Explosives and Blasting Module-1

Explosives and Blasting
MODULE 1: REACTION AND DEFINATION OF TERMS....................................................................3

1.1 Definition of terms.....................................................................................................................11
1.2 Chain reaction Sequence in a blast.............................................................................................13
1.3 Misfires......................................................................................................................................14
MODULE 2: EXPLOSIVES PROPERTIES, SELECTION CRITERIA AND TYPES OF EXPLOSIVES
.................................................................................................................................................................. 15
2.1 Explosives properties and selection criteria.........................................................................................15
2.1.1 Velocity of Detonation:..........................................................................................................15
2.1.2 Strength:................................................................................................................................15
2.1.3 Water Resistance:..................................................................................................................16
2.1.4 Sensitivity:..............................................................................................................................16
2.1.5 Fume Characteristics..............................................................................................................16
2.1.6 Density...................................................................................................................................16
2.1.7 Thermal Stability....................................................................................................................16
2.1.8 Flame properties...............................................................................................................................16
2.1.9 Critical diameter...............................................................................................................................17
2.2 Testing for explosive strength....................................................................................................17
2.2.1 Pendulum test..................................................................................................................................17
2.3 Types of explosives.............................................................................................................................18
2.3.1 Commercial Explosives..........................................................................................................18
2.3.2 Low Explosives.......................................................................................................................18
2.3.3 High Explosives......................................................................................................................18
2.4 Constituents of Explosives.........................................................................................................19
2.5 Classes of explosives.................................................................................................................20
2.6 Industrial explosives..................................................................................................................21
2.7 Explosives selection in Colliers and Fiery mines.......................................................................24
2.7.1 Permitted explosives..............................................................................................................24
2.7.2 Explosives selection...............................................................................................................25
2.7.3 Types of explosives................................................................................................................25
MODULE 3 BLASTING ACCESSORIES...............................................................................................38
3.0 Explosives and blast-initiation accessories................................................................................38
3.1 Safety Fuse................................................................................................................................38
3.2 Igniter Cord...............................................................................................................................38
3.2.1 Igniter cord properties...........................................................................................................38
3.2.2 Sequential firing of shotholes................................................................................................39
3.3 Electric starters..........................................................................................................................39
3.3.1 Benefits and Features............................................................................................................39
3.4 Detonators..................................................................................................................................40
Zimbabwe School of Mines – National Diploma Page 1

3.4.1 PLAIN DETONATORS..............................................................................................................40

3.4.2 Capped fuse...........................................................................................................................40
3.4.3 ELECTRIC DETONATORS.........................................................................................................40
3.5 DETONATING FUSE...............................................................................................................42
3.5.1 CORD RELAY...........................................................................................................................43
MODULE 4: HANDLING,USE, TRANSPORTATION AND STORAGE OF EXPLOSIVES..........59
4.1 Transportation of explosives......................................................................................................59
4.2 Construction and condition of vehicle.......................................................................................60
4.3 Traveling in built up areas.........................................................................................................60
MODULE 5: EXPLOSIVES AND BLASTING MINING..................................................................70
5.1 Purpose of blasting Theory of Breakage....................................................................................70
5.2 Development round drilling and blasting pattern design principles...........................................72
5.3 Ring drilling pattern design principles.......................................................................................77
5.5 Controlled Blasting....................................................................................................................82

MODULE 1: REACTION AND DEFINATION OF TERMS

History of Explosives and Blasting
The time line below presents the history of the explosives industry... a tradition of excellence in
mining, quarrying, construction, and many other pursuits involving the peaceful use of
explosives to break rock in service to mankind.
50 B.C.
Early form of seismoscope used by Chang Heng in China.
668 A.D.
"Greek-fire" used in battle.
1200 A.D.
Arabian author Abd Allah records use of saltpeter as main ingredient of black powder.
13th Century
Chinese use "Roman Candles" in seige of Kai-Feng Fu.
1242
English Friar Roger Bacon publishes gunpowder formula.
1380
German Franciscan Monk, Berthold Schwarts developed gunpowder and its use in guns.
Berthold Schwarts
German Franciscan Monk
1627
First recorded use of black powder for rock blasting (Hungary).
1670
Black powder use spreads to tin mines of Cornwall England by German miners.
1675
First powder mill in U.S. constructed in Milton, Mass.
1696
First recorded use of black powder for road construction in Switzerland.

1745
Doctor Watson of British Royal Society explodes black powder with an electric spark.
1749
Hungarian Miners introduce chisel bit.
1750
American inventor Benjamin Franklin encases and compresses powder in cartridges.
1773
Black powder first used in U.S. at Copper Mine in Connecticut.
1785
Machine to detect earthquake vibrations invented.
1818-1821
First use of black powder in construction of road tunnel in Pennsylvania.
1830
Moses Shaw of New York patents electric firing of black powder.
1831
William Bickford of Cornwall, England invents Safety Fuse.
1832
Dr. Robert Hare of University of Pennsylvania demonstrates bridge wire electric blasting cap.
1841
Milne invents "Seismometer" to detect ground vibrations by earthquakes.
1846
Italian chemist Ascanio Sobrero discovers nitroglycerine.
1849
Jonathan Couch patents first practical American percussion-style steam powered rock drill.
1861
First practical use of piston-type compressed air mechanical drill in 8-mile long Mount Cenis
Tunnel in the Alps.
1863
Wilbrand invents Trinitrotoluene (TNT).
1864
Swedish inventor Alfred Nobel develops first detonating blasting cap.

Alfred Nobel
The Father of Explosives
1866
Swedish chemist Alfred Nobel invents dynamite by mixing kieselguhr with nitroglycerine.
1866
First U.S. plant to make nitroglycerine, Little Ferry, NJ.
1869
First use of diamond drills for prospecting and blasthole drilling.
1870
First U.S. dynamite plant, Giant Powder Co., San Francisco, California.
1871
Simon Ingersoll patents tripod mount for steam powered rock drill.
1872
Gunpowder Trade Association formed in U.S.
1875
Nobel patents blasting gelatine.
1878
Rack bar electric blasting machine developed by H. Julius Smith.
1884
Ammonium Nitrate (AN) becomes widely used in dynamite formulations.
1885
Two component explosives used in New York Harbor.
1888
Nobel invents ballistite, a dense smokeless powder.
1885
Permitted explosives officially recognized in Europe.
1890
First stoper drill with hammering action and airleg feed introduced by C.H. Shaw.
1896
First successful hammer drill with hollow steel patented by J. George Leyner.
1902
Detonating cord introduced in Europe.
1907
Consumption of black powder in U.S. more than 287 million pounds.
1908
U.S. Geological Survey assigned task of testing explosives for use in underground coal mines.
1910
Mine accident work transferred to U.S. Bureau of Mines.
1912
Government orders Breakup of duPont. Creation of Hercules and Atlas Powder.
1912
Lightweight hand-held (Jackhammer) sinker drill invented.
1913
Insitute of Makers of Explosives (IME) formed in Chicago.
Cordeau, a TNT filled, lead-sheathed detonating cord, introduced in U.S.
First wild oil well fire put out by M. Kinley with explosives in California.
1914
Fifty-one mile Panama Canal opens, largest engineering project to date, using more than 67
million pounds of dynamite.
1917
German scientist L. Mintrop invents first portable seismograph.
U.S. Explosives Act sets regulations for purchases.
1919
Three component vibration recorder used by General Crushed Stone Co.
1920’s
Cambridge Vibrograph developed to record vertical vibrations.
Falling Pin "Seismograph" used by General Crushed Stone.
1921
U.S. National Academy of Sciences studies Ammonium Nitrate (AN) after explosion in Oppau,
Germany.
1924
First use of seismograph for oil prospecting by Gulf Production.
Largest industrial blast to date in U.S. fired at California Blue Diamond quarry using 328,000
lbs. of dynamite 1924.
1926

Blasting cap safety education program launched by IME

Mid 1920’s
Liquid Oxygen based explosives commercialized in U.S.
1927
History of Explosives Industry in America published by IME.
1928
Detachable drill bits introduced at Anaconda Copper Mine, Butte, Montana.
1930
U.S. Bureau of Mines forms geophysical section headed by Dr. F. Lee.
Early 1930’s
Jackleg drill introduced.
1931
Fiberboard cases approved for dynamite shipping.
1933
Roller cone bits introduced in oil fields.
1935
U.S. Geological Survey develops blast vibration machine — cost $25,000.
1935
duPont introduces first commercially successful non-nitroglycerin ammonium nitrate (AN)
blasting agent.
1936
IME establishes fume classes for explosives in underground mines.
1938
Modern PETN-filled fabric-covered detonating cord introduced in U.S.
1939
U.S. Bureau of Mines begins work on vibration standards.
Modern plastic explosives invented during WWII.
1940’s
Self propelled open pit rock drills introduced.
Use of tungsten carbide bits began in mining in Sweden.
1946
Short interval millisecond delay electric blasting caps introduced.
1947
Industry assists with federal investigation of Texas City, Texas — Ammonium Nitrate explosion.
1948
Pennsylvania issues regulations limiting blast vibrations.
First shot on Crazy Horse monument South Dakota.

U.S. production of ammonium nitrate (AN) for fertilizer totally converted to prilling method.
Crazy Horse Memorial - 2003
1950
First portable 3 component monitor developed, the Leet Seismograph weighs 65 lbs.
Leet Seismograph
1952
New Jersey issues regulations on seismic effects and airblast.
1955
Maumee Collieriers Drilling & Blasting Superintendent Bob Akre introduces "Akremite" at Coal
Show in Cleveland, Ohio.
1955
Down hole drill introduced using high-pressure portable air compressors.
1956
First use of ANFO by U.S. Steel Corp.’s Oliver Mining Division.
Dr. Mel Cook introduces Slurry to mining.
1957
Underground explosives consumption reaches 100 million pounds in the United States.
First bulk vehicles blow mixed ANFO down-the-hole at Iron Ore Co. of Canada.
1959

Roseberg, Oregon fire and explosives truck explosion (Download Full Story).
August 7, 1959
Roseburg, Oregon
Thirty-nine dynamite plants operating in the United States.

1950’s.
High-speed photography for blast analysis introduced.
Late 1950’s
Prilled AN fuel mixture begins to replace dynamite.
Bulk trucks and loaders developed.
1960’s
Tunnel boring machines begin to seriously impact the use of explosives in large tunnel jobs.
1964
Dromedary trucks used to haul explosives approved by US ICC.
1967
Shock tube-type non-electric delay detonators introduced in Sweden.
1969
Emulsion explosives introduced.
1960’s & 70’s
Large rotary drills with drag bits and roller cone bits come into use.
1971
Emulsion ANFO blends introduced.
1972
Lang & Favreau introduce Computer Modeling of Blast Design.
1973
Electronic sequential blasting introduced at first Kentucky Blasters Conference.
Largest pre-production shot to date - 4 million pounds at Old Reliable Mine in Arizona.
1970’s
Hydraulic powered drifter drills come into use.
Early 1970’s.
First electronic recording seismographs developed by Dallas Instruments.
1974

British Institute of Explosives Engineering established.

Shock tube-type non-electric delay detonators introduced in U.S.
The Society of Explosives Engineers officially formed to "advance the art and science of
explosives engineering" on August 20, 1974 in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.
1977
First commercial use of glass "bubbles."
1978
OSMR created under U.S. Dept of Interior. MSHA created under Dept of Labor.
J. Wiss & P. Lineham complete research on controlling vibrations through shot design for
USBM.
Twenty-six story hotel, tallest steel structure demolished to date using explosives, Oklahoma
City.
1979
IME member and S.E.E. Director Deane Boddorff demonstrate easy removal of taggants from
dynamite for U.S. Senate Committee.
1980
Bulk Blends introduced.
1.1 Definition of terms
An Explosive is a chemical compound or mixture which on application of a shock or stimulus to
a small part of the mass is very rapidly converted to products totally or largely gases with the
production of, when exploded by action of heat, impact, gives large volume of gases in a very
short time at high temperature & pressure.
When the explosive is detonated,

• gas is released,
• temperature of the gas increases,
• pressure also increases.
• move and break the rock.
Reaction Terms
1. Combustion is a reaction in which matter burns to produce heat and carbon dioxide i.e
complete combustion or carbon monoxide for incomplete combustion.
2. Deflagration it is an instantaneous reaction that is similar to burning and its velocity is
below sonic velocity. The flow of products is opposite the direction of decomposition
propagation

3. Detonation is the process of propagation of a shock wave through an explosive, which is

accompanied by a chemical reaction that furnishes energy to maintain the shock wave
propagation in a stable manner.
Shock wave X Y
Shock front
Stable parts Industrial cartridge
Expanding gases CJ Plane (plane where actual physical changes

occurs, the plane moves at a speed called VOD)
Low energy released
Zone of reaction
When an explosive detonates fumes are released which are several times greater in volume than
the original explosives, very high temperatures and pressures are also produced due to rapid
chemical decomposition. Since, the volume available for the fumes is too small, the fumes sets a
shockwave onto the surrounding rock. The energy released by the expanding gases is greater
than the compressive strength of the rock hence the rock breaks by fracturing and the rock
fragments are displaced from their original position.
An explosive performs the following functions:-

