Crop Protection 65 (2014) 105e113

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Crop Protection
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/cropro

Review

Sustainable weed management in conservation agriculture

Ali Ahsan Bajwa*
Department of Agronomy, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, 38040, Pakistan

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Sustainable crop production is necessary to ensure global food security and environmental safety.
Received 12 December 2013 Conservation agriculture (CA) is gaining popularity around the globe due to its sustainable approaches
Received in revised form such as permanent soil cover, minimal soil disturbance, planned crop rotations and integrated weed
21 July 2014
management. Weed control is the biggest challenge to CA adoption. Weed ecology and management is
Accepted 23 July 2014
Available online 12 August 2014
different in CA than in conventional agriculture. In CA, weeds expression, seed bank status, distribution,
dispersal mechanisms, diversification, growing patterns and competition trends are complex and differ
from conventional systems. It is due to reduced tillage of the soil and the flora that thrives in CA. Reduced
Keywords:
Conservation agriculture
tillage systems affect the efficacy of herbicides and mechanical weed control measures. So, it is an
Sustainability important task to find out the differences and to fabricate new management options. In this review,
Weed dynamics changing weed dynamics have been framed. A novel aspect of this review is the comprehensive account
Weed management of sustainable weed management strategies in relation to CA. Modified tillage operations, improved
cultural practices, bioherbicides, chemical herbicides, allelopathy, and crop nutrition have been identified
as suitable weed management tools. None of these offers complete control but the integration of these
tools in suitable combinations works efficiently. Weeds dominating CA and their responses to CA
components are highlighted. For example, small seeded and perennial weeds are more abundant in CA.
The role of herbicide resistance in weeds and herbicide tolerant (HT) crops in CA is also highlighted.
Allelopathy and crop nutrition are discussed as modern weed management tools for CA. A detailed ac-
count of weed responses to fertilizer management options is also given. Integrated weed management
compatible to cropping patterns and climatic conditions offers the best results in CA. Future efforts must
be directed towards the optimization and integration of these weed management practices.
© 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction development of a well pulverized and suitable seed bed prior to

sowing. It is a multipurpose practice that aids in proper emergence
Crop production is important component of agriculture which is of seeds due to optimum placement providing sufficient amounts
responsible for global food security. Effective crop production be- of water, light and nutrients. It ensures the availability of nutrients
gins with successful soil management which is first and foremost and provides aeration of the soil layer (Reicosky and Allmaras,
principle of agronomy. Modern day agriculture is strongly associ- 2003). Different soil amendments are also added to the soil
ated with conventional tillage which is defined as a system having through tillage. It also helps in control of soil-borne diseases and
deep primary tillage followed by secondary cultivation operations pests (Owens, 2001). Tillage is an essential part of conventional
(Holland, 2004). The practice of tillage in agriculture began thou- agriculture for soil preparation, residue incorporation, planting and
sands of years ago at the time when humans being shifted from herbicides incorporation (Sherestha et al., 2006).
hunting and gathering towards the raring of animals and settled Besides all the plus points, conventional tillage is playing havoc
down in productive areas near rivers like the Nile, Euphrates, to natural landscape and soil fertility. Heavy tillage implements are
Yangste and Indus (Hillel, 1991). The concept of tillage was preva- extensively used in conventional tillage system without consid-
lent in Mesopotamia in 3000 B.C. (Hillel, 1998; Lal, 2001). Tillage is ering the soil capability and fertility status. Increasing costs of en-
the manipulation of soil for the betterment of aggregates for the ergy sources, labor and other inputs are making this system
unsuitable and unfeasible due to high cost of production (Edwards
and Smith, 2005). Moreover, this system is problematic for envi-
* Tel.: þ92 333 0632018. ronmental safety and global protection but conservation agricul-
E-mail addresses: [email protected], [email protected]. ture (CA) is a viable alternate which is suitable for today's limited

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cropro.2014.07.014
0261-2194/© 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
106 A.A. Bajwa / Crop Protection 65 (2014) 105e113

