BRIDGE ENGINEERING

DEFINITION:
Bridge is a structure providing passage over an
opening such as road, railway, canal, river etc, without
disturb the function of opening. The required passage
may be meant for roadway or railway.
Substructure:
Substructure is the part of the culvert or bridge
below the girder bearings and above foundation.
1. Foundation
It is the lowest part of a structure which provides
proper base for the super structure.
2. Abutment
End support of a bridge is called as abutment.
3. Pier
Intermediate support of a bridge is called as a pier
4. Wing walls and return walls
These are masonry walls constructed on the both ends
of abutments to retain the embankments and guide the
flow of waterway.
5.Revetment
It is the sloped structure made of masonry stones laid on
both upstream and downstream sides of water way to protect
them sliding and erosion due to water.
Revetment
6. Apron
It is the bed level flooring made of concrete or masonry
stones at the entrance or outlet of bridge in order to prevent
scouring.
7. Approaches
It is the construction work to join the roadway or railway
upto bridge.
Superstructure
Superstructure is the part of the culvert or bridge above the
girder bearings.
1. Bearings
It is the part of a bridge to distribute the load coming from
the Superstructure to the substructure and also to allow for
longitudinal and angular movements.
2. Decking
It is the part of bridge comprising of the flooring and the
supporting beams.
Bearing
● The deck of a bridge is the roadway surface that carries the
traffic load. It's the part of the bridge structure that vehicles,
pedestrians, and cyclists use to cross over the obstacle,
such as a river or a valley.
3. Handrails
These are the protective work provided on both sides of the
deck along the road in order to safe moving of vehicles and
passenger.
4. Girder or truss
It is employed for small bridges where span is less and loads
are heavy.
5. Roadway
It means that the pavement or any other flooring for moving
vehicle
 Truss bridge

Handrail
I.R.C. LOADING
The Indian Road Congress (I.R.C.) has classified the loading
standards in standards
Specification and practice for bridges for live loads as given
below:
1. I.R.C. class AA loading
2. I.R.C. class A loading
3. I.R.C. class B loading
4. I.R.C. class 70R loading
I.R.C. class AA loading:
● The I.R.C. class AA loading is based on heavy military
vehicles likely to run on certain routes.
● It is to be adopted for bridges within municipal limits in
certain existing industrial areas, certain specified highways
such as NH, SH and other important roads where heavy
loading is expected.
● In IRC class AA loading following two types of vehicles are
specified.
a. Tracked vehicle
b. Wheeled vehicle
a. Tracked vehicle
● It consists of a packed load of 70t which is equally
distributed over two tracks of 850mm width and
3600mm length.
● The length of vehicle is 7200mm and overall distance
between the tracks is 2900mm.
● The nose to tail spacing between two successive
vehicles should not be less than 90m.
Tracked vehicle
b. Wheeled vehicle :
● The maximum load for single axle wheeled vehicle is
20t and for double axel wheeled vehicle is 40t.
● The axles are spaced not more than 1200mm centers.
● The maximum wheel load is 6.25t.
2. IRC class A loading:
● The IRC class A loading is based on the heaviest
type of commercial vehicle which is considered like
to run on Indian roads.
● Hence, All important road bridges, which are not
covered by class AA loading, are to be designed for
class A loading. This loading is to be normally
adopted on all roads on which permanent bridges
and culverts are constructed.
3. IRC class B loading
● The IRC class B loading is same as class A loading
except that 40% less than class A loading. It is to be
adopted for the design of temporary structures such as
timber bridges etc.
4. IRC class 70R loading
● This is an additional loading which is sometimes
specified for use in place of class AA loading the letter
“R” indicates revised classification and it is based on
one of the various other hypothetical vehicles as per
revised classification
● This loading consists of tracked vehicles and wheeled
vehicles.
SCOUR:
It is the removal of bed soil due to high velocity of the
stream.
Scour will be occurs when the bed velocity of the
stream is higher than the limiting velocity.
Preventive measures for scour
1. Stream bed will be covered by dumped stones, concrete
blocks, or matted vegetation scouring is prevented
2. The river should be pitched with stones to avoid scouring.
3. water way should be adequate so that the velocity does
not erode the bed.
4. The site selected for bridge should have uniform stream
line flow.
5. The shape of the pier constructed across the stream
should not cause eddies and currents in the stream flow.
AFFLUX
● Where the flow of water in stream or river meets
with any obstruction, the water level will be rises.
● The difference in levels of the water surfaces
between the upstream and the downstream sides
of the bridge is called Afflux.