1. Vibration due to the shock wave.
2. Fragmentation- the energy released is greater than the compressive strength of the rock
thus resulting into the fracturing of the rock.
3. Displacement due to increase in volume which exerts pressure on the rock.
4. Airblast-due to rapid increase of the volume of gases


1.2 Chain reaction Sequence in a blast
Igniter Cord
Ignition Shot Exploder
Safety Fuse Electric

Initiation
fusehead
Detonator
Detonation
Detonating Detonating
Cord Cord
Propagation (CORDTEX) (CORDTEX)
Booster Booster
(Pentolite) (Pentolite)
Boosting
NG-Based ANBA NG-Based ANBA

Explosion or Explosives Explosives
fracturing
Once a blasting technique has been decided on, the appropriate explosives and accessories can be
selected. Nitroglycerine-based high explosives require a detonator to provide shock waves of
sufficient intensity to initiate them. Detonators comprise aluminum or copper tubes containing
flame-sensitive powders which are fired by means of a flame-producing initiator. Initiators may
be either safety fuse or electric fusehead. Safety fuse requires some flame-producingigniter to
start it burning, whereas electric fuseheads are fired by an electric current provided by ashot
exploder or some other source of electricity. Igniters for lighting safety fuse take the form of
fuse igniters (cheesa sticks) or igniter cord. Where it is necessary to ensure complete detonation
throughout a long column of explosive, or to interlink separate charges, a propagator, usually in

the form of Cordtex detonating fuse, is required. Insensitive ammonium nitrate blasting agents
(ANBA) often require booster charges to enable them to detonate at a high steady velocity. Such
abooster can take the form of an Anstart attached to a detonator, or of a Pentolite booster which
is usually initiated by means of detonating fuse.
Low explosives such as blasting gunpowder are usually initiated directly from safety fuse but
an electric fusehead can be used. When it is necessary to ensure that shots explode in a
predetermined sequence, delay timing is used. The delay device can be introduced in any one of
the following stages in the blast chain reaction:
1. Ignition delay - the use of igniter cord in conjunction with fuses.
2. Initiation delay – the use of capped fuses cut to different predetermined length.
3. Propagation delay – the use of detonating relays in the line of detonating fuse.
1.3 Misfires
A misfire is a charge that has failed to explode either in whole or in part. A misfire happens
when one or more of the following steps do not occur i.e. ignition, initiation, detonation,
propagation, boosting and explosion or fracturing. In order to avoid misfires special care needs to
be taken when charging and timing the explosives charges.

MODULE 2: EXPLOSIVES PROPERTIES, SELECTION CRITERIA AND TYPES OF

EXPLOSIVES
2.1 Explosives properties and selection criteria
Various important ExplosivesCharacteristics are
1. Velocity of Detonation (VOD)
2. Strength
3. Fume Characteristics
4. Thermal Stability
5. Sensitivity
6. Density
7. Water Resistance
8. Cost
9. Storage
10. Shelf life
2.1.1 Velocity of Detonation:It is the speed at which detonation wave travels through the media
in m/s, it depends uponExplosive type. A highshockwave velocity results in a the higher the
airblast and the fracturing which may cause overbreak in some undesirable circumstances. A
high VOD is necessary in the boosting devices required to initiate ANBA effectively. A high
velocity explosive is desirable for use as a lay-on charge in secondary blasting of boulders.VOD
is measured by, some electronic means or by Dautriche test.
2.1.2 Strength:it is the energy of the explosive per unit mass. The various types of strength are:
1. Absolute Weight Strength (AWS)- this is the absolute energy in calories available in
unit mass of explosive
2. Absolute Bulk strength (ABS) – this is a measure of the absolute energy in calories
available in unit volume of explosive.
3. Relative Weight Strength (RWS) – it is a comparative energy generated by an
Explosive relative to that produced by an equal weight of ammonium nitrate fuel oil
(ANFO).
AWS OF EXPLOSIVE
RWS=
AWS OF ANFO
4. Relative Bulk Strength (RBS) -It is the energy released per unit volume of Explosive as
compared to ANFO. Bulk strength can becalculated from weight strength using the
equation
|OF|EXPLOSIVE
RBS=
|OF|ANFO

2.1.3 Water Resistance:Explosives differ widely in resistance to water and moisture

penetration. Some Explosivesdeteriorate rapidly under wet conditions, but others are designed to
withstand water for long periods. When blastingis to be done under wet conditions, a water
resistant Explosive is preferable. Slurries are better for water conditions. Emulsions are a variety
of slurries. ANFO dissolves in water and in principle cannot be used in water but if packed in a
plastic bag or cartridge it can be used in water. Dynamite dissolves in water and has poor water
resistance.
2.1.4 Sensitivity:An Explosive is required to be insensitive to normal handling, shock and
friction, but must remainsufficiently sensitive to be satisfactorily detonated and capable of
propagating satisfactorily, cartridge to cartridge,even over gaps such as may occur in practice.
Sensitivity can be divided into cap sensitivity and gap sensitivity.
(a) Cap sensitivity – explosives that will reliably initiate with only the energy from a
blasting cap (detonator). Blasting agents and some slurries cannot reliably initiate with the
energy released from the cap
(b) Gap sensitivity–the comparative length of air gap or discontinuity between, two charges
in a single column, or charge across which detonation will continue to propagate. The air gap for
which sympathetic detonation will occur is 25mm.
25mm
Detonating cap Explosive cap
2.1.5 Fume Characteristics:This is extremely important for underground applications. Toxic

gases, such as carbon monoxide and nitrous fumes are a product of detonation of all explosives.
Harmful effects to personnel can occur from exposure to these gases.
2.1.6 Density:is the mass per unit volume of the explosivein g/cm3.The density is important
when selecting an explosive for a particular use.High density enables a greater mass of explosive
per unit length of hole to be loaded thereby making more energy available a desirable feature in
tunneling and mining operations in hard ground. On theother hand when the output of lump coal
from a mine is important, it is advisable to use a low density Explosive,which distributes the
energy along the shothole. When density of the explosive is increased by packing, its sensitivity
is decreased up to a point when it will not explode. This density is called the critical density.
2.1.7 Thermal Stability:Explosives compositions should be such as to be stable under all

normal conditions of usage.The DGMS stipulates that no blast hole shall be charges if the
temperature in the borehole exceeds 80oC whenblasting in hot ground. Sometimes Explosives
have to be used in sub zero conditions in which some explosivesbecome insensitive. Explosives

compositions of M/s. Solar Explosives Ltd. are designed to be stable and safe, underall
conditions of use. When blasting in hot ground, precautions as stipulated by the DGMS should
be adhered to.
2.1.8 Flame properties

It is the ease with which an explosive or blasting agent can be ignited by flame and heat. These
are very critical in mines such as most underground coal mines which have methane in the air.
2.1.9 Critical diameter – the critical diameter of unconfined ANFO is around 100mm. When
confined at a diameter below 35mm it will not sustain detonation. This critical diameter can be
reduced by :-
(i) confinement
(ii) reducing the particle size (1-2mm)
(iii) adding micro-balloons.
2.2 Testing for explosive strength
The strength of explosives can be compared using the following methods
1. Pendulum test
2. Steel tube test
3. Lead block test
4. Kast test
2.2.1 Pendulum test
Procedure`
1. Drill a hole in a 300kg rock specimen.
2. Suspend the rock using strings with a scale along which it runs.
3. Place 10g of explosives in the hole and set off using detonator.
2.3 Types of explosives

Classification of Explosives
There are two main classes which are military explosives and commercial explosives
2.3.1 Commercial Explosives
These are used for mining, construction and demolition. All commercial Explosives are broadly
divided in two categories.
1) Low Explosives
2) High Explosives
Chemical
Explosives
Low High
Explosives Explosives
Primary Secondary Tertiary
2.3.2 Low Explosives

Low explosives are mostly solid combustible materials that decompose rapidly but do not normally
detonate. This action is known as deflagration, which is a rapid process of combustion without
accompanying any shock wave but gives a heaving effect. Low explosives have reaction velocities which
are typically between 550-900m/s which leads to low blasthole pressures. Example :Black powder for
dimension stone.
2.3.3 High Explosives
High explosives are usually nitration products of organic substances, such as toluene, phenol,
pentaerythritol, amines, glycerin, and starch, and may be nitrogen-containing inorganic substances or
mixtures of both. TNT is an example of a high explosive. This chemical mixturecan be detonated by a No.
8 strength detonator and liberates gaseous and great pressure. High explosives have detonation
velocities in the range 1500-7500 m/s. These are further classified into primary, secondary and tertiary
explosives.
(a) Primary explosives

These are initiated by a spark, impact etc are extremely sensitive. They are actually initiate the
detonation, this usually involves setting off, via a fuze or direct electrical command, a small
amount of a sensitive primary explosive such as lead azide (most common), PETN, or DDNP-
Diazodinitrophenol (DDNP) is a primary explosive, less sensitive but more powerful than lead azide.

Black gunpowder is still used as an initiator for artillery propellants. Mercury fulminate is no
longer used commercially due to stability problems, but may be found in improvised explosives
since its preparation is simple if risky.
(b) Secondary explosives
The primary explosive may have sufficient energy to start the detonation in the main charge of
tertiary explosive such as trinitrotoluene or dynamite, or, with some less sensitive explosives
such as ammonium nitrate-fuel oil, an intermediate booster charge made of a selected explosive
such as tetryl is set off by the detonator, and produces a stronger detonation wave to trigger the
main charge.
(c) Tertiary explosives
While primary and secondary explosives are part of the initiation system, tertiary explosives
carry out the main purpose of the explosive use. These are either cap sensitive or require high
strength caps for satisfactory initiation and are usually based on ammonium nitrate. In
commercial blasting, ammonium nitrate-fuel oil is most common for most commercial
applications when large quantities are needed. Various dynamites and plastic explosives are used
when smaller, more precisely placed charges are needed.
2.4 Constituents of Explosives
A commercial explosive may consist of a combination of some or all of the following:-
BASE+COMBUSTIBLE +OXYGEN CARRIERS+ ANTACIDS + ABSORBENTS+GELLING AGENTS+ FLAME DE
Base
(e.g. nitroglycerine, ammonium nitrate, TNT, PETN) which upon the application of sufficient
heat or shock breaks down into gaseous products it00h accompanying release of energy.
Combustible
(Fuel e.g., carbon, sulphur, fuel oil) combines with excess oxygen to prevent the formation of
nitrogen oxides-oxygen balance.
Oxygen carrier
(Ammonium nitrate, sodium nitrate) assures complete oxidation of the carbon to prevent the
formation of carbon monoxide-oxygen balance
Antacid
(Chalk, zinc oxide) increases stability in storage.
Absorbent
Wood pulp absorbent is used for liquid bases. It absorbs 60% of nitroglycerine. Hence this is the
maximum strength of the old straight dynamite.
Gelling agents
Promote water resistance e.g. Nitrocellulose
Flame depressants
Reduce the size, temperature and duration of flames e.g Sodium Chloride
Note: some explosive constituents fulfil more than one of the above requirements eg., Wood pulp
is a fuel and an absorbent.
2.5 Classes of explosives
Class 1 – gunpowder
Class 2 – blasting agent
Class 3 – nitrocompound
Class 4 – chlorate mixture
Class 5 – fulmination
Class 6– detonators
Class 7 – blasting initiators
Class 1 Gunpowder
The term “Gunpowder” includes blasting powder and means exclusively gunpowder, ordinarily
consisting of an intimate mixture of potassium nitrate, sulphur and charcoal. Such potassium
nitrate not containing as an impurity in greater quantities less than 1%.
Class 2 Blasting agent

Means any nitrate mixture and includes water gel, slurries, oils and water emulsions, when used
for blasting purposes cannot be normally detonated without the use of Nitrocompound primer or
booster.
Class 3 Nitrocompound
Means any chemical compound or mechanically mixed preparations that consists wholly or
partly or nitroglycerine or of some other liquids nitrocompounds which is used for blasting
purposes and shall include any other compound or mixture used for such purposes being of a
similar sensitivity.
Class 4 Chlorate mixture

Means any explosive containing chlorate.
Class 5 Fulmination
Means any chemical compound or mechanical mixture that by reason of its susceptibility to
detonation is suitable for employment in any appliance for initiation detonations.
Class 6 Detonators

Means a device enclosing a sensitive explosive and prepared so as to be used for initiating the
detonation and less sensitive explosives and shall include other explosives devices of similar
sensitivity to the standard plain detonator.
Class 7 Blasting initiators

Means any fuse or device used in the ignition of a plain detonator.
2.6 Industrial explosives

Up to the 1950’s most high explosives were nitroglycerine or to a lesser extent TNT based. The
recent introduction of ammonium nitrate mixtures, slurries and emulsions has led toa new
generation of cheaper and safer explosives.
Properties of NG & AN :
Nitro Glycerine (NG) - it is a liquid, insoluble in water, highly sensitive to stock, friction and
heat. In all Explosives of N.G. based oniroglycol is mixed for lowering the freezing point, used
for hardest rocks and metals and for shooting oil wells. Nitro glycerine based explosives are
expensive, need to be stored carefully and they tend to be more sensitive when they deteriorate
Ammonium Nitrate (AN) :
It is a weak Explosives base. Difficult to initiate, so a sensitizer like NG or TNT is used. It is
Oxygen positive, Hygroscopic, soluble in water. Tendency to form hard cakes.
Slurries
AMMONIUM NITRATE ( SOLUTION ) +GELLING AGENT + SOLID AMMONIUM NITRATE+ FUEL+ SENSITIS
Oxidiser - Ammonium Nitrate solid A.N. solution