natural resources and changing climate (Montgomery, 2007). That's environmental and climatic conditions (Labrada and Parker, 1994).
why it is becoming a common approach in rainfed areas for water CA promotes certain types of weeds including annuals, biennials
and soil conservation. About 45 million hectares have been re- and perennials. Certain weeds decrease after consistent practices of
ported under CA (FAO, 2001). CA is a broad spectrum and multi- CA but some others may increase (Chauhan et al., 2006a). CA sys-
dimensional term. CA defined by FAO (2001) as minimal soil tems with low soil disturbance tend to leave more weed seeds on
disturbance (no-till, NT) and permanent soil cover (mulch) com- the surface, whereas high disturbance systems bury weeds
bined with rotations, is a recent agricultural management system (Chauhan et al., 2006b). Usually, small-seeded weed species are
that is gaining popularity in many parts of the world (Hobbs et al., favored more in CA (Sosnoskie et al., 2006). Typically, small-seeded
2008). The trend is spreading quickly in North and South America, weed species thrive in CA compared to conventional tillage because
semi-arid and tropical regions of the world (Lal, 2000). CA is the seed is not buried. The small-seeded species cannot germinate
designed to be an effective solution to agricultural problems in as readily from buried depths as they can from the soil surface.
small land holding farming communities especially in tropical re- Weed emergence is less because of reduced soil manipulation in CA
gions (Fowler and Rockstrom, 2001; Derpsch, 2003; Hobbs, 2007; (Chauhan et al., 2007). There are many annual weeds that germi-
Hobbs et al., 2008; Giller et al., 2009). Most important principles nate well under no till system as they can germinate with less or no
of CA (Minimal soil disturbance and permanent soil cover) are soil cover. Biennials also thrive well under CA (Curran et al., 1996).
achieved by no tillage, zero tillage, minimum tillage/ridge tillage, Perennial species can easily produce large populations under CA if a
reduced tillage, direct seeding and mulch tillage (Reicosky and few plants get a good vegetative stand. They have gradual growth in
Allmaras, 2003). All these practices are collectively called conser- the first year and proliferate in the second year. Reduced tillage
vation tillage. These are used according to farming system, cropping cause changes in weed species, their distribution, densities and
pattern and climatic conditions (Reicosky and Allmaras, 2003; composition. So, different weeds have different response in CA. It
Giller et al., 2009). Zero tillage is a practice of least soil distur- requires special approaches for better weed management which is
bance during single tillage operation to avoid soil degradation. It is surely a point of interest for adopters of CA (Buhler et al., 1994). CA
mainly planting operation but also involve slight manipulation of can produce more if row crops are introduced in rotation along with
soil. It has also been widely accepted by farmers in developed proper herbicide application (Phillips and Young, 1973).
countries (Bolliger et al., 2006; Triplett and Warren, 2008). The
precise and accurate definition of CA is very difficult to quote due to 3. Weed control measures under CA
diverse climatic conditions and variable management practices
around the globe. It varies according to the area and geographical as 3.1. Modified tillage
well as climatic conditions (Carter, 1994; Lyon et al., 2004).
Weed management has been recognized as essential compo- CA has a significant impact over weed populations and, thus, on
nent of CA and, thus, requires special attention. Weeds act differ- weed management. Tillage affects weeds through disturbances like
ently in different habitats. Weeds also provide habitat for insects cutting, burial, uprooting and dislodgement of weeds; moreover, it
and disease-causing pests which can reduce the quality of the crop changes the soil climate and influences weed germination, emer-
and increase the risk of crop failure. Tillage provides different types gence and establishment by promoting or inhibiting their move-
of natural and manipulated habitats to the weeds. Tillage plays an ment (Clements et al., 1996). Weed flora composition differs
important role in weed control and has been used as an effective according to tillage system and, thus, we have to manage them by
tool since ancient times. Tillage practices are still very effective; different approaches. For instance, small-seeded weeds proliferate
different types of modern cultivators and weeders are facilitating well under CA and have to be controlled by special measures
mechanical weed management (Wallace and Bellinder, 1992). CA (Chauhan et al., 2006a; Sosnoskie et al., 2006). Reduction in tillage
also provides a specific set of environmental factors that affect may cause serious problem regarding weed infestations (Buhler
weed populations. Weed infestations in CA is a major concern and a et al., 1994). The shift in weed species distribution and weed den-
key reason for reluctant approach of farmers towards its adoption sities poses a great problem for weed management and can cause a
(Buhler et al., 1994). CA is mainly focused on minimal tillage with reduction in crop yield under CA (Blackshaw et al., 2001). Tillage
specific herbicide applications for better weed control (Lafond systems clearly affect weed density, weed distribution and weed
et al., 2009). Weed management in CA is a relatively complex seed bank reserves (Table 1).
approach involving different tillage practices, agronomic practices, CA may promote the germination and emergence of newly
engineering approaches and modern technologies of crop estab- produced weed seeds that stay on or near the soil surface. More-
lishment (Lafond et al., 2009). over, the extra residues managed on the surface in CA may cause a
CA requires dedicated efforts to control weeds initially; how- hindrance to herbicide efficacy. Perennial, erect or creeping weeds
ever, after maintaining a certain threshold level, it is easier to produce vegetative reproductive parts like rhizomes and tubers
manage weed infestations in these systems. Integrated approaches which are difficult to manage under CA (Shrestha et al., 2003).
must be considered and optimized to have proper weed control in There is a problem of shift in timing of weed seeds germination and
CA. It is necessary to study the ecological, biological and social is- emergence during the course of crop growth which may cause a
sues related to weeds in CA. Moreover, a systematic approach is problem in the selection of time for herbicide application or other
needed to optimize different sets of management options based on management practices (Bullied et al., 2003).
ecological and geographic features of a particular agro-ecosystem. The shift in weed species has been reported previously but is
It will help to determine new lines of action regarding site- inconsistent. Cussans (1976) reported the increase in dicot species
specific weed management and sustainable control. Future en- under no till but Wrucke and Arnold (1985) opposed this pattern by
deavors in this regard must be oriented in such a direction to offer attributing the distribution of broadleaved weeds showing similar
comprehensive solutions keeping a focus on the differences. trend under both conservation tillage and traditional tillage system.
Pollard et al. (1982) studied different weeds and concluded that
2. Weed dynamics in CA there was no proper and consistent trend of different weeds under
reduced tillage. Tillage systems influence the emergence of annual
Weeds are plants with specific characteristics that help them and perennial weeds differentially and the vigor of different weed
infest and invade crops and succeed under a wide range of plants also varies significantly (Table 2).
 A.A. Bajwa / Crop Protection 65 (2014) 105e113 107

Table 1
Weed dynamics under different tillage regimes.

Tillage Weeds presence Remarks Other details

system
Above ground Seed bank Above ground þ seed bank

Moldboard Asclepias syriaca, Cyperus esculentus, Seteria viridis Abuthilon theophrasti, Most of the weeds are Site: Southwestern Ontario, Canada.
plow Echinocloa crusgalli, Eletrigia repens, Ambrosia artemissifolia, exposed and germinate Soil: Beverley silt loam soil with
Polygonum persicaria, Sinapsis Chenopodium album, under this system, seed 36% sand, 45% silt, and 19% clay.
arvensis, Taraxaxum officinale Plantago major bank less developed, Organic matter content 3.2% and
less weed density and pH 7.3.
diversity overall Residue cover: Mean percent
Chisel plow Amaranthus retroflexus, Cyperus Physalis heterophylla, Abuthilon theophrasti, Germinated and reserved residue cover 5.2% for conventional
esculentus, Cirsium arvense, Senecio vulgaris, Ambrosia artemissifolia, seeds are equal, few tillage, 33.0% for chisel plow, 45.9%
Eletrigia repens, Panicum Chenopodium album, seeds from deeper layers for ridge-till, and 68.6% for no-till.
dichotomiflorum, Potentilla recta, Plantago major, are also exposed Cropping system: Corn-soybean
Seteria viridis Taraxaxum officinale rotation
Ridge till Asclepias syriaca, Cyperus esculentus, Physalis heterophylla, Ambrosia artemissifolia, Relatively more weed
Daucus carota, Eletrigia repens, Plantago major, Cerastium vulgatum, density and highest
Erigeron annus, Medicago lupulina, Seteria viridis, Chenopodium album development of seed
Oxalis strcta, Polygonum persicaria, Senecio vulgaris, bank reserves
Rubus idaeus, Sinapsis arvensis, Solidago canadensis
Taraxaxum officinale
No till Abuthilon theophrasti, Asclepias Echinocloa crusgalli, Chenopodium album, Maximum weeds diversity,
syriaca, Cirsium arvense, Dactylis Fragaria virginiana Plantago major, many new weeds
glomerata, Daucus carota, Seteria viridis introduced, mostly
Eletrigia repens, Medicago lupulina, germinate and very few
Oxalis strcta, Parthenocissus added to seed bank
quiquuefolia, Physalis heterophylla,
Polygonum persicaria, Rubus idaeus,
Seteria glauca, Sonchus oleranceus,
Taraxaxum officinale

Extended from Clements et al. (1996).