● The phenomenon occurs only in upstream side of
the bridge.
The afflux is greater, the greater velocity in waterway. So,
the cost of construction of guide bank and protective works
increases.
SPAN
The center to center distance between any two adjacent
supports is called the Span and clear distance is called the
Clear span.

Clear span

Effective span/span
ECONOMIC SPAN
● Economic span is the span for which the costs of
superstructure and substructure are equal.
● Thus the economic span of bridge makes the overall cost
of the bridge is to be a minimum.
WATERWAY
The sectional area through which the water flows under a
bridge is known as waterway.
The linear measurement of this area along the length of the
bridge at the highest flood level is termed as linear waterway. It is
the sum of all clear spans
FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED FOR SELECTION OF AN IDEAL
SITE FOR BRIDGE
1. On either sides of waterway must be easily communicated between
the roads.
2. Straight and well defined embankments both on upstream and
downstream sides of the bridge.
3. Availability of men and material easily.
4. Minimum width of water course at crossing.
5. Uniform and steady flow with non silting and non scouring velocities.
6. Good foundations at reasonable depths.
7. Right angled crossing of stream.
8. Waterway should be straight for reasonable length in both
upstream and downstream for smooth navigation.
9. Construction should be economical.
10. Maintenance cost should be low.
ALIGNMENT
To set out the centre line of the bridge is Known as alignment of
Bridge.
Factors to be considered in alignment,
1. The proposed alignment should be economical.
2. Special care should be taken for silting and scouring are not
created because of the alignment.
3. The alignment of the bridge should be right angles to the
centre line of the river.
4. Skew crossing alignment may be provided depending upon
the traffic requirements.
5. As far as possible, the alignment should not be curved. A
curved bridge is difficult to construct and maintain.
FOUNDATION
INTRODUCTION
● It is lowest part of the structure.
● This provides a firm base for the superstructure, and also it’s
transmitting all the loads on the structure to the soil properly.
FUNCTIONS OF FOUNDATION
1. To provide leveled base for construction of sub structures.
2. To prevent unequal settlement of subsoil due to loading from
structure.
3. To distribute all the loads from the structures over a large area
of the subsoil.
4. Tilting and overturning effects of structures are prevented by
maintaining verticality.
TYPES OF FOUNDATION
1. Ordinary foundation on dry land and rock bed.
2. Foundation in soils saturated with subsoil water.
3. Foundation under water.
1. Ordinary foundation on dry land and rock bed.
a. Spread foundation
b. Raft foundation
c. Grillage foundation
d. Pile foundation
a. Spread foundation
Spread foundation is to be provided where hard soil is
available within 2 to 3 metres below the bed level of the river.
Where scouring can be prevented by sheet piling in upstream and
downstream and pitching on bed floor, this type of foundation is
preferred.
b. Raft foundation
Raft foundation is provided where soil having less bearing
capacity. When bed soil contains soft clay and good soil is not
available within a reasonable depth (1.5 to 2.5m), this type of
foundation is preferred.
Sheet pile
c. Grillage foundation
Grillage foundation is used where heavy loads are transmitted
to soils of low bearing capacity. It consists of two or more tier of
grillage beam spaced at right angles to distribute the load over a
large area. Area of the grillage only depends on the bearing
capacity of the soil.
d. Pile foundation
Pile foundation is economical under the circumstances of soil
at the site of bridge is very soft and good soil is available at a
greater depth. And also, loads in foundation are excessive and
heavy and all other types of foundation is uneconomical.
2. Foundation in soils saturated with subsoil water
a. buoyant raft
b. Invert arch
c. Pile Foundation
3. Foundation under water
a. Well foundation.
b. Caisson foundation
i. open caisson foundation
ii. Box caisson foundation
iii. Pneumatic caisson foundation
a. Well Foundation
It is used where scouring is liable to occur and good soil is
available at nearly 3m below the bed level.
b. Caisson foundation
It is used, when the depth of water in the river is more and
good soil is available near the river bed.
CONTROL OF GROUND WATER IN FOUNDATION
● Ground water sometimes poses a serious problem during
excavation for foundation.
● If it is not checked, heavy inflow is liable to cause erosion or
collapse, the side of excavation.
● To avoid this problem the groundwater movement will be
controlled by securing knowledge about the soil and ground
water condition with relevant remedial measures
a. Factors involved in ground water control
1. Site investigation is properly done before commencement of
the work
2. Quantity of water to be pumped should not be more than the
capacity of pump.