Fuel - Aluminum/carbonaceous
Sensitiser - Fine aluminum/air bubbles/TNT
Cross linking gelling agent - e.g. Guar gum
Slurry explosives were the first to utilize nitrate salts in water solution form. B This improves the
accessibility of the oxidizer to fuel. The addition of water desensitizes the explosive even further.
To overcome this a sensitizer or a combination of sensitisers is added e.g aluminum, T.N.T
They can be divide into Slurry blasting agents and Slurry explosives. This division is a function
of sensitivity. Slurry Blasting Agents are not detonator sensitive.
The basic TNT slurry has a density of approx. 1.45gn/cc.
For small diameter holes and underground work the slurries are packaged

For large
Emulsions
The formulation of an emulsion is very similar to that of blasting slurries (water gels). However,
the cross-linking agent used to stiffen the slurry is replaced by an emulsifying agent. This water-
in-oil emulsifying agent suspends minute droplets of the ammonium nitrate (or a combination of
AN with either calcium nitrate or sodium nitrate) oxidizer within the fuel. This yields a very
intimate oxidizer and fuel mix that leads to high detonation velocities. Emulsions may be bulk
loaded, or used in packaged form. Packaged products are usually employed in small hole
diameters. They are mechanically sensitized using microballoons to introduce sufficient air into
the mix and control the density. Bulk emulsions are used in larger diameters and may be
mechanically or chemically sensitized, with chemical sensitization being less costly. Bulk-loaded
product fully fills the cross sectional area of the hole and delivers maximum energy to the
surrounding rock. This is a characteristic of all bulk-loaded products unless they are intentionally
decoupled as is often the case in presplitting. Packaged emulsion will usually result in some
decoupling with a reduction in borehole pressures. This generally is not a great problem in small
diameter blastholes.
BULK EMULSION :
Emulsion technology comes in the following categories :
• Repumpable Emulsion
• Site Mix Emulsion with support Plant
• Augered Heavy ANFO
• Pumped Doped Emulsion
To deliver the product down the borehole, company is offering initially repumpable type and
Pumped Doped Emulsion. For this company has designed special pump, truck capable of
pumping Bulk Emulsion after mixing with density control agent on site.
TECHNOLOGY DETAILS:
The system is Repumpable Bulk Doped Emulsion, Solar BE 101. In this system the emulsion of
oxidiser and fuels is prepared at location, where these facilities are available. The emulsion can
be stored in ambient conditions and is non-explosive. This non-explosive emulsion matrix is
doped with prilled Ammonium Nitrate and mixed with gassing agents, and is charged into a bore
hole by repumpable truck. The mixture becomes sensitive only after the same is delivered in to
the blast hole and the gassing reaction completed in above 15 minutes.

E.g. TITAN 7000 RU (Dyno Nobel) which is a Sensitized Bulk Emulsion is a booster sensitive,
high performance, repumpable bulk explosive designed specifically for use in underground
construction, quarry and mining operations. Applications include drift and raise development,
shaft sinking and tunnelling. In addition, other underground mining methods in which TITAN
7000 RU has proven effective are room and pillar, mechanized cut and fill, vertical crater retreat,
uppers retreat, benching and block caving.
Application Recommendations
• The minimum cast booster weight recommended for use as a primer for TITAN
7000 RU is a 10 gram cast booster @ 5º C (40º F) and above; 90 gram cast booster down to -20º
C (-4º F).
• ALWAYS double prime when bulk explosive columns exceed 6 m. One primer should be
positioned near the bottom of the hole and the second near to the collar. (Apply for exemption
from the Inspector of Mines and Explosives).
• ALWAYS ensure primers are in the explosive column.
• Maximum hole depth is 30 m (100 ft) but special formulations are available for deeper
boreholes.
• Borehole sleep time is one (1) month NB.

• ALWAYS insert the loading hose to the back of the hole before pumping the emulsion to
optimize loading density.
2.7 Explosives selection in Colliers and Fiery mines
Underground coal and fiery mines are considered to contain methane gas. Methane gas present in
the originally formed coal seam or reef/orebody in a fiery mine gets released in tothe mine
atmosphere during excavation.. Methane when mixed with air in the proportionsbetween 5-14 %
forms an explosive mixture. Hence, there is possibility of a Methane-air mixturebeing
dangerously formed in the galleries and working areas. In underground coal mines, there isalso
an additional risk as coal dust, when mixed with air, can undergo a dust explosion whensuitably
ignited. Both methane-air and coal dust explosions cause loss of life and extensive damageto the
underground mines. Methane ignition is known to take place due to the following reasonswhen
explosive is in use:
a. Direct action of shock wave from the explosive.
b. Indirect action of the shock wave after it has been reflected from solid surfaces in thevicinity
of explosives.
c. Hot gaseous products of detonation mixing with the methane-air mixture.
d. Hot reacting solid particles of explosives getting ejected in to the methane-air mixture.
Hence, specially designed explosives and detonators are required for use in underground coal
and fiery mines and are termed “Permitted explosive”.
2.7.1 Permitted explosives
In terms of the regulations only permitted explosives maybe used where there is risk of initiating
a methane or coal dust explosion. This is because explosives and detonators scheduled as
permitted explosives are so formulated as to minimise production and incandescent particles and
flame on detonation. In achieving this act aim the basic strength of the explosive is reduced.
Such products come under the ‘Permitted’ category and have to pass critical tests in simulated
conditions of field usage. Explosives and detonators are tested in both methane-air and coal dust-
air mixtures before being certified fit for use in underground coal mines/seams of various degree
of gassiness. Thus these require special properties, mainly a high degree of safety against
methane-air and coal dust-air mixture ignition.
Hence, they should have reduced flame temperature and duration of flame, have good continuity
of detonation properties, maintain its sensitivity and ensure reliable propagation even after being
subjected to the compressive shock wave generated by the earlier fired shot holes and be of
nondeflagrating type. Explosives should also be water proof, generate low level of toxic post –
blast fumes and be relatively insensitive to impact and friction. Risk of ignition of methane-air
mixture due to blown out shots is inherent danger during blasting in underground coal mines.

Blown out shots occur due to inadequate and proper stemming, excessive burden or spacing
between shot holes, improper use of delay detonators and incorrect sequence of firing of shot
holes. Deflagrating of explosives is more prone for risk in underground coal mines, since they
burn for longer period comparative to explosive which detonate. High strength explosive readily
ignites methane-air mixture in view of their high reaction temperatures. Weak explosives, inspite
of having higher velocity of detonation are found to be relatively safer (present day Permitted
explosives are relatively weaker), have low detonation temperature and do not contain any
ingredient which continues to burn after the detonation reaction is completed salt is the
component that lowers the explosion temperature and hence reduces the risk of ignitions,
2.7.2 Explosives selection
Water resistance is the prime deciding factor, but composition softness is important for ease of
priming and density is significant in two areas: charge length and strength.
Charge length: because the trend in coal blasting is towards deeper cuts and longer holes,
greater charge lengths are called for. Exemption can sometimes be obtained from the 800g legal
limit per hole, but in addition, lower density provides for increased charge length.
Strength: high density means more concentrated energy, which can be important in tough
breaking conditions.
The following are the main applications of the available explosives.

2.7.3 Types of explosives
Ajax
This powerful, inherently water-resistant explosive is recommended for use under wet conditions
as well as in dykes and stone headings. The high power can also, under certain conditions, be
exploited to increase the burden and spacing and so reduce the number of holes drilled.
The 22mm x 100g cartridges are mainly used as primers for MONOBEL and to charge small
diameter holes in stonework. Occasionally, under easy breaking conditions, they are used in coal
blasting to provide a low energy linear charge.
Coalex No. 1
This is a less water resistant, medium density, permitted explosive. The lower density results in
an increased charge length with good coupling. COALEX can be used in damp conditions but
loses power rapidly if subjected to a head of water exceeding 30 cm for more than 20 minutes.
AJAX primers are recommended.
Monobel

This explosive composition has no water-resistance and is not recommended under wet
conditions or where mechanised drilling, using water to flush the holes, is practised.
MONOBEL must be stored under dry, cool conditions and the underground storage period kept
to a minimum to prevent deterioration. As can be seen from Table 1 this explosive is of low
density and consequently long, well coupled charge lengths can be obtained. It is recommended
that a soft AJAX primer cartridge be used as it is much easier to pierce, and is unaffected by nay
moisture in the hole.
Permitted detonators
In terms of the regulations only instantaneous electric detonators with copper tubes may be used
for blasting in fiery coal mines. These should have a strength of not less than no. 6D also carrick
short period delay detonators.
Copper instantaneous electric detonators

These are used to fire shots simultaneously or as a zero delay when connected in series circuit
with carrick delay. Owning to the wide seams normally encountered the use of carrick delayus to
provide progressive relief of burden is usually desirable.
Carrick short period delays

The range comprises a zero and five delays designed specifically for fiery coal mines. The
maximum allowable period is 150ms. These copper detonators are fitted with special non-
indecive delay elements.
Delay No. Nominal Delay Period (ms)

0 0
1 30
2 55
3 80
4 110
5 150
(NOTE: The zero delay differs from instantenous detonators in having a wider tube and greater
protection against stray electricity).
Detonators for shaft sinking

The six delay detonators mentioned above are generally insufficient for the sinking of large
vertical or inclined shafts. Also instantenous electric detonators are not suitable when parallel
firing is practised so tis reduces the effective number of delays to five. If this is wholly restrictive

the mine manager may apply for exemptions to the inspector of mines and explosive from the
relevant regulations. Depending on circumstances, Copper Long Period Delay detonators
(LPD’s) are often used in shaft sinking.
BLASTING ACCESSORIES:
Various important blasting accessories are as under :
1. Safety Fuse
2. Plastic Ignitor Cord.
3. Detonators.
• Plain Detonators
• Electric Detonators
• Instantaneous Electric Detonators
• Long delay Detonators
• Short Delay Detonators
• Non Electric Detonators
4. Cord Relay
5. Detonating Cord
6. Magnadet
7. Anodet
8. Ohm Meter
9. Exploder
Safety Fuse :
This consists of a core of blasting gunpowder tightly wrapped with coverings of textile and
insulated with coverings of textile and insulated against moisture by waterproofing materials like
asphalt and plastics. The coverings act as protection for the black powder core against water, oil
and other materials which can change the burning speed or desensitise the powder. The covering
also prevents side-spit which can cause premature detonation if it sets fire to the explosives
charge. The burning rate between 98 – 120 s/m
IgniterCord:
These are a thin, flexible, incendiary cord which burns with a vigorous flame.
They are used for igniting any number of connector capped fuses and therefore
eliminate the need to light fuses individually. They are protected by a
waterproof polyethylene sheath. The incendiary composition of slow igniter
cord will to support combustion even though the outer sheath is punctuality in

the presence of moisture. However, the incendiary cores of fast, mediumdepends entirely on their
waterproof sheaths to resist the harmful effect of moisture.
|Igniter cord properties
Type Burning rate (s/m) Colour Resistance to moisture Principal application

Slow 30-45 Cream Good, even when protective Tunnelling
sheath is damaged
IC 57 13-26 Green Good if sheath is intact. Fair if Stoping when sequential firing of
sheath is damaged. shots is necessary. Normally used with
1.2m fuses
Medium 8-16 8-16 Grey Good if sheath is intact. Nil if Stoping when sequential firing of
0.9m fuses
Fast 1-6 Brown Good if sheath is intact. Fair if Stoping when sequential firing of
0.9m fuses
Sequential firing of shotholes
The choice of igniter cord to fire fuses in sequence is influenced by two opposing factors:
1. The time taken for the igniter cord to burn between successive connectors must be longer
than the variation in burning time between fuses.
2. The igniter cord flame must be sufficiently far ahead of the exploding shots not to be
affected by them (i.e. < 5m in stoping).
Electric starters
These are small electric circuits capable of producing heat. They are used to
electrically initiate igniter cord in development ends and underground stoping.
It can also initiate pyrotechnic charges in fireworks, security and safety
systems.
Benefits and Features
Benefits Features
1. Easy and secure igniter cord connector 5. Wires are colour coded by month for easy detection of
2. Remote ignition via blasting circuit ageing products
3. Reliable and instantaneous igniter cord initiation, even 6. Wire lengths of 350mm, minimised to be cost-

underwater effective
4. Circuit can easily be tested 7. Plastic casing prevents water ingress
8. Standard type 0 fusehead
9. The plastic casing has a clip designed to retain an
igniter cord strand in close proximity to the initiating
pyrotechnic charge
Detonators
A detonator is a small cylindrical aluminium or copper tube into which a powerful explosive e.g.
PETN is placed as a base charge. To suit various purposes, manufactures make No. 6 strength
detonator which has 0.35g PETN, and No. 8 strength detonator which has 0.78g PETN
No. 6 detonator are used top detonate NG-based explosives and detonating cord, and No. * are
recommended for use with ANFO in small diameter holes or when additional initiating strength
is required.
PLAIN DETONATORS:
The detonator consists of a small cylindrical aluminium or copper tube into which a powerful
explosive e.g. PETN is placed as a base charge and on top a primary charge is placed normally
lead azide. The primary charge is sensitive to initiation by the endspit of the safety fuse and
subsequently initiates the base charge.
Capped fuse
A capped consists of a safety fuse attached to a plain detonator.
Assembly of a plain detonator to a safety fuse:

1. Select a dry place with adequate ventilation.
2. Cut the fuse using a non ferrous knife so that the black powder core is visible
3. Cut the end of the fuse squarely and introduce it gently into the detonator against the
primary charge-leave no air gap.