Tillage system affects perennial weeds more than annual weeds. accomplish the management of weeds under reduced tillage. It is
Maximum weed density, fresh and dry weight under no till system very effective to combine the chemical approach and row crop
followed by reduced tillage. Weeds can be managed by proper cultivation maintaining high residues in the field. In such systems,
tillage operations at different intensities in any cropping system. heavy tillage implements are also used that pass through a larger
There are few weeds that are really difficult to manage but still can area in the field uprooting the emerged weed seedlings. Similarly
be controlled by manipulating the time of cultivation, inter culture under ridge till systems the cultivator used allows more residues to
practices and weed control practices. CA may promote different stay on the surface. The residues and weed seeds are moved from
weeds, however, it is good approach to manage the weed seed bank ridge to furrows. In this way, the problem of weed crop competition
and to long-term control of noxious weed species. The best pro- is reduced. Mulch tillage is especially designed to retain more than
posal for weed management is the integration of different me- 30% crop residues on surface, suppress different weeds due to
chanical practices and reduced cultivation trips in a certain field shading or covering effect. Moreover, different types of organic
having the problem of weed infestation. compounds released from mulches through leaching cause inhi-
bition of weed seed emergence (Ball, 1992). Another approach is the
3.2. Improved cultural practices application of water in the root zone of crop plants by drip irriga-
tion without providing moisture to weed seeds present on or near
Cultural practices are aimed to ensure better soil and crop the surface. Direct seeding is also an effective approach to have
management (Nazir, 1994). There are different ways to handle better weed control over certain weed species in rice by optimum
weeds by proper cultural management practices. Effective water use of herbicides (Farooq et al., 2011a). Use of cover crops in
management plays a vital role in weed control under CA. The irri- combination with tillage operations favors weed suppression. For
gation scheduling may be done in such a way as to reduce weed instance, rapeseeds and sudangrass as cover crops may control a
pressure in arable crops. Crop rotation is a well-known and proven variety of weeds in conservation systems. Crop competition itself is
weed management strategy. Including crop rotation in CA is a a useful practice to handle weeds. We may set the planting ge-
successful approach to reduce weed pressure. Weeds are normally ometry of different crops in such a way to increase inter specific
set with seasonal emergence and most of them are associated with competition and less amounts of light, water and nutrients will be
specific crops; by changing a crop conventionally coming in prev- available to the weeds present between closely grown rows of crop
alent sequence may reduce the chances of particular weed in- plants.
festations and, thus, may reduce the weed pressure. Planned crop
rotations may cause germination of dormant weeds and then 3.3. Mulching and soil cover
control major weeds efficiently (Table 3).
Weed seeds may dominate if sufficient moisture is available at Any material used to cover the soil to conserve moisture and to
the time of crop sowing but stale bed method of land preparation protect the plant is mulch (Creamer et al., 1995). It covers the soil
may cause inhibition of weeds significantly. If dust mulch is created when there is no vegetation. If mulching is done on fallow land it
by shallow cultivation followed by dry period then crop seed (corn may suppress different weeds by impeding light and air. Different
and vegetables) can be sown in weed free soil. It may improve the types of organic mulches like straw mulch, hay mulch, municipal
crop establishment and suppress weeds without supplemental waste mulch, manure mulch and chip board mulch can control
irrigation. Row crop cultivation is also a good approach to weeds effectively (Makus et al., 1994; Campiglia et al., 2009).
108 A.A. Bajwa / Crop Protection 65 (2014) 105e113

Table 2
Effect of tillage systems on weeds density and biomass.

Tillage system Weed density (m2) Fresh wt. Dry wt.

(kg m2) (kg m2)
Annual Perennial All weeds

Chenopodium album Echinochloa colonum Cucumis prophetarum Cynodon dactylon Cyperus rotundus

No till 17 62 ab 18 86 a 117 a 300 a 1.37 a 0.27 b

Reduced till 17 83 a 9 33 b 69 b 211 b 0.97 b 0.22 b
Deep till 20 44 b 6 35 b 101 ab 206 b 0.84 b 0.21 b

Source: Arif et al. (2007).

Thicker and green organic mulches with more biomass gave better 3.5. Chemical weed control
weed control. Cover crops harvested and left in the field on the
surface may provide the best green mulch having a significant It is the most adopted and perhaps the most effective approach
control over certain weeds (Lanini et al., 1989; Creamer et al., 1995). to control weeds all over the world. The chemicals used to kill,
Thick organic mulches cause problems in direct seeded crops but weaken or suppress the weeds are called herbicides. They act to kill
gave good results for transplanted ones (Lanini et al., 1989). How- the weed plants by blocking different physiological functions which
ever, there are special types of row cleaners available for CA that are a must for plant growth. A variety of herbicides are available
clear the rows of residue and improve the herbicide action through depending upon their mode of action, chemical composition,
proper penetration. Weed emergence is greatly affected by physical formulation, selectiveness and efficacy. Most commonly used burn
properties of mulches (Teasdale and Mohler, 2000). Different ce- down herbicides are glyphosate, paraquat, glufosinate, 2,4-D and
reals, vetches, clovers and legumes have been used to obtain such dicamba. The dose and time of application is decided according to
organic green mulches (Abdul-Baki and Teasdale, 1993). So, the use vegetation cover present in the field (Vargas and Wright, 2005). In
of mulching, residues incorporation and cover crops is a pragmatic conventional tillage systems there are no crop residues when pre-
approach for weed control in CA. emergence herbicides are applied but in the case of CA there are
residues on the surface and may cause interference in herbicidal
3.4. Biological weed control activity and reduce their effectiveness (Hartzler and Owen, 1997).
Herbicides are applied when annual weeds are young and most
According to Weed Science Society of America biological control affected by chemicals. Post emergence herbicides are not influ-
of weeds is broadly defined as “the use of an agent, a complex of enced by tillage practices. Herbicide application rates are typically
agents, or biological processes to bring about weed suppression. All the same for both conventional and CA. Although, there might be a
forms of macrobial and microbial organisms are considered as little effect on their effectiveness and contact due to residues still
biological control agents.” (http://wssa.net/weed/biological- not decomposed. This would probably only be an issue for very
control/). Weed control through living organisms is an effective early post applications or if residue is left standing in the field.
weed management practice. A large number of predators, patho- Otherwise, the crop should be above the cover crop residue. The
gens and other plant competitors of weeds are exploited to kill or most devastating effect of chemical herbicides is environmental
suppress the weeds. A specific combination of organisms may degradation. Most of the herbicides being used partially or solely in
control weeds very effectively in any crop. Remarkable work has conservation systems have substantial persistence in soil (Table 5)
been done to explore this environmentally-friendly, safe and that cause contamination of underground water as well as degra-
economical approach for weed control; biological weed control is a dation of microorganisms in rhizosphere (Derksen et al., 1996).
successful option for integration with other techniques in a CA However, a CA farmer must wait a bit longer to apply post
(Watson, 1991; Müller-Scha €rer et al., 2000). Charudattan (2001) emergence herbicides as the crop establishment is not uniform
reviewed the importance and effectiveness of many plant patho- sometime due to suppressive effects of cover crops or heavy resi-
gens as bio control agents for noxious weeds. There are several dues of previous crop and weed emergence pattern is also different.
potential bio-agents serving as a source for bioherbicides and thus
facilitating eco-friendly weed control (Table 4). We emphasize its 3.5.1. Herbicide resistance in weeds and herbicide tolerant crops
importance as part of integrated weed management due to its long- Continuous and frequent use of same herbicides induces resis-
term benefits. Bioherbicides have no residual effects in soil or tance in weeds against those herbicides occasionally or perma-
environment and crop plants are also free from their influence. nently depending upon cultural practices and environmental
Specific weeds can easily be controlled by applying specific conditions (Chaudhry, 2008). The resistant biotype is already there,
bioherbicides. In short, it is an effective method of weed control the continued use of a specific herbicide just selects for the resis-
under any agricultural system and suitable for CA. tant biotype (Farooq et al., 2011b). The development of such

Table 3
Effect of crop rotations on seed bank and dry matter of Phalaris minor.

