Handouts CS10 Chapter 4

Republic of the Philippines
STO. TOMAS COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE, SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY

Cadena Street, Feeder road. #4, Brgy. Tibal-Og, Santo Tomas, Davao del Norte
Lesson IV. Agricultural Productivity The development of sustainable agricultural

practices depends largely on promoting long
Productivity measures the quantity of output
term fertility and productivity of soil at
produced with a given quantity of inputs. Long term
productivity growth reflects improvements in farmers’
economically viable levels through, for
production efficiency and technological progress. example:
Improving productivity on farms contributes to (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
profitability and competiveness because it allows Sustainable Agriculture Practices).
farmers to produce more output using fewer inputs. http://www.fao.org/agriculture/crops/thematicsitemap/theme/spi/soilbiodiversity/
agricultureandsoilbiodiversity/sustainableagriculturalpractices/en/#:~:text=Maintaining%20soil
%20physical%20properties%20conducive,and%20reducing%20erosion%20and%20leaching.
Objectives
1. Matching the supply of soil nutrients with
1. Provide a healthy environment, economic nutrient demands of crop, fodder and pasture
profitability, and social and economic equity. plants: through optimising return of crop
2. Value the ecological system in agriculture. residues and animal wastes to the land and
3. Apply healthy environment, economic through greater reliance on biologically fixed
profitability, and social and economic equity and recycled nutrients instead of fertiliser
in agriculture. inputs;
2. Maintaining acceptable pest tolerance levels:
Some sources of agricultural productivity are: through reliance on crop rotations and
biocontrol agents and hence reducing or
 Mechanization maintaining low pesticide use;
 High yield varieties, which were 3. Maintaining soil physical properties conducive
A. Sustainable Agriculture to plant growth and to soil ecosystem
functioning (aeration, water infiltration and
Sustainable agriculture is farming ways retention, nutrient availability, etc.) through
based on an understanding of ecosystem decreasing or maintaining low frequency and
service, the study of relationships intensity of tillage and reducing erosion and
between organisms and their leaching.
environment. It has been defined as “an
integrated system of plant and animal Farming can be considered essentially as an
production practices having a site-specific ecological activity in which natural ecosystems open
application that will last over long term”. to influences of climate, substrate and wild biota are
modified to increase yields of desired food and fiber
products. The greater the change to natural
ecosystem the greater the human effort to maintain
the agricultural system. It has been shown that
conventional agriculture results in greater ecological
disturbance and may be less sustainable compared
to low external input agricultural (LEIA) systems.
LEIA systems have high genetic and cultural
diversity, multiple use of resources and efficient
nutrient and mineral recycling (Altieri 1999). The
Food and Agriculture Cooperation Initiative
(AFACI) created the Asian Network for Sustainable search for biological alternatives to improve and
Organic Farming Technology (ANSOFT) project in maintain yields is a high priority. In order to find
2009. In 2015, sustainable agriculture in alternatives for different environments and
the Philippines was recognized out of 11
CS10 - Fundamentals in Crop Science DAISY L. MORALA, L. Agri
BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN AGRIBUSINESS Instructor
agricultural systems we need to understand the of tillage. Tilling the soil will reduce the number of
effect of different practices on soil organisms, their fungal hyphens, because soil aggregates, which are
functions and processes and their influence on plant held together by these hyphens, are broken down.
nutrition and soil stability. The consequences of agricultural practices
Understanding how agricultural management on soil biota may be direct and far reaching.
practices contribute to sustained fertility and Organisms which are of benefit to agriculture and
productivity of arable soils requires a knowledge of which may be affected include those responsible for
below ground food webs. Trials have helped to
illustrate effects of tillage on structure and function of  organic matter decomposition and soil
such food webs and identify key mechanisms by aggregation;
 breakdown of toxic compounds both metabolic
which fungal and bacterial based food webs regulate
by-products of organisms and agrochemicals;
soil processes. It is an important area for further
 inorganic transformations that make available
research. Where cultivation is minimised and crop
nitrates, sulphates, and phosphates as well as
residues retained on the soil surface it has been essential elements such as iron and
shown that there is much greater spatial and manganese;
temporal differentiation of belowground food webs  nitrogen fixation into forms usable by higher
and processes compared to conventional cultivated plants
soils. In conventional tillage bacteria based food
webs play a greater role especially in the tilled layer, Agricultural practices that use high amounts
and as result of flushes of mineralisation related to of external-inputs, such as inorganic fertilizers,
tillage events may lead to greater organic matter loss pesticides, and other amendments, can overcome
and lower nutrient retention. In no tillage systems specific soil constraints to crop production. These