4. Crimp the detonator thoroughly to the fuse with an approved non ferrous crimper.
5. Crimp the igniter cord connector at the other end.
ELECTRIC DETONATORS:
An electric detonator consists of a small cylindrical aluminium or copper tube into which a
powerful explosive e.g. PETN is placed as a base charge. This is topped by a primer charge
which is initiated by either an electric fuse head or bridge wire and an ignition mixture and on
top a primary charge is placed normally lead azide. In the match head or fuse head type
detonator, the two lead wires are connected within the device by a platinum iridium wire of high
resistance. The bridge wire is surrounded by a bead of lighting composition which is readily
ignited when sufficient current is passed. The resulting flame initiates the primer charge used and
ruptures the bridgewire. In contrast to the fusehead or match head detonators, the bridgewire can
fire the loose charge without rupturing the bridgewire.
In an electric detonator containing a delay element, the delay powder is initiated and burns at a
predetermined time before igniting the caps primer charge. The burning rate of the delay powder
and the length of the column determine the time interval between application of the adequate
electrical energy and the detonation of the cap.
Detonators are supplied with tags or period of identification, each have a distinctive numbered
tag to facilitate easy identification of each delay period
Electric detonators can be divided into three different classes due to their inherent timing
properties:
1. Instantaneous detonators
2. Short period delay detonators
3. Long period delay detonators
INSTANTANEOUS ELECTRIC DETONATORS:

Comprises of Cu of Al. Tube of 7mm dia and a little longer than the plain detonator so as to
accommodate the fusehead and the neoprene plug. Copper Detonators are for gassy coal mine
where highly incendiary Al. is prohibited.Explosive charges are ignited by an electric fuse head
of Nickel-Chromium-Iron alloy bridge wire soldered to theends brass foils separated by an
insulating piece of card board.
Fuse Head Composition:Potassium Chlorate, Nitro Cellulose, Charcoal (See Sketch)
SHORT PERIOD DELAY DETONATORS:

These are used when shaft sinking,tunnelling or drifting where the dimensions of the tunnel are
such as to require more delays than available with 0-14 range of LPD’s. This delay between
consecutive LPDs increases from 0.5 second between the lower delays numbers to just over
2seconds between the last or number. If flyrock is to be minimised, the delay interval should not
be less than 90 millisecond.
LONG DELAY DETONATORS :

These allow approximately ½ a second delay between consecutive groups and periods. They are
the normal choice in tunnelling rounds owing to their suitably under tight breaking conditions.
Advantages
1. Less vibration and noise.
2. Improved fragmentation.
3. No limit to the number of holes per blast.
4. Electrical shot firing equipment not necessary.
5. Easier to train operators
Disadvantages
1. More chance of cutoffs although experience and judicious use of relays can eliminate this
problem.
CORD RELAY :
These devices permit short delay to be introduced into trunk lines of detonating cords. A cord
relay consists of twodelay detonators mounted inside a resilient plastic shell. They are bi-
directional in operation, Cord Relays areavailable in the 15 Ms, 17 Ms, 25 Ms, 50 Ms, 75 Ms,
100 Ms, delay time. The shorter delay intervals are generallyrequired for small (65-90mm) dia
blast holes drilled on close spacing whereas the longer intervals are suited to largerblast
holesdrilled on wider spacing.Cord Relays are designed for use with detonating cords, which
have core loads of 10 gm/M. No special connectingtool is needed.

DETONATING FUSE:
It is a cord containing of an inner core of explosive usually
PETN (Pentaerythrol Tetranitrate) enclosed in a plastic
encasement and wrapped in a braid of various textiles and water
proofed. It is a strong, flexible, continuous detonator. It serves the
same purpose as detonators and directly initiates the high
explosives but needs a detonator forinitiation.It detonates at a
speed in excess of 7000 m/s. 10g/m of detonating cord will
initiate detonator sensitive explosive but requires a primer to
initiate blasting agents such as ANFO.
It is safer to handle than a blasting cap.It is simple cheap but

difficult to obtain precise timing. It is not affected by stray
currents. It is suitable for secondary blasting and single shot work.
For delay blasting in quarries and open pits detonating relays can
be included in the trunklines. It has the advantage that any number
of holes can befired on a different delay.
The delay element is inserted as close as

possible to the hole firing next and as
faraway as possible from that firing
first.If the trunk liners should be
disturbed either prior or during blasting
the detonation will proceed only as far as
the break and then stop. In large
complicated designs the blast is such that
firing information has two path by each
to reach individual holes.
Advantages:
1. Versatile, safe for use in extraneous electricity environments, simultaneously firing
without detonators, no hole limit, totally consumed, inexpensive.
2. Incorporation of delay connector in 1950, allowed sequential blasting of larger patterns
than electric
Disadvantages
1. It will dislodge any collar stemming
2. Surface trunklines generate significant levels of noise and airblast

3. A detonating cord downline to a bottom primer can desensitise the column for an
insensitive explosive such as ANFO
OHM METER:
Used for testing the continuity and resistance of blasting circuits. These are of two types.
i) Powered by low voltage hand operated generator.
ii) 1.5v dry battery type.
EXPLODER:
Used for firing shots electrically, these are of two types:
i) Generator type: - Magneto of dynamo (for large capacity) operated by a quick twist of strong
down wardpush of handle.
ii) Condenser discharge type: - Can be battery of dynamo powered.


Blasting:
In terms of processing, blasting is the critical first step in the rock-fragmentation process.
Maximum profitabilitydepends largely on good blasting. Consider that drilling and blasting are
the first operations performed in any hard-rockquarry operation. Therefore, the results of these
operations will affect more down-line activities, such as loading, haulingand crushing, than
anyother processing operation.Blasting should always be viewed in the "global" sense. One
should examine not only the effect of changes on thedrilling and blasting program, but also how
the change will affect the productivity and economics of other down-line costcenters. Blasting
should also be viewed in the "local" sense. No other quarry operation has more capacity to
causecommunity dissent than blasting.All quarry operations should have in place a proper

public-relations program designed to communicate to the communitythat proper safety

precautions and procedures are in place with regard to its blasting program.To understand the
principles of rock blasting, it is necessary to start with the rock fragmentation process that
follows thedetonation of the explosives in a drill hole. The explosion is a very rapid combustion,
in which the energy contained inthe explosives is released in the form of heat and gas pressure.
The transformation acts on the rock in three consecutivestages.
Compression: a pressure wave propagates through the rock at a velocity of 2,500–6,000 m/sec,
depending on rock typeand type of explosives. This pressure wave creates microfractures which
promote rock fracturing.
Reflection: during thenext stage, the pressure wave bounces back from the free surface, which is
normally the bench wall or natural fissures inthe rock. The compression wave is nowtransformed
into tension and shear waves, increasing the fracturing process.
Gas pressure: large volumes of gas are released, entering and expanding the cracks under high
pressure. Where thedistance between the blasthole and the free face has been correctly
Fragmentation
In the 1990s increasing emphasis was placed on the role of fragmentation at the operation. In
particular the effect offragmentation on crushing, load and haul, and run-of-mine leach pad
efficiency has received considerable attention.Better predictive techniques have been developed,
and computer-aided methods for determining the fragmentationdistributions in actual blasts are
now available. Fragmentation studies can lead to improved profits at many operations.
For example, studies at one operation showed that the same production could be obtained with
one less excavator ingood digging, when compared to poor digging conditions. This is a result
with both capital- and operating-costimplications.For maximum success it is essential that the
mine or quarry carefully design its blasts to achieve the desired results.These designs must be
accurately implemented in the field. The blasts must be shot in a safe manner, with the

areaproperly barricaded and all persons removed a safe distance away. Environmental affects
such as ground vibration,airblast and fume production must also be controlled.
Explosives
The past 15 years or so have seen new explosive formulations reach the marketplace, and
reductions in the use of someproducts that have been in use for longer periods. The principal
newcomers have been the emulsions, and emulsion-ANFO blends usually called Heavy ANFO,
that denotes its greater density than ANFO dry mixes.
Emulsions
The formulation of an emulsion is very similar to that of blasting slurries (water gels). However,
the cross-linking agentused to stiffen the slurry is replaced by an emulsifying agent. This water-
in-oil emulsifying agent suspends minutedroplets of the ammonium nitrate (or a combination of
AN with either calcium nitrate or sodium nitrate) oxidizer withinthe fuel. This yields a very
intimate oxidizer and fuel mix that leads to high detonation velocities.Emulsions may be bulk
loaded, or used in packaged form. Packaged products are usually employed in small
holediameters. They are mechanically sensitized using microballoons to introduce sufficient air
into the mix and control thedensity. Bulk emulsions are used in larger diameters and may be
mechanically or chemically sensitized, with chemicalsensitization being less costly. Bulk-loaded
product fully fills the cross sectional area of the hole and delivers maximumenergy to the
surrounding rock. This is a characteristic of all bulk-loaded products unless they are
intentionallydecoupled as is often the case in presplitting. Packaged emulsion will usually result
in somedecoupling with a reductionin borehole pressures. This generally is not a great problem
in small diameter blastholes.
Ammonium Nitrate Fuel Oil (ANFO)
ANFO remains one of the most commonly used products in quarry blasting. It is a combination
of ammonium nitrate(oxidizer) and number-two fuel oil (fuel). Number-one fuel oil may be used
in cold-weather applications.Blasting grade AN prills are made by spraying molten AN into a
prilling tower. Droplets fall under carefully controlledcooling conditions. The AN solidifies
while falling, taking on an approximately spherical shape of relatively uniformsize. Prilling
tower conditions must be such that will produce a "porous" prill that will absorb the proper
amount of fueloil (6 percent by weight). For those with overseas operations especially it will be
important to confirm that a porous prillis being produced. High density prills will not properly
absorb the fuel oil and blasting performance will suffer, unlessthese have been crushed to about -
20 mesh.Blasting-grade AN prills are typically +6, -14 mesh in size. This uniformity in the size
of the prills results in a poorpacking density, with considerable interstitial voids present. Hence a
product which typically bulk loads in a densityrange of 0.80 to 0.85 gm/cc. Some packaged
ANFO products use a blend of sizes, where a portion of the prill is crushed,leading to densities
of about 1.05 gm/cc. This product can be loaded in wet holes provided it is contained in
asuitablywaterproof bag.

ANFO has virtually no water resistance. Many people are of the impression that it takes several
hours before water attackseriously affects ANFO. The reality, however, is that degradation of the
product is immediate. Even if holes will bedetonated 2 or 3 hours after loading, performance will
have been seriously affected.Therefore, whenever ANFO is to be loaded into wet holes, the
blastholes should first be pumped and a plastic linerplaced in the hole. The ANFO is loaded
inside the liner. Care should be taken to obtain a liner that has a high integrity.Even a few
pinholes are enough to allow water to attack ANFO. For hole diameters less than 5 in., using
plastic liners isgenerally difficult. Therefore, small diameter waterproof products such as
emulsions or slurries are generally used forsmall diameter, wet holes.One way to increase the
energy output in ANFO is to add aluminum. The reaction of ammonium nitrate with
aluminumreleases more energy per unit of weight. The aluminum must be of a suitable size to be
reactive, but not so fine as toconstitute an explosion hazard. This generally means a size range of
-20, +150 mesh.The upper limit on aluminum addition is usually about 15 percent. As more Al is
added to the mix increasing percentages of the energy are trapped in a solid product of
detonation. Beyond 15 percent Al by weight there is little additional energy output for the
aluminum added.
Heavy ANFO
Another way to increase the energy output of ANFO is to add emulsion to it. The emulsion fills
the voids between theprills, the density increases and there is more energy output per unit of
blasthole volume. This class of explosives areknown as Heavy ANFO. They provide a cost
effective way to increase the energy output of ANFO.Heavy ANFO may be produced solely for
the purpose of increasing the energy output. However, at higher emulsion percentages by weight
these products become waterproof. Such formulations can be bulk loaded into wet holes.
Experiment has shown that the performance of Heavy ANFO becomes sluggish as more
emulsion is added unless the emulsion has been sensitized by gassing or micro balloons. It
appears that in hard-rock performance will suffer when there is more than 30 percent of
unsensitized emulsion in the mix. In softer formations greater percentages of unsensitized
product can usually be employed because suitable fragmentation of the rock depends to a greater
degree on heave energy. The degree of non-ideal detonation introduced by the lack of
sensitization means that a greater degree of the total energy is released as heave energy.
A waterproof product is typically produced at 50 percent emulsion addition. However, to obtain
a product that can be pumped reliably it is common to use a waterproof Heavy ANFO containing
60 to 70 percent emulsion. Such products should always be made with a sensitized emulsion, or
performance will suffer. When waterproof heavy ANFO blend is loaded into wet holes it should
always be loaded from the bottom up. This is achieved using a bulk truck with a hose that can
extend to the bottom of the blast hole. The product is pumped through the hose. The hose is
retracted as loading proceeds, but is always kept in the explosive. The water rises on top of thea

dvancing column of denser explosive. Mixing does not occur if the loading is carefully
performed. When Heavy ANFO is augured into wet holes it spatters on impact with the water,
and drill goes into the solution. Water is mixed into the explosive column. Bridging may occur
with portions of the explosive column separated by a water gap. Since the gap sensitivity of these
products is not large this may lead to the failure of a portion of the explosive column to detonate
unless it happens to be primed on both sides of the water gap. Heavy ANFO is also produced as a
packaged product. In this case it is sensitized using micro ballons, which improves the shelf life.
Package products can be used where there are insufficient wet holes to warrant bulk loading, or
in small tonnage operations. It is also used as a toe load in holes that have only a few feet of
water in the bottom of the hole, and can be used in small-diameter packaged formulations.
Dynamite
There is still a considerable amount of dynamite sold annually in the U.S. However, pits and
quarries have almost completely moved from the use of dynamites to small diameter, cap-
sensitive emulsions and slurries for appropriate eapplications. Dynamites are explosive
substances that depend upon nitroglycerin or nitrostarch for sensitiveness. These products are
usually cap sensitive with a detonation velocity dependent upon the diameter and density.
Dynamites are used as decoupled charges in presplitting. They are also used sometimes to prime
ANFO in small diameters. For this latter application a product with high detonation velocity
should be chosen because it will have the higher detonation pressures (a function of the square of
the detonation velocity) that are important for efficient priming of ANFO.