Rotation No. of seeds/m2 Seed loss (%) Seed bank (Seeds/100 g soil) Weed dry Other details
matter (kg/ha)
Before sowing After harvest 0e7.5 cm depth 7.5e15 cm depth

Rice-Wheat (Herbicide) 7.8 1.8 77.0 3.5 1.4 200 Site: Punjab India
Rice-Wheat (Control) 8.0 10.3 22.4* (gain) 0.35 0.15 4550 Soil: Clay loam
Rice-Potato-Sunflower 0.3 0 100 0 0 0
Rice-Potato-Wheat 0.5 0 100 0 0 0
Rice-Barseem 0.3 0 100 0 0 0
Rice-Ghobi sarson 0.8 0.5 37.5 0.25 0 13

The value preceding asterisk is showing a gain. After Brar (2002).

 A.A. Bajwa / Crop Protection 65 (2014) 105e113 109

Table 4
Potential bioherbicides for weed management.

Bioherbicide Source organism Weed controlled Target area References

BioChon Chondrostereum purpureum Wild cherry (Prunus serotina) Forests Charudattan (2001),
BioMal or Mallet WP Colletotrichum gloeoporioides Round-leaved mallow (Malva pusilla) e Singh et al. (2003)
Camperico Xanthomonas campestris Kentucky bluegrass, Korean velvet grass Truf grasses
(Zoysia tenuifolia)
Collego Colletotrichum gloeosporioides Jointvetch (Aeschynomene virginica) Rice and soybean crops
De Vine Phytophthora palmivora Strangler vine (Morrenia odorata) Citrus orchards
Dr. Biosedge Puccinia canaliculata Yellow nutsedge (Cyperus iria) Rice
Hakatak Colletotrichum gloeosporioides Silky needlbush (Hakea sericea)
Stump Out Cylindrobasium leave Trees

Further research is required to develop herbicides with novel

Table 5
Persistence of chemical herbicides used in CA. modes of action and improvement of resistance mechanisms of HT
crops employing molecular genetics and biotechnology.
Herbicide Type Commonly used Half life
dose (g/ha) (Weeks)

Alachlor Selective 1700e4000 4e5 3.6. Use of allelopathy

Atrazine Selective, also used 1500e4500 10e50
as non-selective Allelopathy is a natural, ecological phenomenon in which
Bromoxynil Selective 280e450 1e2
different organisms affect the functioning of other organisms in
2,4-D Selective 280e1000 1e4
Dicamba Selective 100e400 2e6 their vicinity, negatively or positively by releasing secondary me-
Glyphosate Non-selective 250e1000 4e8 tabolites (Farooq et al., 2011c). Use of this phenomenon is
Paraquat Non-selective 560e840 50 increasing in weed management. It is a suitable substitute for
Modified from Derksen et al. (1996). synthetic herbicides since allelochemicals do not have residual or
toxic effects (Bhadoria, 2011). Allelopathy has a vital role to play in
future agriculture as it can be used to control weeds without
damaging the natural global beauty of any ecosystem. Moreover, it
resistant weeds may be due to genetic mutations and adaptive
offers the management of insect pests and diseases of plants
mechanisms. Whatever the mode of resistance, this induced
causing a certain increase in production levels of major crops
resistance is problematic for the farming community especially in
(Bajwa et al., 2013; Farooq et al., 2013). Allelopathic chemicals have
CA where there is a dependence on chemical herbicides. Intro-
the potential use as bioherbicides and pesticides (Khalid et al.,
duction of herbicide resistant (HR) weeds after the development of
2002). Allelopathy can be used by introducing crops with allelo-
herbicide tolerant (HT) crops have become a serious problem.
pathic potential in rotation, using cover crops, spraying plant water
Tolerant crops to glyphosate (Roundup Ready) (Givens et al., 2009),
extracts alone, mixed and in combination with herbicides to control
glufosinate, bromoxynil, imidazolinone (Gealy et al., 2003) and
weeds (Table 7).
dicamba (Behrens et al., 2007) have been developed. Introduction
There is a wide range of crops and weeds producing allelopathic
followed by quick and large scale adoption of HT crops like cotton,
chemicals that have the potential to control weeds effectively.
maize, canola, rice, sugarbeet, alfalfa (James, 2010), brassica and
Research is being conducted on different plants, bacteria and other
soybean (Gealy et al., 2003) has revolutionized the CA in developed
microorganisms to determine more effective chemicals with alle-
countries like USA (Givens et al., 2009) and Australia (Owen et al.,
lopathic potential. Work on the screening of species having more
2007). No doubt, HT crops are playing a remarkable role in CA
allelopathic potential is also under progress. It is a bright and viable
with weed management becoming easier but a serious problem is
option for sustainable weed management under CA.
the leakage of resistance genetic traits from crops to associated
weeds (Owen and Zelaya, 2004) however, the appearance of HR
weed species from overuse of specific herbicides is most likely 3.7. Crop nutrition
more of an issue. In this regard, judicious use of herbicides is
required. Efforts are being done to develop HT crops having resis- Nutrition is a very important aspect in any cropping system and
tance to multiple herbicides. Hence, the use of alternative and new its importance in CA is even more apparent. Fertilizer use has
herbicides with different chemical structures and modes of action definite influence on weed emergence, weed persistence, weed
is a pragmatic option (Green, 2011). This approach has given superb dormancy, weed dynamics, weed growth and weed dispersion at-
results in direct seeded rice all over the world (Table 6). tributes. It is necessary to study such interactions in depth to

Table 6
Alternative herbicides for herbicide resistant weeds in direct seeded rice.

Alternative herbicide Replaced herbicide Weeds controlled Origin Reference

Quinclorac Propanil Echinochloa crusgalli, Echinochloa colona Sri Lanka, Costa Rica Valverde et al. (2001),
Marambe and Amarasinghe (2002),
Imazethapyr Propanil Echinochloa crusgalli, Urochloa platyphylla USA Scherder et al. (2001)
Bispyribac-sodium Thiobencarb, Monilate Echinochloa crusgalli, Echinochloa phyllopogon USA De Witt et al. (2002)
Benzofenap Benzosufuron Australia Pratley et al. (2004)
Bentazon 2,4-D Malaysia Azmi (2003)
Butachlor Sulfonylurea South Korea Kim and Ha (2005)

Extracted from Rao et al. (2007).

110 A.A. Bajwa / Crop Protection 65 (2014) 105e113

Table 7
Allelopathy for weed management.