fungal based food webs are more important which practices have led to considerable increases in
influence nutrient availability and soil aggregate overall food production in Europe, Asia and the
stability, tending to increase N retention and reduce Americas. However, especially in the most
leaching. intensively managed systems, this has resulted in
continuous environmental degradation, particularly of
soil, vegetation and water resources, such as in the
Clearing forested or grassland for cultivation
state of Haryana in India. Soil organic matter levels
drastically affects the soil environment and hence
are declining and the use of chemical inputs is
reduces the number and species of soil organisms.
intensifying (Singh, 2000).
The reduction of quantity and quality of plant
Any misuse of high external inputs for crop
residues and the number of higher plants species
production has far reaching effects, which include:
leads to a reduction in the range of habitats and
foods for soil organisms.  Deterioration of soil quality and reduction in
Different types of agricultural practices and agricultural productivity due to nutrient
systems affect the soil biota in different ways and the depletion, organic matter losses, erosion and
response (see bottom figure right) may be either compaction
 Pollution of soil and water through the over use
positive or negative depending on which part of the
of fertilizers and the improper use and disposal
soil the biota, e.g. fungal or bacterial, is affected. For
of animal wastes
example, organisms which are sensitive to pH will be
 Increased incidence of human and ecosystem
affected by the addition of lime; the bacterial: fungal health problems due to the indiscriminate use
ratio will be affected by the addition of fertilizers and of pesticides and chemical fertilizers
manures which alter the C:N ratio as will the effects
 Loss of biodiversity due to the use of reduced resource, although its condition is vital to both the
number of species being cultivated for production of food and fibre and to global balance
commercial purposes and ecosystem function. The quality and health of
 Loss of adaptability traits when species that soil determine agricultural sustainability,
grow under specific local environmental
environmental quality and as a consequence of both
conditions become extinct
plant, animal and human health.
 Loss of beneficial crop-associated biodiversity
that provides ecosystem services such as A healthy soil has the ability to perform or function
pollination, nutrient cycling and regulation of according to its potential, and to change over time
pest and disease outbreaks due to human use and management or to natural
events. Soil health is enhanced by management and
Soil salinisation, depletion of freshwater land-use decisions that consider the multiple
resources and reduction of water quality due to
functions of soil and that take into account that soil is
unsustainable irrigation practices throughout
a living organism. It is impaired by overuse of one
the world
input factor in order to reach the maximum crop yield
Disturbance of soil physicochemical potential . The time scale is an important
and biological processes as a result of consideration as seasonal and yearly changes in
intensive tillage and slash and burning. crop/land use patterns can be effectively managed
to compensate for changes in soil condition and to
Although humans generally begin their restore a healthily functioning soil. Without
influence on soil biodiversity with naturally-present maintenance of biodiversity, the soil's capacity to
communities at a particular site (resulting essentially recover from natural or anthropogenic perturbations
from ecological and evolutionary forces), they also may well be reduced. Similarly, maintenance of the
have the ability to introduce new organisms and, soil's capacity to perform functional processes, such
through imposition of different management as those associated with nutrient cycling and the
practices, put selective pressures on the naturally- breakdown of organic matter, is important in order to
present or introduced soil biota. This provides the sustain plant growth in the long-term.
opportunity to manage soil organisms and their
activities to enhance soil fertility and crop growth. In Improving Soil Management
theory, probably enough is known to manage these
communities, yet considerable basic and applied
There are many different options to improve
research is needed to reach appropriate levels of
biological soil management. These include both
biological husbandry and optimal management of
direct and indirect interventions.
these biological resources (Hendrix et al., 1990).
Direct methods of intervening in the production
system attempt to alter the abundance or activity of
Agriculture and Soil Health
specific groups of organisms (Hendrix et al., 1990).
Examples of direct interventions include: (a)
Agriculture and other users of land are challenged to inoculation of seeds or roots with rhizobia,
develop strategies for sustainability that conserve mycorrhizae, fungi and rhizobacteria, for enhanced
non-renewable natural resources such as soil. Much soil fertility and (b) inoculation of soil or the
attention has been paid in recent decades to environment with biocontrol agents (pest or disease)
mitigating soil erosion through physical conservation antagonists or beneficial fauna (e.g. earthworms).
measures and to providing supplementary nutrients
Indirect interventions are means of managing
and water to meet crop needs. Less consideration
soil biotic processes by manipulating the factors that
has been paid to the soil as a dynamic living
control biotic activity (habitat structure, microclimate, wind and water erosion, development of acidic,