MODULE 3 BLASTING ACCESSORIES

3.0 Explosives and blast-initiation accessories
Some of the explosive described above are cap sensitive. This means the product can be
efficiently detonated by a blasting cap or delay detonator of adequate strength, or by compatible
detonating cord. Small-diameter emulsions and slurries are typically cap sensitive. The
manufacturer should be consulted as to the proper accessories to use.
3.1 Safety Fuse
This consists of a core of blasting gunpowder tightly wrapped with coverings of textile and
insulated with coverings of textile and insulated against moisture by waterproofing materials like
asphalt and plastics. The coverings act as protection for the black powder core against water, oil
and other materials which can change the burning speed or desensitise the powder. The covering
also prevents side-spit which can cause premature detonation if it sets fire to the explosives
charge. The burning rate between 98 – 120 s/m
3.2 Igniter Cord
These are a thin, flexible, incendiary cord which burns with a vigorous flame.
They are used for igniting any number of connector capped fuses and therefore
eliminate the need to light fuses individually. They are protected by a
waterproof polyethylene sheath. The incendiary composition of slow igniter
cord will to support combustion even though the outer sheath is punctuality in
the presence of moisture. However, the incendiary cores of fast, medium
depends entirely on their waterproof sheaths to resist the harmful effect of
moisture.
3.2.1 Igniter cord properties
Type Burning rate (s/m) Colour Resistance to moisture Principal application

Slow 30-45 Cream Good, even when Tunnelling
protective sheath is
damaged
IC 57 13-26 Green Good if sheath is intact. Stoping when sequential
Fair if sheath is damaged. firing of shots is necessary.
Normally used with 1.2m
fuses
Medium 8-16 8-16 Grey Good if sheath is intact. Stoping when sequential
Nil if sheath is damaged. firing of shots is necessary.
fuses
Fast 1-6 Brown Good if sheath is intact. Stoping when sequential
Fair if sheath is damaged. firing of shots is necessary.
fuses
3.2.2 Sequential firing of shotholes
The choice of igniter cord to fire fuses in sequence is influenced by two opposing factors:

4. The time taken for the igniter cord to burn between successive connectors must be longer
than the variation in burning time between fuses.
5. The igniter cord flame must be sufficiently far ahead of the exploding shots not to be
affected by them (i.e. < 5m in stoping).
3.3 Electric starters
These are small electric circuits capable of producing heat. They are used to
electrically initiate igniter cord in development ends and underground stoping.
It can also initiate pyrotechnic charges in fireworks, security and safety
systems.
3.3.1 Benefits and Features
Benefits Features
6. Easy and secure igniter cord connector 10. Wires are colour coded by month for
7. Remote ignition via blasting circuit easy detection of ageing products
8. Reliable and instantaneous igniter cord 11. Wire lengths of 350mm, minimised to
initiation, even underwater be cost-effective
9. Circuit can easily be tested 12. Plastic casing prevents water ingress
13. Standard type 0 fusehead
14. The plastic casing has a clip designed to
retain an igniter cord strand in close
proximity to the initiating pyrotechnic
charge
3.4 Detonators
A detonator is a small cylindrical aluminium or copper tube into which a powerful explosive e.g.
PETN is placed as a base charge. To suit various purposes, manufactures make No. 6 strength
detonator which has 0.35g PETN, and No. 8 strength detonator which has 0.78g PETN
No. 6 detonator are used top detonate NG-based explosives and detonating cord, and No. * are
recommended for use with ANFO in small diameter holes or when additional initiating strength
is required.
3.4.1 PLAIN DETONATORS
The detonator consists of a small cylindrical aluminium or copper tube into which a powerful
explosive e.g. PETN is placed as a base charge and on top a primary charge is placed normally
lead azide. The primary charge is sensitive to initiation by the endspit of the safety fuse and
subsequently initiates the base charge.
3.4.2 Capped fuse
A capped consists of a safety fuse attached to a plain detonator.

Assembly of a plain detonator to a safety fuse:

1. Select a dry place with adequate ventilation.
2. Cut the fuse using a non ferrous knife so that the black powder core is visible
3. Cut the end of the fuse squarely and introduce it gently into the detonator against the
primary charge-leave no air gap.
4. Crimp the detonator thoroughly to the fuse with an approved non ferrous crimper.
5. Crimp the igniter cord connector at the other end.
3.4.3 ELECTRIC DETONATORS
An electric detonator consists of a small cylindrical aluminium or copper tube into which a
powerful explosive e.g. PETN is placed as a base charge. This is topped by a primer charge
which is initiated by either an electric fuse head or bridge wire and an ignition mixture and on
top a primary charge is placed normally lead azide. In the match head or fuse head type
detonator, the two lead wires are connected within the device by a platinum iridium wire of high
resistance. The bridge wire is surrounded by a bead of lighting composition which is readily
ignited when sufficient current is passed. The resulting flame initiates the primer charge used and
ruptures the bridgewire. In contrast to the fusehead or match head detonators, the bridgewire can
fire the loose charge without rupturing the bridgewire.
In an electric detonator containing a delay element, the delay powder is initiated and burns at a
predetermined time before igniting the caps primer charge. The burning rate of the delay powder
and the length of the column determine the time interval between application of the adequate
electrical energy and the detonation of the cap.
Detonators are supplied with tags or period of identification, each have a distinctive numbered
tag to facilitate easy identification of each delay period
Electric detonators can be divided into three different classes due to their inherent timing
properties:
6. Instantaneous detonators
7. Short period delay detonators
8. Long period delay detonators

(a) INSTANTANEOUS ELECTRIC DETONATORS:

Comprises of Cu of Al. Tube of 7mm dia and a little longer than the plain detonator so as to
accommodate the fuse head and the neoprene plug. Copper Detonators are for gassy coal mine
where highly incendiary Al. is prohibited. Explosive charges are ignited by an electric fuse head
of Nickel-Chromium-Iron alloy bridge wire soldered to the ends brass foils separated by an
insulating piece of card board.
Fuse Head Composition: Potassium Chlorate, Nitro Cellulose, Charcoal (See Sketch)
(b) SHORT PERIOD DELAY DETONATORS:

These are used when shaft sinking, tunnelling or drifting where the dimensions of the tunnel are
such as to require more delays than available with 0-14 range of LPD’s. This delay between
consecutive LPDs increases from 0.5 second between the lower delays numbers to just over
2seconds between the last or number. If flyrock is to be minimised, the delay interval should not
be less than 90 millisecond.
(c) LONG DELAY DETONATORS

These allow approximately ½ a second delay between consecutive groups and periods. They are
the normal choice in tunnelling rounds owing to their suitably under tight breaking conditions.
Advantages
9. Less vibration and noise.
10. Improved fragmentation.
11. No limit to the number of holes per blast.
12. Electrical shot firing equipment not necessary.
13. Easier to train operators
Disadvantages
14. More chance of cut offs although experience and judicious
use of relays can eliminate this problem.
3.5 DETONATING FUSE

It is a cord containing of an inner core of explosive usually ETN (Pentaerythrol Tetranitrate)
enclosed in a plastic encasement and wrapped in a braid of various textiles and water proofed. It
is a strong, flexible, continuous detonator. It serves the same purpose as detonators and directly
initiates the high explosives but needs a detonator for initiation. It detonates at a speed in excess

of 7000 m/s. 10g/m of detonating cord will initiate detonator sensitive explosive but requires a
primer to initiate blasting agents such as ANFO.
It is safer to handle than a blasting cap. It is simple cheap but

difficult to obtain precise timing. It is not affected by stray
currents. It is suitable for secondary blasting and single shot work.
For delay blasting in quarries and open pits detonating relays can
be included in the trunk lines. It has the advantage that any
number of holes can be fired on a different delay.
The delay element is inserted as close as

possible to the hole firing next and as
faraway as possible from that firing first.
If the trunk liners should be disturbed
either prior or during blasting the
detonation will proceed only as far as the
break and then stop. In large complicated
designs the blast is such that firing
information has two path by each to
reach individual holes.
Advantages:
15. Versatile, safe for use in extraneous electricity environments, simultaneously firing
without detonators, no hole limit, totally consumed, inexpensive.
16. Incorporation of delay connector in 1950, allowed sequential blasting of larger patterns
than electric
Disadvantages
17. It will dislodge any collar stemming
18. Surface trunk lines generate significant levels of noise and air blast
19. A detonating cord downline to a bottom primer can desensitise the column for an
insensitive explosive such as ANFO
3.5.1 CORD RELAY:

These devices permit short delay to be introduced into trunk lines of detonating cords. A cord
relay consists of two delay detonators mounted inside a resilient plastic shell. They are bi-
directional in operation, Cord Relays are available in the 15 Ms, 17 Ms, 25 Ms, 50 Ms, 75 Ms,
100 Ms, delay time. The shorter delay intervals are generally required for small (65-90mm) dia
blast holes drilled on close spacing whereas the longer intervals are suited to larger blast holes

drilled on wider spacing. Cord Relays are designed for use with detonating cords, which have
core loads of 10 gm/M. No special connecting tool is needed.
Shock-tube systems
The shock-tube system is a plastic tube with a thin explosive coating on the inside of the tube.
Upon detonation this material continuously detonates at a low velocity of approximately 6,500
fps. Thus, the plastic tubes are not and the noise level is low. It is, therefore, good to use as lead-
in line to initiate a non-electric blast in populated areas. It is also used to connect holes together
when used as part of a long lead-surface delay system. It is used in the blast hole as a long lead
down-the-hole (DTH) delay system to replace detonating cord down lines, or as a pigtail on DTH
delays used in conjunction with detonating cord. Shock tube systems, unlike some detonating
cords, will not set off a primer and must always be used with a DTH initiator and compatible
primer.
Electric detonators
Fewer blasts in surface mines and quarries are initiated with electric systems today than once
was the case. However, this practice is certainly still followed by many, especially in quarrying.
Construction of electrical caps and delays is similar to non-electric components, except that the
energy to ignite the ignition compound is provided electrically. This does have the advantage of
minimizing noise on surface, but has the disadvantage of being more susceptible to stray radio
frequency and currents, lightening, etc. The instantaneous electric blasting cap is sometimes
called an E.B. cap. Like the non-electric blasting cap it is a thin metal shell containing various
sensitive ignition powders and primary initiating high explosives sealed in a water proof
assembly. The electric cap is completely sealed with water-resistant plugs with only two
insulated "leg wires" emerging. Inside the cap the leg wires are joined by a short piece of fine
resistance wire called a "bridge wire." The bridge wire may be imbedded either directly into an
ignition mixture or in an electric match. In either case, when an ample electric current passes
through this bridge wire it heats it to incandescence. This ignites the ignition mixture and
initiates the primer and base charges in the cap. Thus, the electric blasting cap converts a
relatively small amount of electrical energy into a primary-initiating explosion capable of
detonating cap-sensitive high explosives with which it is in intimate contact.
Delay electric caps are similar to instantaneous caps in construction and action, except that
between the ignition charge and the primer charge there is a column of powder called a "delay
charge" which serves as a time fuse. Delay E.B. capsare of two general types: millisecond, and
long-period delay. A wide choice of delay intervals are available running from about
8milliseconds (a millisecond is one-thousandth of a second) through to about 12 seconds. Most
quarries use millisecond delays because of the improved breakage and reduced vibration they

provide. Many underground operations use the long-periods, although many have switched over
to milliseconds.
Scores of different hook-ups may be made. Determination of electrical resistances and other
details pertinent to firing electrically are discussed in manufacturers' literature available to guide
mine and quarry operators. Success requires that the operator precisely follow directions of the
manufacturer who produced the electrical devices they utilize. Such directions give the exact
procedure required to properly:
1. Select and lay out the blasting circuit.
2. Connect wires and protect splices.
3. Test the circuit.
4. Apply the required electrical energy.
5. Protect the circuit from extraneous electricity.
Electronic blasting systems