Allelopathic crop Mode of application Crops benefited Weeds controlled References

Sorghum Water extracts spray Wheat, Cotton, Chenopodium album, Convolvulus arvensis, Cheema and Khaliq (2000),
Mungbean, Rice Cyperus rotundus, Cyperus iria, Cynodon Cheema et al. (2002),
dactylon, Echinocloa colonum, Wazir et al. (2011)
Fumaria indica, Phalaris minor, Rumex
dentates, Trianthema portulacastrum
Sorghum, sunflower Mixture with water extracts Wheat, Sunflower, Chenopodium album, Coronopus didymus, Cheema et al. (2002),
and Brassica and mixture of water Cotton, Canola, Rice Cyperus rotundus, Cyperus iria, Jabran et al. (2008),
extract þ herbicide (1/2 dose) Dactyloctenum aegyptium, Echinocloa Awan et al. (2009),
crusgalli, Melilotus parviflora, Melitotus Iqbal et al. (2009)
indica, Phalaris minor, Trianthema
portulacastrum
Sorghum, sunflower, Soil mixing and mulching Wheat, Cotton, Chenopodium album, Convolvulus arvensis, Cheema and Khaliq (2000),
Brassica and rice Maize Cyperus rotundus, Cynodon dactylon, Khaliq et al. (2010)
Phalaris minor, Trianthema portulacastrum
Sorghum Intercropping Cotton Convolvulus arvensis, Trianthema Iqbal et al. (2007)
portulacastrum
Rye Cover crop e Amaranthus spp., Portulaca oleracea Nagabhushana et al. (2001)

develop safe and pragmatic approaches for weed management in and techniques of weed control (Pannell, 1990; Swanton and Weise,
sustainable agriculture. CA resulted in improved fertilizer efficiency 1991; Buhler et al., 2000). Continuous use of herbicides has led to
(10e15%) in the rice-wheat system, mainly a result of better herbicide resistance in weed species. One of the major issues fa-
placement of fertilizer with the seed drill as opposed to broad- voring the adoption of IWM is the weed management by control-
casting with the traditional system (Hobbs et al., 2008). Proper ling biotypes of weeds (Powles and Matthews, 1991; Moss, 1997).
management of crop nutrients assures sustainable weed manage- Recently, integrated weed management has been employed for
ment through provision of suitable inputs for crop functioning. It weed management and reported as a sustainable approach that
promotes a healthy competition in which participation of plants is controls weeds without reducing crop yield (Swanton and Weise,
strong and thus better growth habits are developed. 1991). As declining crop prices, high input cost and environ-
Weeds show a variety of responses to different fertilizers under mental concerns laid great importance in adopting integrated weed
different tillage systems depending upon rate and method of management. In addition, herbicide resistance, persistent weed
application (Evans et al., 2003; Blackshaw and Brandt, 2008; seed banks are further pushing agricultural researchers to investi-
Lindsey et al., 2013). Sensitivity of weeds to fertilization depends gate integrated approach for weed management (Beckie et al.,
on their responding ability in terms of weed growth and nitrogen 2001). IWM involves integration of numerous practices, right
assimilation. Nutrient availability influences weed crop competi- from sowing method to chemical control. It is believed that design
tion (Evans et al., 2003), however, the response varies with weed of cropping systems and practices like crop rotation, cover crops
species type, crop type and nutrient status of soil. Weaver et al. might be effective approaches in managing weed control.
(1992) reported nutrient availability as one of dynamic ap- In CA, problem of weeds can be controlled by both manual
proaches that can influence duration and extent of competition. weeding and/or by the use of herbicide. However, labor is becoming
Moreover, environmental factors influencing the efficacy and effi- expensive and is rarely available at the critical time of weeding. To
ciency of fertilizers affect weed dynamics and distribution. control weeds herbicides are being extensively used in CA, but
Sweeney et al. (2008) studied the effect of N on weed emergence there is not a single herbicide that can apply for several types of
and growth parameters. Results have shown that N influenced the weeds present in agricultural fields. Hence, management of weeds
germination, emergence and competitiveness of different weeds. by using integrated weed management techniques is highly desir-
These parameters may increase or decrease depending on soil type able to enhance sustainability of CA.
and climatic conditions. These may consist of using crop residues as mulching, adjusting
In short, CA provides a different environment for weed germi- crop sowing time, using stale seedbed technique, selecting weed
nation, emergence, growth and competition by altering physical competitive cultivars, high seeding rates, narrow row spacing,
and chemical properties of soil. So, variation in fertilizer doses, proper and judicious use of herbicides, use of preventive measures
application methods and types are needed in accordance with and following recommended crop rotation as shown in Fig. 1
weed responses in such systems. In the future, fertilizer-weed in- (Chauhan and Mahajan, 2012). In conventional tillage systems
teractions in different tillage systems should be focused for scien- weed control depends on herbicide use and tillage practices but
tific experimentation to explore specific weed responses, weed- under the CA, weed management relies on agronomic practices, use
crop competition periods and adaptations to devise new, precise of herbicides and no or limited tillage in minimum till systems
and pragmatic weed management tools for better crop pro- (Davis et al., 2005; Lafond et al., 2009). Usually it is reported there is
ductions, food security and food safety. less labor required for the land preparation but under the CA where
no weedicides are used there is more weed problem and need more
3.8. Integrated weed management labor force for weeding (Baudron et al., 2012). Sustainability of CA
systems retain by integrating different strategies of weed man-
Integrated weed management (IWM) focus on keeping weed agement. By applying integrated management practices herbicide
populations below a certain threshold level by optimizing the use is also remains profitable and environment friendly over a long
control measures in an organized way. Adoption of herbicides at period of time. A substantial number of people are adopting IWM
larger scale has affected the environment significantly. Societies are globally (Fig. 2).
now realizing the concerns over environmental safety and natural In crux, weed management is a multi-dimensional regime and
stability and thus working on plans based upon alternative tools cannot be achieved by focusing on a single approach.
 A.A. Bajwa / Crop Protection 65 (2014) 105e113 111

Acknowledgment

Author acknowledges the financial support from Higher Edu-

cation Commission (HEC) Pakistan.