nutrients & energy resources) rather than the saline and sodic soils, and soil contamination with
organisms themselves (Hendrix et al., 1990). pesticide residues and heavy metals (Doran and
Examples of indirect interventions include most Parking, 1994). On the other hand, the application of
agricultural practices such as application of organic organic wastes, moderate use of mineral fertilisers,
and inorganic fertilizers to soil, tillage, irrigation, crop rotations, irrigation in dry and drainage in wet
green manuring and liming as well as cropping areas generally have positive impacts on soil
system design and management. More recent organism densities, diversity and activity.
techniques include genetic control of soil function by
B. Green Revolution
manipulating resistance to disease, residue and
rhizosphere quality (root exudates). What Is the Green Revolution?
Some of these interventions, particularly direct ones,
Throughout history there have been many
such as rhizobia inoculation in grain legumes,
revolutions that have occurred and changed human
mycorrhiza inoculation for tree establishment and lives, such as the American Revolution and the
bio-control agents for disease and pest control are Industrial Revolution. In the mid- and late-20th
already well developed techniques, widely used by century a revolution occurred that dramatically
farmers in many developed and some developing changed the field of agriculture, and this revolution
countries. Nevertheless, these applications continue was known as the Green Revolution.
to be under-utilised in many less developed
The Green Revolution was a period when the
countries, particularly by resource-poor farmers. The
productivity of global agriculture increased drastically
potential for the use of these direct techniques is
as a result of new advances. During this time period,
important and should be promoted by the relevant
new chemical fertilizers and synthetic herbicides and
institutions and governments responsible for pesticides were created. The chemical fertilizers
agricultural development. made it possible to supply crops with extra nutrients
Perhaps even greater benefits, particularly and, therefore, increase yield. The newly developed
over the long term, are likely to come from indirect synthetic herbicides and pesticides controlled
interventions such as: choice of crops and their weeds, deterred or kill insects, and prevented
spatio-temporal organisation the enhancement of diseases, which also resulted in higher productivity.
their natural ability to resist disease, improvements In addition to the chemical advances utilized during
in the quality of the organic matter they produce, and this time period, high-yield crops were also
by management of organic matter and other external developed and introduced. High-yield crops are
inputs including mineral fertilizers (TSBF, 2000). crops that are specifically designed to produce more
Genetic manipulation of crops provides overall yield. A method known as multiple cropping
immense opportunities to improve their abilities to was also implemented during the Green Revolution
resist adverse environmental conditions (climatic, and lead to higher productivity. Multiple cropping is
when a field is used to grow two or more crops
edaphic, biological), as well as improve the quality of
throughout the year, so that the field constantly has
the residues (above- and below-ground).
something growing on it. These new farming
Tillage, monoculture, pesticide use, erosion and soil techniques and advances in agricultural technology
contamination or pollution generally have negative were utilized by farmers all over the world, and when
effects on most soil organisms, reducing the soil's combined, intensified the results of the Green
capacity to maintain its function. This has numerous Revolution.
facets including decreased soil organic matter
Benefits of the Green Revolution
content, loss of soil structure, loss of soil through
As a result of the Green Revolution and the period that affected both the environment and
introduction of chemical fertilizers, synthetic society. The use of chemical fertilizers and synthetic
herbicides and pesticides, high-yield crops, and the herbicides and pesticides dramatically influenced the
method of multiple cropping, the agricultural industry environment by increasing pollution and erosion. The
was able to produce much larger quantities of food. new materials added to the soil and plants polluted
This increase in productivity made it possible to feed the soil and water systems around the fields. The
the growing human population. pollution of the water exposed people and the
environment downstream to the chemicals being
One person who is famous for his involvement in the used in the farm fields. The pollution of the soil
Green Revolution is the scientist Norman Borlaug. In resulted in lower soil quality, which increased the risk
the 1940s, Norman Borlaug developed a strain of of erosion of the topsoil.
wheat that could resist diseases, was short, which
reduced damage by wind, and could produce large
seed heads and high yields. He introduced this
variety of wheat in Mexico and within twenty years
the production of wheat had tripled. This allowed for
the production of more food for people in Mexico and
also made it possible for Mexico to export their
wheat and sell it in other countries. Norman Borlaug
helped introduce this high-yield variety of wheat to
other countries in need of increased food production,
and he eventually won a Nobel Peace Prize for his
work with developing high-yield crops and for helping
prevent starvation in many developing countries.
In addition to producing larger quantities of food, the