Both the shock-tube system and electric detonators rely on a pyrotechnic delay element to attain
their delay timing. These pyrotechnic delays are subject to timing inaccuracies called "scatter."
Scatter can be caused by variations in the pyrotechnic composition, age and temperature.
Deviation from the detonators nominal firing time can cause out-of sequence firing. This will
result in high vibrations, air blast and poor blast performance. Recognizing the accuracy issue
and the safety concerns with both the electric system (stray current) and shock tube (cannot be
tested) the industry has moved towards a more advanced initiation technology called electronic-
blasting systems. Electronic-blasting systems are unique as they have eliminated the pyrotechnic
delay element and replaced it with a high-accuracy timing "chip." These systems now deliver
1/10th of a millisecond timing accuracy with delays up to20,000 milliseconds. The systems are
available in both programmable and fixed times. Programmable systems allow the blast engineer
to design blasts specific to the site conditions. Electronic systems also bring with them many
safety advantages such as being fully testable with self-diagnostics, able to operate in areas of
extraneous current and greater blast control through accurate timing. Field tests have proven that
the use of electronic-blasting systems with proper blast designs have reduced vibration levels, air
blasts and significantly improved blast performance.
Electronic Detonators
- Idea of electronics first discussed beginning 1990s
- Recognised potential to increase detonator accuracy
and improve customer results
- Costly technology served as a deterrent
- Mine site drive to increase accuracy, resulted in
various manufacturers beginning to develop and

market versions of electronic detonators
NONEL
NON-ELECTRIC DETONATORS
All commercial detonators require an initiating spark which may be produced by one of the
following:
a) Flame from core in burning safety fuse: Plain detonator.
b) Fusion of bridge wire by an electric current: Electric detonator.
c) Flame from initiation of reactive powder in a tube: Shock tube detonator.
NONEL NEPD
This is a shock tube detonator system manufactured by Dyno Nobel, Sweden which contains no
primary explosive in its composition thus making it safer in use.
There are three Nonel detonator types:
1. Nonel MS
2. Nonel LP
3. Nonel Unidet
1. Nonel MS
This is a short delay detonator system of 25msincrements from period No. 3 (75ms) to period
No. 20(500ms). The detonator tubes are connected using either a Snapline connector or low
energy detonating cord. (3.6-5.0g/m).
2. Nonel LP
This is a long period delay for use in under ground applications. It is available in delay periods
from no. 0to no. 60 with time delay of 25 to 6000 ms nominal time with 6m the length. Tubes are
connected using either Bunch connectors or low energy detonating cord(3.6-5.6 g/m)

3. Nonel Unidet
This is a detonator system designed for surface applications. The principle is that the same delay
period is used for every hole with the timing between holes being affected by surface delays
incorporated into connector units. For double-decked holes ac ommon delay period is used for
the bottom deck with another common delay for the top deck. Unidets are available in the
following delays:
Nominal time* (ms)
U 450 450
U 475 475
U 500 500
* Nominal times with 6m length tubes.
Initiation and delay sequencing methods

Low explosives like black powder, can be ignited by the flame from a fuse or a match; secondary
explosives require stronger ignition, usually a powerful high temperature shock from a substance
that detonates at a very rapid rate. Fulminate of mercury, lead azide, and PETN satisfy this
requirement, and the last two have been widely used in blasting caps. The fulminate of mercury
has little binding and tends to be mixed with potassium chlorate so that the compound can be
pressed into the bottom of blasting caps. Lead azide (PbN6) is more powerful than fulminate, is
less effected by water, but is more difficult to ignite, thus is generally mixed with lead styphinate
and aluminum to lessen this difficulty. Tetryl, (C7H5N5O8) is also a powerful explosive and is
sometimes used as a main charge with the azide as the initiator. (This type of detonator is not
allowed in coal mines due to the high temperature of detonation.) The majority of detonators are
copper or aluminum cased and are initiated using safety fuse, electrically or with shock tube. The
advantages and disadvantages are discussed in a later section.There are two basic methods of
initiating an explosive; electrically and non-electrically.
Electrical Methods
The general term “electric firing devices” applies to blasting supplies which are activated
electrically. The usual arrangement is a metal shell, referred to as a detonator, with two wires
leading in from one end.
Electrical Detonators
An electrical detonator, as shown in Figure 11.1,
consists of an aluminum or copper tube in which a

powerful explosive (PETN, lead azide or fulminate of mercury) is pressed as a base charge. This
is topped by a primer charge which is initiated by either an electrical fusehead or a bridge wire
and ignition charge. The dimensions of a detonator are generally 7.6 mm in diameter and
between 25 and 50 mm in length.
In the matchhead or fusehead type detonator, the two lead wires are connected within the device
by a fine platinum-iridium wire of high resistance. The bridge wire is surrounded by a bead of
igniting composition which is readily ignited when sufficient current is passed through the bridge
wire. The resulting flame initiates the primer charge and ruptures the bridge wire. The detonators
are generally made with a loose charge contained in a plastic cup in which the bridge wire sits. In
contrast to the fuse or matchhead detonators, the bridge wire can fire the loose charge without
rupturing the bridge wire. This is an important advantage when firing caps in series; though in
parallel circuits it has the disadvantage that there is a continual electrical drain. The plastic cup
both insulates the charge, which is the most sensitive part of the detonator, from stray currents
and isolates it from shock. When current is applied to the cap, the following events take place
sequentially, providing the current is adequate:
(1) The loose charge ignites (initiation);
(2) The bridge wire ruptures;
(3) The base charge detonates.
This is always the sequence but the actual times are not precise and are statistically distributed,
as shown in Figure 11.2. This figure represents a frequency time plot for large numbers of single
detonators when tested with varying currents.
It can be seen that as the current is increased, the

spread of the curves becomes less, the overlap is
eliminated and the mean times are reduced. If
the current is so low that there is overlap
between the rupture and the initiation curves,
then when firing in series, misfires may result as
caps will have their bridge wires ruptured before
some are initiated. For these reasons it is
desirable to know the firing characteristics of
electrical detonators.
Rules on use of Electric detonators

(1) Always use a minimum of 1.5Aper series. It must be assumed that some current leakage is
always present.
(2) Never use more than 35 caps per series. The probability of rupture/initiation overlap
increases as the square of the number of caps.

(3) Never mix caps of different manufacture because of differences in characteristic times.
(4) Under difficult conditions do not use instantaneous caps. These are the first to break the
circuit.
(5) Never use instantaneous electric blasting caps with delay caps.
Instantaneous caps are commonly available in a variety of strengths to suit different applications.
Two which are most commonly available are:
(1) No. 6 cap (0.35 g PETN) for use with high explosives.
(2) No. 8 cap (0.78 g PETN) for use with blasting agents in small diameter holes where
additional initiating strength is required.
Both long period instantaneous delays and short period caps find wide application in both surface
and underground blasting operations. The most notable advantages derived from their use
include:
(i) Reduced vibration and concussion;
(ii) Improved fragmentation due to delays;
(iii) More predictable flyrock throw;
(iv) Reduced overbreak and backbreak;
(v) Minimized cut-off.
Electrical Hook Ups

Detonators may be connected together electrically in a firing circuit as follows, see Figure 11.7:
(1) Parallel - most infrequent, most difficult;
(2) Series - commonly used for a small number of caps;
(3) Series/parallel - most common for a larger number of caps.
Circuits may be designed using Ohm’s and
Kirchoff’s laws with the knowledge of cap
and lead wire resistance. Resistance of caps
depends on their construction and lead wire
length.
In series circuits, all the caps are joined up
together to provide a single path for the
current; one leg wire of one cap is connected
to one from another cap, the other from the
second cap to one from the third and so on.
The two free ends are connected by lead
wires to a blasting machine or other source of power. Experience has shown that the length of a
series circuit should be limited.

Normally, no more than 50 caps should be connected, and where there is a risk of current
leakage, it is preferable to keep the number down to 30 or less. In Canada, the minimum current
requirement is 1.5 amperes per circuit.
The following example illustrates the method of calculating the voltage and power requirements.
For example, consider the following situation:
Number of S.P. detonators 30
Length of leg wires 3m
Resistance per cap 1.5 ohms
Blasting cable 300 m of twin lead No. 10 wire
Blasting cable resistance 0.0033 ohms/m
Series
For all caps in series, see Figure 11.7:
Parallel
In parallel circuits, one wire from each cap is connected to one side of the blasting circuit and the
other wire to the other side of the circuit. The parallel hook up offers good protection against
stray currents, static electricity and induced currents because premature firing will not occur
unless the extraneous current is well above the minimum level required for firing a single cap.
Parallel circuits are often used in large development headings, tunnels or shafts where charges
are close together and the leg wires may be connected with minimal splicing of extra wire to bus
bars.
Powerlines are usually used to fire parallel circuits because of the high amperage required and
the time for which it must be sustained.
In a typical ladder circuit, illustrated in Figure 11.7, each cap provides a separate path for the
electric current and due to the bus wire resistance, which provides an uneven distribution of
electric current, the caps fire progressively in rapid succession. In this example the top and
bottom caps do not begin to receive minimum firing current until a certain time has elapsed.
Then, as the preceding caps are initiated one after another, an inductive surge of current is
produced which may cause destructive arcing unless a shunt resistor is used to dissipate the extra
power (typically 500mm(20 in) of 16 gauge Nichrome wire).

Other methods of minimizing electric arcing include:

(1) Use No. 16 gauge bare copper bus wires and space cap connections at about 300 mm
(12 in) apart;
(2) Use a power supply of adequate rating;
(3) Use a firing switch which positively applies the firing current;
(4) Only use detonators with delays greater than 150 ms.
The following example (using the same parameters as before) illustrates the method of
calculating the voltage and power requirements of a parallel circuit.
1/R(caps) = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3 + ... + 1/R30 = 30/1.5

R(caps) = 0.05 ohms
R(leads) = (600)(0.0033) = 2 ohms
R(total) = R(caps) + R(leads) = 0.05 + 2 = 2.05 ohms
Now by specification, 0.6 amps/cap is required for single caps.

Therefore: I = i = 30 x 0.6 = 18 amps and:
Voltage (V) = IR = 18 x 2.05 = 36 volts

Power (P) = VI = 36 x 18 = 648 watts
Energy = VIt = 648 x (4 x 10-3) = 2.6 J or 87 mJ/cap
Series-Parallel
In series-parallel circuits a number of caps are connected in two or more series, each of which is
then connected in parallel across the lead wires. Each series should balance with the other series,
i.e. for 90 holes in three series, make three series of 30 holes each or for 65 holes, make two
series of 33 holes and 32 holes respectively. Series-parallel circuits have the advantage that a
number of electric blasting caps can be fired with a reasonable power requirement and also the
whole circuit, as well as an individual series, can be tested with a blasting galvanometer.
In this case, the voltage and power requirements may be calculated as follows:
For 3 series, 10 detonators in each, balanced resistance, see Figure 11.7.
Total current = i = 3 x 1.5 = 4.5 amps
Resistance of each series = R = 10(1.5) = 15 ohms
Resistance of caps = R(caps) then 1/R(caps) = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3
= 3/15 therefore R(caps) = 5 ohms
R(leads) = (600)(0.0033) = 2 ohms
R(total) = R(caps) + R(leads) = 5 + 2 = 7 ohms
Therefore: Voltage (V) = IR = 4.5 x 7 = 31.5 volts

Power (P) = VI = 31.5 x 4.5 = 142 watts
Energy = VIt = 142 x (4 x 10-3) = 568 mJ or 19 mJ/cap
Most blasting machines have adequate capacity for firing at 20 mJ for each detonator.
Methods of Electrically Firing a Blast

Electrical blasts may be initiated in three ways:
(1) By a portable blasting machine;

(2) By electrical energy from a powerline; or
(3) By electrical energy from a portable generator.
The majority of portable blasting machines are designed for series firing but can be used for
series/parallel circuits with certain limitations. They should never be used on parallel circuits.
There are two types of portable blasting machine. One type develops a pulsing direct current by
either a quick hand twist or by the firm downward thrust of a rack bar. The unit is so designed
such that no current is passed until the current is at its peak. The other is the condenser discharge
type which utilizes the charging of a bank of condensers by either a battery or hand generator
source; when fully charged, these condensers are discharged through the blasting circuit by a
suitable switching arrangement.
Blasting machines should be stored in a cool, dry area and should be handled with reasonable
care to ensure they will give adequate performance. In cold temperatures, the battery output of
the condenser/discharge type machine will be greatly reduced and the condensers will not be
charged to full capacity.
An underground firing system can consist of the following equipment:
(1) Step-down transformer;
(2) High output exploder;
(3) Distribution box;
(4) Mains blasting booster.
The step-down transformer is required to reduce the mines voltage to the design voltage of the
exploder.
The high output exploder is designed to fire up to 5,000 standard detonators in series-parallel
circuits. AC voltage fluctuation is controlled by charging the exploders capacitors with a low
current line from the mains. Once the capacitors have been fully charged the energy can be
released to initiate the round(s).
Distribution boxes are used to simplify the connection of multiple series in parallel circuits and
allow the testing of individual circuits without disconnecting them from the terminals.