References

Abdul-Baki, A.A., Teasdale, J.R., 1993. A no-tillage tomato production system using
hairy vetch and subterranean clover mulches. Hort. Sci. 28, 106e108.
Arif, M., Munsif, F., Waqas, M., Khalil, I.A., Ali, K., 2007. Effect of tillage on weeds and
economics of fodder maize production. Pak. J. Weed. Sci. Res. 13, 167e175.
Awan, I.U., Khan, M.A., Zareef, M., Khan, E.A., 2009. Weed management in sunflower
with allelopathic water extracts and reduced doses of a herbicide. Pak. J. Weed.
Sci. Res. 15, 19e30.
Azmi, M., 2003. Control of resistant biotype of Limnocharis flava in direct seeded
rice. In: 6th International Conference on Plant Protection in the Tropics, p. 52.
August 11e14, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
Bajwa, A.A., Khalid, S., Sadia, S., Nabeel, M., Nafees, W., 2013. Influence of combi-
nations of allelopathic water extracts of different plants on wheat and wild oat.
Pak. J. Weed Sci. Res. 19, 157e166.
Ball, D.A., 1992. Weed seed bank response to tillage, herbicide, and crop rotation
sequence. Weed Sci. 40, 654e659.
Baudron, F., Andersson, J.A., Corbeels, M., Giller, K.E., 2012. Failing to Yield? Ploughs,
Figure 1. Components of integrated weed management in conservation agriculture.
conservation agriculture and the problem of agricultural intensification: an
example from the Zambezi Valley. J. Dev. Stud. 48, 393e412.
Beckie, H.J., Hall, L.M., Tardif, F.J., 2001. Herbicide resistance in Canada-where are we
Comprehensive integration of multiple techniques and modified today? In: Blackshaw, R.E., Hall, L.M. (Eds.), Integrated Weed Management:
tools is necessary to sustain system productivity. It offers long term Explore the Potential. Expert Committee on Weeds, Sainte-Anne-de-Bellevue,
Quebec H9  3R9, Canada, pp. 1e36.
management, system sustainability, food security and environ- Behrens, M.R., Mutlu, N., Chakraborty, S., Dumitru, R., Jiang, W.Z., Lavallee, B.J.,
mental safety. So, the integration of weed management options is Herman, P.L., Clemente, T.E., Weeks, D.P., 2007. Dicamba resistance: enlarging
promising in CA. and reserving biotechnology-based weed management strategies. Science 316,
1185e1188.
Bhadoria, P.B.S., 2011. Allelopathy: a natural way towards weed management. Am. J.
4. Conclusion and future scenario Exp. Agric. 1, 7e20.
Blackshaw, R.E., Brandt, R.N., 2008. Nitrogen fertilizer rate effects on Weed
competitiveness is species dependent. Weed Sci. 56, 743e747.
Modern agriculture is dependent on sustainable food produc- Blackshaw, R.E., Larney, F.J., Lindwall, C.W., Watson, P.R., Derksen, D.A., 2001. Tillage
tion regimes and CA is the best system ensuring sustainability and intensity and crop rotation affect weed community dynamics in a winter wheat
environmental safety simultaneously. Its adoption is increasing but cropping System. Can. J. Plant Sci. 81, 805e813.
Bolliger, A., Magid, J., Amado, T.J.C., Neto, F.S., Ribeiro, M.D.D., Calegari, A., Ralisch, R.,
weed control is a major challenge. Multiple approaches have been
de Neergaard, A., 2006. Taking stock of the Brazilian ‘‘zero-till revolution’’: a
developed to manage weeds but changing attributes under CA review of landmark research and farmers' practice. Adv. Agron. 91, 47e110.
make things complex. Weed infestation, distribution, diversity, Brar, L.S., 2002. Current status of herbicide resistance in Punjab and its management
growing patterns and resistance levels have been changed under strategies. In: Proc, International Workshop on Herbicide Resistance Manage-
ment and Zero Tillage in RiceeWheat Cropping System, pp. 6e10.
CA. integration of cultural, mechanical, biological, ecological and Buhler, D., Liebman, M., Obrycki, J., 2000. Theoretical and practical challenges to an
chemical weed control methods, is judicious under CA. Research IPM approach to weed management. Weed Sci. 48, 274e280.
work is required to link the changing attributes of weeds and Buhler, D.D., Stoltenberg, D.E., Becker, R.L., Gunsolus, J.L., 1994. Perennial weed
populations after 14 years of variable tillage and cropping practices. Weed Sci.
management options. Allelopathy, crop nutrition and biological 42, 205e209.
weed control may be the effective modern weed management tools Bullied, W.J., Marginet, A.M., Van Acker, R.C., 2003. Conventional- and conservation-
for CA. However, integration of existing strategies and development tillage systems influence emergence periodicity of annual weed species in
canola. Weed Sci. 51, 886e897.
of new techniques is required. Weed management tools must be Campiglia, E., Paolini, R., Colla, G., Mancinelli, R., 2009. The effects of cover cropping
combined keeping ecological, geographic, climatic and agronomic on yield and weed control of potato in a transitional system. Field Crops Res.
aspects of a cropping system in mind. Sincere and devoted en- 112, 16e23.
Carter, M., 1994. Strategies to overcome impediments to adoption of conservation
deavors should be embarked upon to resolve this conundrum. In tillage. In: Carter, M.R. (Ed.), Conservation Tillage in Temperate Agroecosystems.
the long run, it will sustain the productivity of CA and, thus, global Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton, pp. 3e19.
food security. Charudattan, R., 2001. Biological control of weeds by means of plant pathogens:
significance for integrated weed management in modern agro-ecology.
Biocontrol 46, 229e260.
Chaudhry, O., 2008. Herbicide-resistance and Weed-Resistance Management. Al-
bert Campbell Collegiate Institute, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.
Chauhan, B.S., Mahajan, G., 2012. Role of integrated weed management strategies in
sustaining conservation agriculture systems. Curr. Sci. 103, 135e136.
Chauhan, B.S., Gill, G.S., Preston, C., 2006a. Influence of tillage systems on vertical
distribution, seedling recruitment and persistence of rigid ryegrass (Lolium
rigidum). Weed Sci. 54, 669e676.
Chauhan, B.S., Gill, G.S., Preston, C., 2006b. Tillage systems affect trifluralin
bioavailability in soil. Weed Sci. 54, 941e947.
Chauhan, B.S., Gill, G.S., Preston, C., 2007. Effect of seeding systems and dini-
troaniline herbicides on emergence and control of rigid ryegrass (Lolium rig-
idum) in wheat. Weed Technol. 21, 53e58.
Cheema, Z.A., Khaliq, A., 2000. Use of sorghum allelopathic properties to control
weeds in irrigated wheat in semi-arid region of Punjab. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ.
79, 105e112.
Cheema, Z.A., Khaliq, A., Tariq, M., 2002. Evaluation of concentrated sorghum water
extract alone and in combination with reduced rates of three pre-emergence
herbicides for weed control in cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.). Int. J. Agric.
Figure 2. Adoption of Integrated weed management Source: Llewellyn et al. (2004). Biol. 4, 549e552.
112 A.A. Bajwa / Crop Protection 65 (2014) 105e113