Green Revolution was also beneficial because it
made it possible to grow more crops on roughly the
same amount of land with a similar amount of effort.
This reduced production costs and also resulted in
cheaper prices for food in the market.
The ability to grow more food on the same amount of

land was also beneficial to the environment because
it meant that less forest or natural land needed to be
converted to farmland to produce more food. This is
demonstrated by the fact that from 1961 to 2008, as
the human population increased by 100% and the
production of food rose by 150%, the amount of
forests and natural land converted to farm only
increased by 10%. The natural land that is currently
not needed for agricultural land is safe for the time
being, and can be utilized by animals and plants for
their natural habitat.
Issues with the Green Revolution
Although the Green Revolution had several benefits,

there were also some issues associated with this
C. Nutrient Management
Basic Concepts of Plant Nutrition

List the 17 elements essential for plant nutrition
Nutrient Macro/micro Uptake form Mobility in Plant

1 Carbon Macro CO2,H2CO3
2 Hydrogen Macro H+ ,OH- ,H2O
3 Oxygen Macro O2
4 Nitrogen Macro NO3 - ,NH4 + Mobile
5 Phosphorus Macro HPO4 -2 ,H2PO4 - Somewhat Mobile
6 Potassium Macro K+ Mobile (very)
7 Calcium Macro Ca+2 Immobile
8 Magnesium Macro Mg+2 Somewhat mobile
9 Sulfur Macro SO4 - Mobile
10 Boron Micro H3BO3,BO3 - Immobile
11 Copper Micro Cu+2 Immobile
11 Iron Micro Fe+2,Fe+3 Immobile
12 Manganese Micro Mn+2 Immobile
13 Zinc Micro Zn+2 Immobile
14 Molybdenum Micro MoO4 - Immobile
15 Chlorine Micro Cl- Mobile
16 Nickel Micro Ni+2 Mobile

Reference
Food and Agriculture Organization of the

United Nations. Sustainable Agriculture Practices
Sustainable Agriculture Research & Education

Program. A program of UC Agriculture & Natural
Resources
What Is the Green Revolution? - Definition,

Benefits, and Issues.
https://study.com/academy/lesson/what-is-the-green-
revolution-definition-benefits-and-issues.html


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Republic of the Philippines

STO. TOMAS COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE, SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY

Lesson IV. Agricultural Productivity The development of sustainable agricultural

In addition to producing larger quantities of food, the

The ability to grow more food on the same amount of

Issues with the Green Revolution

Although the Green Revolution had several benefits,

Basic Concepts of Plant Nutrition

Nutrient Macro/micro Uptake form Mobility in Plant

CS10 - Fundamentals in Crop Science DAISY L. MORALA, L. Agri

Food and Agriculture Organization of the

Sustainable Agriculture Research & Education

What Is the Green Revolution? - Definition,

CS10 - Fundamentals in Crop Science DAISY L. MORALA, L. Agri

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