3. Should be economical.
CAISSON FOUNDATION
It is box type like round or rectangular shape, and it is used to
pump the water from foundation at desired depth.
It is commonly employed in situations where soil conditions are
poor or where the structure needs to be supported at a considerable
depth below the ground level .
It is classified as,
1. Open caissons
2. Box caissons
3. Pneumatic caissons.
1. Open caissons
● Open caissons are made of timber, steel or R.C. or masonry
with both ends open.
● It is also called as well.
● Small caissons consist of one opening, while large caissons
contain a series of wells.
● This type of caisson is cast and flatted to the site and sunk.
● When it reaches the required depth, concrete is deposited
through water to some depth.
● After the concrete gets hardened, the water will be pumped
out.
2. Box caissons
● It is opened at top and closed at bottom. It can be made of
steel or R.C or timber.
● This type of Caissons is built on land, then launched and
brought to the site .where they have to be sunk.
● Box caissons can be used with following circumstances:
1. Bearing stratum is available at shallow depth
2. Loads are not heavy
3. For wharfs and breakwaters
3. Pneumatic caissons
A caisson opened at bottom and closed at top in which
compressed air is used to keep away the water and mud from
trench is called a ‘Pneumatic caisson’.
COFFERDAMS
It is defined as a temporary structure construct to pump out
the water and earth from work spot, where foundation is to be
laid.
TYPES OF COFFERDAMS
1. Cantilever sheet piles
2. Braced cofferdam
3. Earth embankments
4. Double sheet pile wall
5. Cellular cofferdam
6. Rock fill cofferdam
7. bagged earth cofferdam.
1.Cantilever sheet piles
A sheet piling walls consist of series of piles driven side by
side into the ground thus forming a continuous vertical cantilever
wall for retaining earth bank.
It is suitable for small works and moderate height. It has easily
affected by lateral deflection and erosion.
Cantilever sheet piles
2.Braced cofferdam
● It consisting vertical or horizontal sheeting with internal struts.
These are economical for moderate heights.
● There using circular cofferdam, thus avoid the cost of struts
and also give large workspace area.
3.Double wall cofferdam
It consists two rows of sheet piles, which are braced with tie rods.
In between the piles, the granular fill is to be made. It is also
suitable for moderate height.
4. Cellular cofferdam
● The major component of it’s the steel cells and cell fill.
Sometimes earth beams are also provided on dry side of
cofferdam to increase stability.
● It also classified as circular type, diaphragm and cloverleaf
type. These are suitable for moderate and large heights.
5.Earth embankment
● It consists of embankment made of earth or other materials
enclosing foundation area.
● The top width and free board will be about 1000mm.
● The side slope should not be steeper than the natural angle of
repose of the material. It is made up of sand, clay and gravel
mixture. It has no height limitations.
6.Rockfill cofferdam
● It consists of embankment made of 300-600mm thick boulders
and earth is placed on water side for imperviousness.
● Coir mats is used to avoid erosion of earth by water currents.
7.Bagged earth cofferdam
● Where water current is swift there the earth dam cannot be
constructed.
● Bags of loosely filled earth may be dropped in position to form
an embankment.
● This form of dam is called bagged earth cofferdam.
CULVERTS:
It is defined as a drain sewer or water course totally enclosed
and usually carried under road or railway.
It may have one or more spans. It has small linear water way
width.
CLASSIFICATION OF CULVERTS
I.According to function
1. Highway culverts
2. Railway culverts
Designing and loading behavior would be different for these
classes.
II. According to construction
a) Pipe culverts
b) Box culverts
c) Arch culverts
d) R.C. or stone slab culverts
e) Steel girder culvert for railways.
a) Pipe culverts
Where the depth of flow and
discharge is small there pipe culverts
are to be used. The discharge is
more circular pipes are preferable.
Culvert is to be extended to join the
pipes and increasing the discharge.
Clearance between HFL and crown
on the pipe is should be maintained
150mm minimum.
b)Box culverts
This type of culvert consist
one or more square or
rectangular openings made up of
masonry or RCC. Box culverts
are very common. Stone slabs
also used for small culverts. In
soft soils, where there is a
possibility of scouring and bearing
capacity of soil is poor, these
culverts are used.
c)Arch culvert
For shorter spans (2 to 3m) this type culvert is economical. It
may constructed either stone masonry or brick masonry.
d)RC or stone slab culvert
It consists stone slab or RC slab, supported on masonry walls
on either side of slabs.
● We provide up to 2.5m for stone slabs and 6m for RC slabs.