Clements, D.R., Benoit, D.L., Murphy, S.D., Swanton, C.J., 1996. Tillage effects on weed Caseley, J.C., Parker, C. (Eds.), Plant Production and Protection Paper No. 120,
seed return and seed bank composition. Weed Sci. 44, 314e322. FAO, pp. 3e8. Rome.
Creamer, N.G., Plassman, B., Bennett, M.A., Wood, R.K., Stinner, B.R., Cardina, J., 1995. Lafond, G.P., McConkey, B.G., Stumborg, M., 2009. Conservation tillage models for
A method for mechanically killing cover crops to optimize weed suppression. small-scale farming: linking the Canadian experience to the small farms of
Am. J. Alt. Agric. 10, 157e162. inner Mongolia autonomous region in China. Soil Till. Res. 104, 150e155.
Curran, W.S., Lingenfelter, D.D., Garling, L., 1996. Weed management in Conserva- Lal, R., 2000. Soil management in the developing countries. Soil Sci. 165, 57e72.
tion Tillage. In: Conservation Tillage Fact Sheet Series. Penn State College of Lal, R., 2001. Managing world soils for food security and environmental quality. Adv.
Agric. Sci., Univ. Park, PA. Agron. 74, 55e192.
Cussans, G.W., 1976. The influence of changing husbandry on weeds and weed Lanini, W.T., Pittenger, D.R., Graves, W.L., Munoz, F., Agamalian, H.S., 1989. Subc-
control in arable crops. In: Proc. Brit. Crop Prot. Conf. Weeds, Brighton, UK, lovers as living mulches for managing weeds in Vegetables. Calif. Agric. 43,
pp. 1001e1008. 25e27.
Davis, A., Renner, K., Sprague, C., Dyer, L., Mutch, D., 2005. Integrated Weed Man- Lindsey, L.E., Darryl, D., Warncke, K.S., Wesley, J.E., 2013. Fertilizer and population
agement: One Year's Seeding. East Lansing: Michigan State University. Exten- affects nitrogen assimilation of common lambsquarters (Chenopodium album)
sion Bulletin. E-2931. and redroot pigweed (Amaranthus retroflexus). Weed Sci. 61, 131e135.
De Witt, T.C., Vickery, C., Heier, J., 2002. Control of herbicide resistant watergrass in Llewellyn, R.S., Lindner, R.K., Pannell, D.J., Powles, S.B., 2004. Grain grower per-
northern California rice with bispyribac sodium 80 WP herbicide. In: Hill, J.E., ceptions and use of integrated weed management. Anim. Prod. Sci. 44,
Hardy, B. (Eds.), Second Temperate Rice Conference. International Rice Research 993e1001.
Institute, Los Banos, Philippines, pp. 638e639. Lyon, D., Bruce, S., Vyn, T., Peterson, G., 2004. Achievements and future challenges
Derksen, D.A., Blackshaw, R.E., Boyetchko, S.M., 1996. Sustainability, conservation in conservation tillage. In: Proceedings of the 4th International Crop Science
tillage and weeds in Canada. Can. J. Plant Sci. 76, 651e659. Congress, 26 Sepe1 Oct, Brisbane, Australia.
Derpsch, R., 2003. Conservation tillage, no-tillage and related technologies. Conserv. Makus, D.J., Tiwari, S.C., Pearson, H.A., Haywood, J.D., Tiarks, A.E., 1994. Okra pro-
Agric. Environ. Farm. Exp. Innov. Socio-Econ. Policy, 181e190. duction with pine straw mulch. Agrofor. Syst. 27, 121e127.
Edwards, W., Smith, D., 2005. Iowa Custom Farm Rate Survey. Ames: Iowa State Marambe, B., Amarasinghe, L., 2002. Propanil resistant barnyardgrass (Echinochloa
University. crusgalli (L.) Beauv.) in Sri Lanka: seedling growth under diVerent temperatures
Evans, S.P., Knezevic, S.Z., Shapiro, C., Lindquist, J.L., 2003. Nitrogen level affects and control. Weed Biol. Manag. 2, 194e199.
critical period for weed control in corn. Weed Sci. 51, 408e417. Montgomery, D.R., 2007. Soil erosion and agricultural sustainability. Proc. Natl.
FAO, 2001. Summary, Conservation Agriculture, Matching Production with Sus- Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 104, 13268e13272.
taiablility. Available at: http://www.fao.org/ag/ags/agse/agse e/general/OBJECT. Moss, S., 1997. Strategies for the prevention and control of herbicide resistance in
htm. last checked on 03.04.13. annual grass weeds. In: DePrado, R., Jorrin, J., Garcia-Torres, L. (Eds.), Weed and
Farooq, M., Bajwa, A.A., Cheema, S.A., Cheema, Z.A., 2013. Application of allelopathy Crop Resistance to Herbicides. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, The
in crop production. Int. J. Agric. Biol. 15, 1367e1378. Netherlands, pp. 283e290.
Farooq, M., Flower, K.C., Jabran, K., Wahid, A., Siddique, K.H.M., 2011b. Crop yield Müller-Sch€ arer, H., Scheepens, P.C., Greaves, M.P., 2000. Biological control of weeds
and weed management in rainfed conservation agriculture. Soil Till. Res. 117, in European crops: recent achievements and future work. Weed Res. 40, 83e98.
172e183. Nagabhushana, G.G., Worsham, A.D., Yenish, J.P., 2001. Allelopathic cover crops to
Farooq, M., Jabran, K., Cheema, Z.A., Wahid, A., Siddique, K.H.M., 2011c. The role of reduce herbicide use in sustainable agricultural systems. Allelopath. J. 8,
allelopathy in agricultural pest management. Pest Manag. Sci. 67, 493e506. 133e146.
Farooq, M., Siddique, K.H.M., Rehman, H., Aziz, T., Lee, D.J., Wahid, A., 2011a. Rice Nazir, S., 1994. Crop Production, first ed. National book foundation, Islamabad.
direct seeding: challenges and opportunities. Soil Till. Res. 111, 87e98. Owen, M.D.K., Zelaya, I., 2004. Herbicide-resistant crops and weed resistance to
Fowler, R., Rockstrom, J., 2001. Conservation tillage for sustainable agriculture-an herbicides. Pest Manag. Sci. 61, 301e311.
agrarian revolution gathers momentum in Africa. Soil Till. Res. 61, 93e107. Owen, M.J., Walsh, M.J., Llewellyn, R.S., Powles, R.S., 2007. Wide spread occurrence
Gealy, D.R., Mitten, D.H., Rutger, J.N., 2003. Gene flow between red rice (Oryza sativa of multiple herbicide resistance in Western Australian annual ryegrass (Lolium
L.) and herbicide-resistant rice (Oryza sativa): implications for weed manage- rigidum) populations. Aust. J. Agric. Res. 58, 711e718.
ment. Weed Technol. 17, 627e645. Owens, H., 2001. Tillage: From Plow to Chisel and no-tillage.1930e1999. Midwest
Giller, K.E., Witter, E., Corbllels, M., Tittonell, P., 2009. Conservation agriculture and Plan Service. Ames: Iowa State University.
smallholder farming in Africa: the heritics view. Field Crops Res. 114, 23e34. Pannell, D.J., 1990. Responses to risk in weed control decisions under expected
Givens, W.A., Shaw, D.R., Kruger, G.R., Johnson, W.G., Weller, S.C., Young, B.G., profit maximization. J. Agric. Econ. 41, 391e404.
Wilson, R.G., Owen, M.D.K., Jordan, D., 2009. Survey of tillage trends following Phillips, S.H., Young, H.J., 1973. No-tillage Farming. Reiman Associates, Milwaukee.
the adoption of glyphosate-resistant crops. Weed Technol. 23, 150e155. Pollard, F.S., Moss, R., Cussans, G.W., Froud-Williams, R.J., 1982. The influence of
Green, J.M., 2011. Outlook on weed management in herbicide-resistant crops: need tillage on the weed flora in a succession of winter wheat crops on a clay loam
for diversification. Outlooks Pest Manag. 22, 100e104. soil and silt loam soil. Weed Res. 22, 129e136.
Hartzler, R.G., Owen, M.D., 1997. Weed Management in Conservation Tillage Sys- Powles, S., Matthews, J., 1991. Multiple herbicide resistance in annual ryegrass: a
tems. Ames: Iowa State University, University Extension. driving force for the adoption of integrated weed management. In: Denholm, I.,
Hillel, D., 1991. Out of the Earth: Civilization and the Life of the Soil. Free Press, New Devonshire, A., Hollomon, D. (Eds.), Resistance 91: Achievements and De-
York, NY. velopments in Combating Pesticide Resistance. Elsevier, London, pp. 75e87.
Hillel, D., 1998. Environmental Soil Physics. Academic Press, San Diego, CA. Pratley, J.E., Flower, R., Heylin, E., Sivapalan, S., 2004. Integrated Weed Management
Hobbs, P.R., 2007. Conservation agriculture: what is it and why is it important for Strategies for the Rice Weeds Cyperus Diformis and Alisma Plantago Aquatica.
future sustainable food production? J. Agric. Sci. 145, 127e137. RIRDC Publication No. 04/008. RIRDC Project No. UCS 20A. Rural Industries
Hobbs, P.R., Sayre, K., Gupta, R., 2008. The role of conservation agriculture in sus- Research and Development Corporation, Australia.
tainable agriculture. Proc. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. B. Biol. Sci. 363, 543e555. Rao, A.N., Johnson, D.E., Sivaprasad, B., Ladha, J.K., Mortimer, A.M., 2007. Weed
Holland, J.M., 2004. The environmental consequences of adopting conservation management in direct-seeded rice. Adv. Agron. 93, 153e255.
tillage in Europe: reviewing the evidence. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 103, 1e25. Reicosky, D.C., Allmaras, R.R., 2003. Advances in tillage research in North American
Iqbal, J., Cheema, Z.A., An, M., 2007. Intercropping of field crops in cotton for the cropping systems. J. Crop Prod. 8, 75e125.
management of purple nutsedge (Cyperus rotundus L.). Plant Soil 300, 163e171. Scherder, E.F., Talbert, R.E., Lovelace, M.L., Buehring, N.W., 2001. Weed control
Iqbal, J., Cheema, Z.A., Mushtaq, M.N., 2009. Allelopathic crop water extracts reduce programs in herbicide tolerant rice. Proc. South Weed Sci. Soc. 54, 39e40.
the herbicide dose for weed control in cotton (Gossypium hirsutum). Int. J. Agric. Sherestha, A., Lanini, T., Wright, S., Vargas, R., Mitchle, J., 2006. Publication 8200
Biol. 11, 360e366. available on the ANR communication services (online). Available at: http://
Jabran, K., Cheema, Z.A., Farooq, M., Basra, S.M.A., Hussain, M., Rehman, H., 2008. anrcatalog.ucdavis,edu. last checked on 07.05.13.
Tank mixing of allelopathic crop water extracts with pendimethalin helps in the Shrestha, A., Vargas, R., Mitchell, J., Cordova, D., 2003. Initial experiences in tran-
management of weeds in canola (Brassica napus) field. Int. J. Agric. Biol. 10, sition from conventional to conservation tillage: a farming systems perspective.
293e296. In: Proc. Conservation Tillage: the California Experience. Oct. 7e9, Tulare, Five
James, C., 2010. Global status of commercialized Biotech/GM crops. In: The Inter- Points, Davis, California.
national Service for the Acquisition of Agri-biotech Applications Brief No. 42. Singh, H.P., Batish, D.R., Kohli, R.K., 2003. Allelopathic interactions and alle-
ISAAA, Ithaca, NY. lochemicals: new possibilities for sustainable Weed management. Crit. Rev.
Khalid, S., Ahmad, T., Shad, R.A., 2002. Use of allelopathy in agriculture. Asian J. Plant Sci. 22, 239e311.
Plant Sci. 1, 292e297. Sosnoskie, L.M., Herms, N.P., Cardina, J., 2006. Weed seed bank community
Khaliq, A., Matloob, A., Irshad, M.S., Tanveer, A., Zamir, M.S.I., 2010. Organic weed composition in a 35-yr-old tillage and rotation experiment. Weed Sci. 54,
management in maize (Zea mays L.) through integration of allelopathic crop 263e273.
residues. Pak. J. Weed Sci. Res. 16, 409e420. Swanton, C.J., Weise, S.F., 1991. Integrated weed management: the rationale and
Kim, S.C., Ha, W.G., 2005. Direct seeding and weed management in Korea. In: approach. Weed Technol. 5, 657e663.
Toriyama, K., Heong, K.L., Hardy, B. (Eds.), Rice is Life: Scientific Perspectives for Sweeney, A.E., Renner, K.A., Laboski, C., Davis, A., 2008. Effect of fertilizer nitrogen
the 21st Century. International Rice Research Institute, Los Banos, Philippines, on weed emergence and growth. Weed Sci. 56, 714e721.
and Japan International Research Center for Agricultural Sciences (Tsukuba, Teasdale, J.R., Mohler, C.L., 2000. The quantitative relationship between weed
Japan. CD). emergence and the physical properties of mulches. Weed Sci. 48, 385e392.
Labrada, R., Parker, C., 1994. Weed control in the context of integrated pest man- Triplett, G.B., Warren, A.D., 2008. No-tillage crop production: a revolution in agri-
agement, weed management for developing countries. In: Labrada, R., culture. Agron. J. 100, 151e165.
 A.A. Bajwa / Crop Protection 65 (2014) 105e113 113