Mains blasting boosters are located near the face and operate from a low current 100 - 250 V
power source. Once its capacitor is charged it produces a low current, high voltage to ensure
initiation of the blast.
Precautions with Electrical Blasting

Static
In dry air, low humidity and in the presence of rapid moving ammonium nitrate (AN), sand or
dust, static charge build-up is possible and provides a blasting hazard. When loading AN/FO, a
man or truck may be charged to 10,000 volts with an energy of 15 mJ. The charge required to
initiate a typical Canadian detonator is 6mJ and therefore this charge is sufficient to cause cap
detonation. For this reason, leg wire shunting should be used to increase the energy required (up
to 100 mJ) for detonation to in excess of the static charge present. Other precautions include:
(1) Grounding chains on loading equipment;

(2) Personnel grounding during and after loading;
(3) The use of conductive loading hoses, i.e. Lo stat.
Radio Transmitters
The wires on the blasting cap, or in the circuit, may act as an antenna. If the configuration of the
wires is just right, and if the radio transmitter is close enough, this antenna may pick up enough
current to cause detonation. The following distances are recommended.
Blasting Near High Voltage Powerlines

Whenever it is necessary to blast with electric caps near high voltage powerlines, special blasting
procedures should be used. Because of the large quantity of electric energy carried by these lines
and because of the high cost of repairing a damaged line, careful attention must be given to
ensuring that the powerline does not present a hazard to electric blasting and that the blast does
not damage the powerline. The following minimum distances should be followed in setting up a
blasting circuit close to a powerline.
There are five factors that should be considered when evaluating the effect of a high voltage
powerline on an electric blasting circuit. These are:
Capacitive Coupling
This applies to electrical energy that the powerline’s electric field may introduce into the blasting
circuit. A practical example of capacitive coupling is the transfer of electrical energy between
two parallel plates in a capacitor. Fortunately, capacitive coupling is very inefficient and only
negligible energy is transferred to the electric blasting cap circuit. Therefore, little concern need
be given to it.
Inductive Coupling
This applies to electrical energy that the powerline’s magnetic field may introduce into the
electric blasting cap circuit. A practical illustration of inductive coupling is the transfer of
electrical energy by a transformer. As with capacitive coupling, inductive coupling is also very
inefficient, especially with the balanced load, three phase powerline systems that are in general
use. However, if the powerline is struck by lightning, or if a fault (i.e. a short-circuit between
one, or more, of the phases and the ground) occurs, an unbalanced surge current might flow in
the powerline and provide more severe inductive coupling effects.
Stray Current
The neutral, or ground, in most power systems is connected to earth at each tower or pole. Some
neutral current flow may occur in poly-phase systems and part of this neutral current may pass
through the earth thus setting up a source of stray current.
Wire Thrown Over the Powerline

The firing line or electric blasting circuit wires could be thrown up into contact with the
powerline as a result of the blast. This could cause a short circuit from the powerline, through the
blasting circuit to earth and may injure or kill the shotfirer. Therefore, if the combined length of
the firing line and twice the leg wire length used, exceeds the distance from the blasting machine

to the powerline, the applicable procedures in the RECOMMENDATIONS section should be

used.
Lightning Strikes on the Powerline

The purpose of the overhead ground wires is to protect the high voltage phase wires by
intercepting lightning strikes and grounding them to earth. Although a lightning strike is usually
carried to earth within several poles (or towers) of the strike, it could be carried greater distances,
especially if the lightning strikes a phase wire. This could serve to increase stray current and/or
the effects of capacitive and inductive coupling. Hence, the appropriate procedures given in the
RECOMMENDATIONS section should be followed.
RECOMMENDATIONS
The recommended procedures for minimizing the factors by which a high voltage powerline may
represent a hazard to electric blasting are as follows:
1. Capacitive and Inductive Coupling:
(i) Keep the blasting circuit wires close to the ground;
(ii) Eliminate large closed wire loops by using duplex or twisted pair wire;
(iii) Always try to run the firing line perpendicular to the powerline direction;
(iv) Prior to any electric blasting, make pick-up tests using a worst-case simulated circuit to
determine that the effects of inductive and capacitive coupling are minimal. Follow this up with
periodical rechecks. The procedures for making these tests are described at the end of this
section.
2. Stray Current:
(i) Keep the blasting circuit isolated from earth by either insulating the splices with electrician’s
tape, or by keeping them off the ground;
(ii) Prior to any electric blasting make tests to determine that stray currents in the area are
minimal. Follow this up with periodic rechecks. The procedure for making these tests is
described at the end of this section.
3. Wires Thrown Over the Powerline:
(i) Do not run the firing line under the powerline;
(ii) Anchor the blasting circuit to the ground;
(iii) Employ a positive means to open the firing line immediately after the blast is fired. A
suitable positive opening means consists of a 25 to 50 cm length of detonating cord taped to the
firing line. The detonating cord should be initiated by a short delay E.B. Cap, that is properly
connected into the blasting circuit.
4. Electrical Storms:
(i) Extend the area of concern for an electrical storm from within 1.5 to 3.0 km of the blast site to
within 8 to 16 km;

(ii) If there are any electrical storms within this distance of the blast site, discontinue the loading
operation and remove all personnel to a position of safety until the storm has passed over;
(iii) When retreating from the blast site, open all shunts on wired-up electric blasting cap circuits
making sure that the bare wire ends are insulated from contact with the earth. Leave individually
shunted electric blasting caps as they are;
(iv) Replace all shunts immediately upon return to the blast site after the storm has passed over.
The pick-up tests to detect excessive capacitive or inductive coupling or stray current should be
made using a suitable electrical measuring instrument.
The tests that are to be made prior to any electric blasting should be performed using a simulated
blasting circuit and measuring any extraneous electricity introduced into this circuit with the test
meter. The tests can be made more severe by using a special circuit layout for each test that
provides worst-case conditions. These layouts are as follows:
Capacitive Coupling
Suspend a 15-30m(50-100 ft) length of wire about 1.2-1.6m(4-5 ft) in the air using wooden
stakes. Connect one end of the wire to earth through a one ohm resistor. Connect the test meter
across the one ohm resistor.
Inductive Coupling
Lay out a rectangular loop of wire with the sides parallel to the powerline direction about 30 m
long and the sides perpendicular to the powerline direction about 15 m (50 ft) long. Connect a
one ohm resistor between the two wire ends from the loop. Connect the test meter across the one
ohm resistor.
Stray Current
Insert two metal stakes about 30 m (100 ft) apart in the ground under the powerline such that a
line connecting the stakes will be parallel to the powerline direction.Wet around the stakes with
water to assure good electrical contact. Connect a one ohm resistor to the stakes using a piece of
extension wire on the ends of the resistor leads. Connect the test meter across the one ohm
resistor. If the powerline is AC, inductive and capacitive coupling and stray current
measurements can be made. Set the range selector on the test meter to the highest AC voltage
range. If no reading or only an insignificant deflection is obtained, switch the selector to
increasingly more sensitive voltage ranges. Continue this until either an appreciable reading is
obtained or the most sensitive range is reached.
If the powerline is DC, inductive and capacitive coupling will not be present; only stray current
measurements will be meaningful. Set the range selector on the test meter to the highest DC
voltage range. If no reading or only insignificant deflection is obtained, switch the selector to
increasingly more sensitive voltage ranges. Continue this until either an appreciable reading is
obtained or until the most sensitive range is reached.
It is generally recommended that millivolts should be the maximum permissible reading. If

higher readings are obtained do not attempt to blast using electric caps. Field experience has
indicated that generally readings of a millivolt, or less, are encountered. It should be realized that
proper laying out of the blasting circuit to minimize inductive and capacitive coupling and to
prevent the entrance of stray current, should reduce any extraneous electricity to much lower
values than indicated by these worst-cases condition tests.
Once it has been ascertained that coupled energy and stray current are not excessive, rechecks
can be made on either a permanent simulated blasting circuit if this is possible, or by measuring
the current introduced into the actual blasting circuit. When running tests on the actual blasting
circuit, use only a BlastingVOMMeter or equivalent meter that is designed for connecting into
live blasting circuits.
One other subject that should be discussed concerns procedures to follow after the blast. No
responsible operator should leave the area after the blast until he has inspected for any hazardous
conditions. If any are found, such as blasting circuit wires thrown over the powerline or damaged
powerline equipment, barricade the area and post a guard. The barricade and guard should
remain until the power company is notified and can send a crew to repair the damage. These
repairs should be made only by experienced and properly equipped personnel. It is usual to use
non-electric initiation of each hole if electrical blasting is hazardous. If non-electric initiation is
used the lead in line can be initiated with capped safety fuse, a shock tube shot firer or with a
highly insensitive electric detonator.
SURFACE DELAY
SNAPLINE CONNECTOR UNITS
Delay Time* (ms) Colour
0 0 Green
17 17 Yellow
25 25 Red
42 42 White
67 67 Blue
*Nominal time with 3.6m length tubes.
Snapline Connector units contain a detonator with a
reduced base charge as well as a small primary
explosive charge.
Booster
Summary
The following summarizes the advantages of using delay detonators in production blasting.

• Improved fragmentation due to the greater freedom for the material to relieve.
• Greater flexibility in firing sequences and burden to spacing relationships due to the ability to
orient the blastthrough the tie-in.
• Greater ability to control blast vibration and airblast.
• More predictable blast movement and flyrock control.
• Reduced backbreak behind the last row of holes.
• Minimized cut-offs.
For extensive information about explosive and initiation produces provided by many domestic
and overseasmanufacturers the reader is referred to the Explosives Product Guide included in the
Membership Directory and DeskReference published each year by the International Society of
Explosive Engineers.
Blast-design factors
There are a number of factors to be considered when designing a blast. These include:
• Material type to be blasted and the blast pattern and hole loading to use in the given rock.
• Degree of fragmentation desired.
• The geological structure and the attitude of the tie-in lines relative to the structure.
• The type and performance of the explosive charge.
• The type of initiation system and the duration of millisecond delays and accuracy needed.
• For a given pattern, the ratio of burden to spacing as defined by the tie-in or the layout.
• Subgrade drilling needed to fully break to the pit floor.
• Crest and toe locations (or average backbreak from the last row if the fact is not dug out).
• Upper bench elevations to determine hole depths.
• Blast size required to maintain quarry or mine production.
• Blasting ground vibration and airblast, and the design requirements to maintain acceptable
levels.
Blasthole layout
Once a suitable pattern and loading have been determined it is important that the holes be
accurately laid out in the fieldand drilled in the proper location. Irregular blasthole locations lead
to less acceptable blasting results, unless theimproperly drilled holes are redrilled. Burden and
spacing dimensions vary and the tie-in is more difficult on irregularpatterns. Some portions of
the blast will be overshot, while other areas will experience hard toe and coarserfragmentation.
It is especially important that the front row holes be properly located. If there is too much burden
(especially at the toe)fragmentation will suffer and the remainder of the blast will not properly
relieve. Hard toes are likely to be in evidence.When there is too little burden, the high-pressure
explosion gases cannot be contained. Rapid gas venting through theface will occur. Greater
flyrock throw and airblast can be expected. There will be hard toes and blocky fragmentation.

Mines that have a survey department can measure toe and crest locations on the bench and plot
these on the blast planmap, upon which drill pattern is designed. Thus, the front row locations
can be more accurately determined. Quarries,where on-going surveying capability is less
common can obtain a better idea of the face profile using a hand level andtape. Standing at the
crest of the bench a point on the pit floor can be sighted and the angle measured with the hand
level.Using simple trigonometry for the right triangle, the base length can be calculated since the
bench height is known. Thisbase length is the total horizontal distance from the crest of the
bench to the point measured on the pit floor.A 100-ft. tape is used to measure the distance from
the point on the pit floor back to the toe of the bench. The differencebetween the total base
length and this distance is the crest to toe offset. The blastholes can then be set back from the
cresta suitable distance to yield an acceptable toe burden (or one can identify areas where an
overburdened toe is likely tooccur). In areas where safety working around the high wall is a
concern the operation should consider laser profiling andbore tracking the blast to confirm the
face conditions and profile. Laser equipment and or services are available to helpacquire this
information.
Blasthole loading
It is important that holes be loaded correctly in accordance with the design. Improperly loaded
holes can lead to poorfragmentation and/or excessive flyrock and noise. The hole depths must be
correct. Operators must decide how shortholes can be before redrilling is required. In very hard
rock a blasthole that is one or two ft. short can result in hard toe.In softer rock more variance is
acceptable, but is seldom more than four or five ft.Modern-day bulk trucks have more
sophisticated measuring and control systems. The operator can set the weight to beloaded in the
blasthole and the truck shuts off automatically. However, this does not eliminate the need to bob
theblasting tape in the hole during loading. The truck-control systems cannot tell about voids or
cavities in the hole, norabout control-system malfunctions. Thus to avoid over or under loading,
and to obtain the correct column rise, it is stillimportant to tape the hole during loading.Accurate
loading is especially important regarding the column rise and corresponding stemming height.
The explosivecolumn must rise high enough in the given rock type to fully break to the surface
of the upper bench. Good breakage isrelated to the depth of burial of the top of the charge. Too
great a depth of burial and the top of the blast will be poorlyfragmented.
On the other hand, if the explosive column rises too high in the hole the depth of burial is low,
gases vent rapidly to thesurface, and there is more flyrock and noise. Also, the radius of the
crater of fully broken material formed around thehole decreases and there may be hard areas
between holes.
Front-row stemming height
Stemming heights on the front row may need to be increased. Since the bench-face angle is less
than 90 degrees theburden on the front row holes is continuously decreasing between the toe and

collar of the hole. Depending on where thefront row blasthole must be drilled to maintain a
suitable toe distance the burden may become too small to contain theexplosion gases at the
normal column rise. To avoid gas venting to the face causing flyrock, noise and loss
ofperformance, stemming on front-row holes may need to be increased.A simple measurement
can be made in the field to determine the stemming height on the front row, using a
telescopingsurveyors rod and a 100-ft blasting tape. The rod is placed at the collar of the hole
and extended over the face to thelength of the desired minimum burden. A weighted tape is
passed along the rod, through the ring at the top of thesurveyor's pole and then drops vertically
until it strikes the face. The total length is read from the tape. The burdendistance is subtracted
from the total, giving the vertical distance. This is the stemming height. For example, if 6-1/2
in.holes at the quarry require a 12-ft. minimum burden and the total taped length is 29 ft., the
vertical distance is: 29-12 =17 ft.
This is the stemming height required to maintain minimum burden on the charge. Failure to
make appropriateadjustments to front row stemming may well lead to hazardous flyrock.
Blast tie-ins and burden to spacing relationships