RC slabs can be easily done by arranging the reinforcement
and concreting. RC culverts are used in railway or highway
bridges.
● Depending upon the site condition wing wall, abutment,
parapet (minimum 750mm) and handrails are provided.
e)Steel girder culvert
● These types of culverts are provided in railways. Two main
girders are placed below\ the rails.
● Wooden sleepers are provided over between the girders and
the rails are fixed on the sleeper.
● Sometimes this type of culverts is also known as open deck
culverts.
CAUSEWAYS:
These are the structure constructed for crossing highly
fluctuating streams which will be under submerged condition
during high floods.
A causeway typically refers to a raised road or path, often
constructed across low or wet ground or water
CONDITIONS TO CONSTRUCT CAUSEWAY
a. The average flood discharge should not be more than 40% of
the highest flood discharge.
b. The highest flood discharge should not flow in the stream for
more than 8 to 10 days in the year and also not more than 4 to
5 hours for these days.
CLASSIFICATION
a. Flush causeway
b. Low level causeway
c. High level causeway
Flush causeway
These are provided in hilly roads, when the maximum
depth of water should not be more than 1700mm in floods
and does not exceed 15 days per year.
To avoid scouring, curtain wall is to be constructed on
downstream.
Low level causeway:
It is small submersible bridge without openings with partially
vented by a few pipes
In this type small openings of about 300mm to 350mm are
provided below the road way slab to allow normal flow without
disturbing traffic.
Definition:
● A low-water crossing is a low-elevation roadway that stays
dry above the water when the flow is minimal.
● However, it is designed to get submerged under high-flow
conditions, such as during floods
Low level causeway
High level causeway
● It may be defined as a bridge allows normal flood to pass
through its vents and heavy flood pass over it.
● This is also called submergible bridge.
● Vent allows 40% of the maximum discharge on it.
TYPES OF BRIDGES ACCORDING TO STRUCTURAL
SYSTEM
1. beam bridges,
2. cantilever bridges,
3. arch bridges,
4. truss bridges,
5. suspension bridges,
6. cable-stayed bridges
Beam Bridge
● It is similar to the long bridge. It is now made from steel 'I'
beams, box girders, reinforced concrete, or
post-tensioned concrete.
● It is frequently used in pedestrian bridges and for highway
overpasses.
● It is in structural terms the simplest of the many bridge
types.
● It consists of one or more horizontal beams with 2
supports usually on either end.
Beam Bridge

Box girder Bridge

I-Beam Bridge
Cantilever bridge
● It is a bridge built using cantilevers: structures that project
horizontally into space, supported on only one end.
● A simple cantilever span is formed by two cantilever arms
extending from opposite sides of the obstacle to be crossed,
meeting at the center
Arch bridge
● An arch bridge is a semicircular structure with abutments on
each end.
● The design of the arch, the semicircle, naturally diverts the
weight from the bridge deck to the abutments.
Truss bridge
● A truss bridge is a bridge composed of connected elements
(typically straight) which may be subjected to tension,
compression, or sometimes both in response to dynamic
loads.
● Truss bridges are one of the oldest types of modern bridges.
● Truss type of bridge structure has a fairly simple design and
is particularly cheap to construct owing to its efficient use of
materials.
Truss bridge
Suspension Bridges
● Suspension bridge is a type of bridge where the main
load-carrying elements are hung from suspension cables.
● Suspension bridges have two tall towers through which the
cables are strung.
Cable stayed bridges
A cable-stayed bridge is a bridge that consists of one or
more columns (normally referred to as towers or pylons), with
cables supporting the bridge deck
SIMPLE BRIDGE
● Simple bridge is simplest type of bridge, it is made of two
supports which hold up the slab or beam.
● It is least expensive.
TYPES OF SIMPLE BRIDGE ACCORDING TO BRIDGE
FLOOR
1. Deck type
2. Through type
3. Semi –through type
Deck type
● Flooring is supported over the top flange or beam of the
girder is called as deck Type Bridge.
● Super structure is accommodated between HFL and road
formation level with suitable clearance.
Through type
● Flooring is supported on the bottom flange or beam by
means of cross girder is called as Through Type Bridge.
● Super structures are made above road formation level on
either side of the bridge.
Through type
CONTINUOUS BRIDGE
● Length of the bridge is more(about 50m) superstructures
may be continuous over piers and end abutments.
● Slab type, T-beam type or box type decks are used in this
type of bridge.
● As this is continuous over the piers, the magnitude of
bending moment at support is more than mid span.
● Hence, moment of inertia of the girder at support is more
than the mid span.