavior
of rock and rock masses; compared to geology, it is that branch of mechanics
concerned with the response of rock and rock masses to the force fields of their
physical environment.
GEO-ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - is the engineering of geologic (earthen)
and geosynthetic (polymer) materials for problems related to the protection of human
health and the environment.
GEOTECHNICAL EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING – the subspecialty within the field
of geotechnical engineering that deals with the design and construction of projects in
order to resist the effects of earthquakes.
GEOLOGIC ENGINEERING - is the application of the geology to engineering study
for the purpose of assuring that the geological factors regarding the location, design,
construction, operation and maintenance of engineering works are recognized and
accounted for.
OPEN FOUNDATION - refer to those foundations constructed by carrying out
excavations up to founding level in the open conditions
BLOCK FOUNDATION - is a form of shallow foundation used for smaller bridges in
locations where there is a good founding strata at shallow depth but is overlain by very
soft layer of soil and high water table making open excavation difficult due to small
quantum of work.
PILE FOUNDATION - consisting of long poles (referred to as piles), which are made
of wood, concrete, and steel and which are hammered into the soft soils beneath the
bridge until the end of the pile reaches a hard layer of compacted soil or rock.
WELL FOUNDATION - is a type of deep foundation which is generally provided below
the water level for bridges.

Bridge Planning and Loads

BRIDGES - are expected to have a design life of 75 to 100 years
- are the most expensive component of the highway system per kilometer by
an order of of magnitude.
- are the least flexible infrastructure component for accommodation of future
unpredictable functionality changes
BRIDGE PLANNING - the process of finding the optimal solution for a roadway to
cross a watercourse, another roadway, or railway. It also includes river engineering
with highways adjacent with highways adjacent streams.
Things to consider in bridge planning:
- Site history/constraints
- Hydrotechnical
- Roadway Geometrics
- Structural
- Geotechnical
- Environmental
- Cost/risk/safety
- Operations/user cost
- Stakeholders
- Construction
- Staging
- Land use
Major components of loads acting on highway brides :
- Dead and Live Loads
- Environmental loads (temperature, wind, and earthquake)
- Other loads arising from braking of vehicles and collisions.
Various Design Loads to be considered:
1. Dead load - is nothing but a self-weight of the bridge elements
2. Live load - is moving load on the bridge throughout its length
3. Impact load
4. Wind load
5. Longitudinal forces
6. Centrifugal forces
7. Buoyancy effect
8. Effect of water current
9. Thermal effects
10. Deformation and horizontal effects
11. Erection stresses
12. Seismic loads

IRC CLASS AA LOADING - this type of loading is considered for the design of new
bridge especially heavy loading bridges like bridges on highways, in cities, industrial
areas etc.
IRC CLASS A LOADING - this type of loading is used in the design of all permanent
bridges. It is considered as standard live load of bridge
IRC CLASS B LOADING - This type of loading is used to design temporary bridges
like Timber Bridge etc.
IMPACT LOAD - is due to sudden loads which are caused when the vehicle is moving
on the bridge
WIND LOAD - also an important factor in the bridge design. For short span bridges,
wind load can be negligible. But for medium span bridges, wind load should be
considered for substructure design.
LONGITUDINAL FORCES - are caused by braking or accelerating of vehicle on the
bridge
Centrifugal force can be calculated by C (kN/m) = (WV2)/(12.7R)
BUOYANCY EFFECT - is considered for substructures of large bridges submerged
under deep water bodies
THERMAL STRESSES - are caused due to temperature. When the temperature is very
high or very low they induce stresses in the bridge elements especially at bearings and
deck joints.
DEFORMATION STRESSES - occur due to change is material properties either
internally or externally
ERECTION STRESS - are induced by the construction equipment during the bridge
construction