Valverde, B.E., Chaves, L., Garita, I., Ramfirez, F., Vargas, E., Carmiol, J., Riches, C.R., Wazir, I., Sadiq, M., Baloch, M.S., Awan, I.U., Khan, E.A., Shah, I.H., Nadim, M.A.,
Caseley, J.C., 2001. Modified herbicide regimes for propanil resistant jungle Khakwani, A.A., Bakhsh, I., 2011. Application of bio-herbicide alternatives for
grass control in rainfed rice. Weed Sci. 49, 395e405. chemical weed control in rice. Pak. J. Weed Sci. Res. 17, 245e252.
Vargas, R.N., Wright, S.D., 2005. UC IPM Pest Management Guidelines: Cotton. Weaver, S.E., Kropff, M.J., Groeneveld, R.M.W., 1992. Use of ecophysiological models
Statewide IPM Program. Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Uni- for crop-weed interference: the critical period of weed interference. Weed Sci.
versity of California Publication 3444, Oakland. 40, 302e307.
Wallace, R.W., Bellinder, R.R., 1992. Alternative tillage and herbicide options for Wrucke, M.A., Arnold, W.E., 1985. Weed species distribution as influenced by tillage
successful weed control in vegetables. Hort. Sci. 27, 745e749. and herbicides. Weed Sci. 33, 853e856.
Watson, A.K., 1991. The classical approach with plant pathogens. In: TeBeest, D.O.
(Ed.), Microbial Control of Weeds. Chapman and Hall, New York, pp. 3e23.