Drilled and loaded blast patterns may be tied-in to create different burden to spacing
relationships. Commonly useddesigns are:
1. Square pattern tied en-echelon or across two free faces. Known as a V-1 tie-in. This is a non-
staggered pattern. Tie-inis on the diagonal of the square and is oriented at 45 degrees to the free
face. The effective burden is 0.707 times thedrilled burden. The ratio of the effective spacing on
the tie-in to the effective burden is 2:1.
2. Staggered square pattern tied on the diagonal of the parallelogram. This is known as the V-2
tie-in. The orientation is34 degrees to the face. The effective burden is 0.56 times the drilled
burden. The ratio of effective spacing to effectiveburden is 3:1.
3. Staggered equilateral pattern tied-in on the V-2 configuration. The angle to the free face is 30
degrees. The effectiveburden across the tie-in is 0.50 times the drilled spacing. The ratio of
effective spacing to effective burden is 3-5:1.
4. Row on row tie-in. In this case successive rows detonate in progression. There is no burden
reduction and the effectiveburden and spacing are the same as the drilled dimensions. The rows
detonate parallel to the face rather than at an angle.
Generally in open pits and quarries the tie-ins described above are preferred.
Millisecond delay timing
The duration of millisecond delay times must also be considered. Field experiments have
shownthat 1 to 1-1/2 ms-perft.of effective burden is the minimum that can be considered if any
relief is to be obtained for holes firing on successivedelay periods.
For good relief, it is typically found that 2 to 2-1/2 ms-per-ft. of effective burden are required. In
some cases wheremaximum relief is desired 5 to 6 ms-per-ft. may be appropriate. When delay

times are long care must be taken to avoidcutoffs and misfires depending upon the type of
initiation system being used. A down-the-hole delay of sufficientduration to allow much of the
surface tie-in lines and blasthole downlines to be consumed before blastholes begindetonating is
the usual procedure taken to avoid these problems.

MODULE 4: HANDLING,USE, TRANSPORTATION AND STORAGE OF EXPLOSIVES

4.1 Transportation of explosives
1. All explosives immediately after being unloaded be conveyed directly to amagazine.
2. Explosives being conveyed shall always be in charge of;
(a) The holder of the permit authorising the purchase, possession or acquisition of
such explosives.
(b) An employee of the holder of the permit who has been authorised inn writing.
(c) Where a firm or transport company has been contracted to transport explosives on
behalf of the holder of the permit. The firm should have an authorisation in
writing from the holder of the permit. The firm should have authorisation in
writing from the holder stating the holder stating the holder’s permit number
which must be endorsed with his approval by the inspector of mines.
3. The driver shall be at least 18 years.
4. The driver shall stay with the vehicle until such time as explosives leave reached their
destination and have been unloaded.
5. When explosives to be transported exceed 5000kgs in mass the distance exceeds 100km,
the driver of the vehicle shall be accompanied by at least one competent person.
6. No explosives shall be conveyed with passengers, mail, any other substances matter or
material which is likely to cause fire or a detonation including goods of a dangerous
nature such as inflammable materials, acids, chemicals, compressed gases, forage,
matches, substances liable to spontaneous combustion, waste, machinery or parts, tools,
plough, iron, steel or any ,material having exposed iron or steel.
7. No other person other than the driver and the competent person shall ride in or upon any
vehicle carrying explosives.
8. The driver shall mantain a distance of not less than 45m between his vehicle and any
vehicle in front of his vehicle unless the circumstances render this impracticable.
9. No person shall smoke
(i) In or any vehicle with explosives,
(ii) Within 20m of any vehicle onto or from which explosives are being loaded or
unloaded.
10. The driver or person in charge shall ensure that the engine is switched off during loading
and unloading.
11. No person shall unload from a vehicle enroute except in the event of a breakdown of such
vehicle provided that at it scams absolutely necessary to unload the whole or part of a
1. explosives enroute all possible care shall be taken to protect the explosives from fire,
shock or damp
2. No ex[plosives shall be placed near inhabitated buildings.

3. The explosives shall b e reloaded and the journey shall be continous as soon as possible.
4. An inspector of explosives shall be notified as soon as possible of the full circumstances

necessitating the unloading of explosives enroute.
12. During athunderstorm a vehicle carrying explosives shall be halted off the road at least
500m from inhabitant buildings.
4.2 Construction and condition of vehicle
1. Should run on at least 4 wheels.
2. Be in serviceable condition.
3. Provided with efficient brakes.
4. All metal portions should be covered with wood or rubber.
5. The vehicle to have earthing chain on the chassis.
6. Explosive should be securely fastened in the vehicle so that they form part and parcel of
the vehicle.
7. The mass of explosive should not exceed the gross vehicle mass of the vehicle.
8. Provision of a fire extinguisher.
9. Explosives to be covered with tarpaulin.
10. Red flags should be fixed in the front and back of the vehicle.
4.3 Traveling in built up areas
1. When transporting explosives only routes published in the government gazette shall be
used.
2. The vehicle should avoid towns and villages as far as is practicable.
3. Conveyance should be done only between sunrise and sunset.
4. Mechanically propelled vehicles shall not exceed a speed of 50km/hr
5. An animal drawn vehicle must not proceed at a faster speed than walking pace.
1. The keys of any magazine shall when not in use should be kept securely locked in a safe.
2. Duplicates of the keys of any magazine shall be kept by the licence securely locked in a
safe and shall be available in case of emergency or for the purpose of inspection.
An immovable magazine is mound and a space not less than 20m wide surrounding the mound
shall be kept clear of vegetation and unless an inspector gives written permission to the contrary
shall be securely fenced in.
OHM METER:
Used for testing the continuity and resistance of blasting circuits. These are of two types.
i) Powered by low voltage hand operated generator.
ii) 1.5v dry battery type.
EXPLODER:
Used for firing shots electrically, these are of two types:
i) Generator type: - Magneto of dynamo (for large capacity) operated by a quick twist of strong
down ward push of handle.
ii) Condenser discharge type: - Can be battery of dynamo powered.
4.2 Transportation and storage of explosives
OPTIMUM BLAST DESIGN : TECHNO ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS

The measure of effectiveness of drilling and blasting operations is not in terms of blasting cost
alone, but rather byits contribution of the efficiency and economy of total excavation system.
Savings accrued through excessivereduction in the cost of drilling and blasting may well be lost
by increased loading, handling and crushing costs. Anoptimum blast, with improved
fragmentation, accounts for increased cost of drilling and blasting, while the cost of loading,
handling and crushing are lowered.
CONCEPT OF OPTIMUM BLASTING

The concept developed by Mackenzie describes the total blasting cost as :-
Ct= Cd+CB+cl+Cc
P
Where
Ct = Total blasting cost per tonne of finished product.

Cd = Cost of drilling
Cb = Cost of blasting
Cl = Cost of loading
Ch = Cost of Hauling
Cc = Cost of Crushing
P = Total tones of production
Fig. is representation of what Mackenzie believed was the relationship between blasting cost and
drilling costBeginning from to the point to the left of OPTIMUM, he found that it was possible
to reduce TOTAL costincreasing BLASTING COST. He found that better fragmentation
produced increased shovel loading efficiency,reduced maintenance repair cost for shovels and
dumpers and increased crusher output. Mackenzie achieved asuperior "degree of fragmentation"
primarily by using more energetic of high strength Explosives. He found higherBLASTING
COST produced a very significant reduction in TOTAL COST.
IMPORTANCE OF DEGREE OF PERFORMANCE

Fragmentation levels required depend on the type of the excavating and hauling equipment.
Fragmentation coarserthan optimum results in decrease in the loading efficiency and increase in
the downtime of loading equipment withadded cost of maintenance.On the other hand, to achieve
fragmentation finer than optimum, cost of drilling and blasting may risedisproportionately,
which may not be offset by the additional advantage in loading. The blast design
should,therefore, be aimed at optimum fragmentation to economise the overall cost of
mining.Once the optimum fragmentation requirements for a particular mining equipment is
decided, the question arises as todetermine which would need secondary breaking. As has
already been mentioned above, any attempt to produce"Zero Boulder Blast" would severely
affect the drilling and blasting cost. The optimum ratio of percentage ofoversize boulders against
the volume of rock of 1-2%.
Blast Economics:

Efficient explosives application is the least expensive method of fragmenting and casting rock.
Blast casting the overburden off coal dramatize the economic advantages of using explosive
energy to increase production rate andenlarge over all operating profit margins. Fig below
graphically illustrate the economic advantages of changing theblast design to an over burden
casting configuration. In this case, the burden and spacing dimensions were reducing,which
caused the drilling costs to rise marginally. In addition, higher energy explosives where added to
increase theenergy factor, which is required for higher fragmentation and higher through
achieved in case of over burdencasting. Despite the increase in drilling and explosives cost. a
major reduction in total operating cost was observeddue to increase in production and sooner
access to the coal. Moreover, reduction in operating maintenance cost dueto less running of
stripping and hauling equipment because of less material to handle.
Blast Hole Diameter:

The optimum blast hole diameter is governed by factors such as type of Explosives, Rock mass
properties, and degree offragmentation desired and height of bench. An optimum blast hole
diameter is that which accommodates that muchquantity of Explosives charge which not only
breaks away several fold great rock mass but also displaces it toconvenient distance for efficient
handling by shovel.However, in recent years, there is a discernible trend towards larger diameter
because of lower drilling cost, andmore dependable yield of energy, which assures good
fragmentation.But at the same time, if diameter is too large the corresponding large blast hole
array may result in poorfragmentation, especially in the case of highly fissured of jointed strata.
Technical Considerations in Selecting Optimum Diameter for Blast Hole Drilling

(a) Influence of hole size on fragmentation:
Many a mining engineers are firmly of the view that an increase in hole diameter automatically
means poorerfragmentation. Nothing could be further from truth.

The Taconite iron ore mines of Minnesota, USA exhibits the classical example, where over the
years, the operationshave progressed from 190 to 380 mm diameter holes with continual
improvement in fragmentation. There has beeninstances of operations that have had to
reducehole size because the blasting was producing too many fines.The phenomenon may be
better understood by assuming that the larger the hole diameter, the larger the drill pattern,the
larger the fragments. But suppose the hole diameter is increased, but not the drill pattern would
not thefragmentation be improved?
(b) Energy Utilization Factors:

Following example shows energy comparison (measured in million ft-lbs per foot) for various
Explosives diameter,which is indicative of the fact that with decrease in hole diameter measured
energy also decreases.
1. Measured energy of ANFO in a 1 inch hole = 4.8 million ft-lbs/ft.
Measured energy of ANFO in a 8 inch hole = 19.2 million ft-lbs/ft.
19.2 - 4.8% more energy utilization = ----------- x 100 = 300%
4.8
2. Measured energy of " Gelaprime A of 3½ inch diameter in a 4 inch hole = 6.9 million ft-lbs/ft
Measured energy of " Gelaprime A of 3½ inch diameter in a 4 inch hole = 6.9 million ft-lbs/ft
35.9 - 6.9% more energy utilization = ----------- x 100 = 420%
6.9
(c) Production requirements
Application of large diameter drills with high rate of penetration becomes indispensable to meet
high productionrequirements. The same production could be achieved with smaller diameter
holes but the number of drill machinesrequired would be abnormally high.
SELECTION OF OPTIMUM BURDEN & SPACING
The most critical among geometric parameters of blasting is the burden, which has the greatest
influence onfragmentation. For any particular geological setting, there is an optimum burden for
which the volume of wellfragmentedand loosened rock is maximum.If burden is too large, shock
wave remains incapable of extending radial cracking upto the free face and heaveenergy is
unable to provide adequate displacement. Gasses are bottled up within the blast holes for period
of time,which results in rapid decay of effective borehole pressure.On the other hand, if the
burden is too low, fracturing by shock increases and breakage by heave energy decreasesand
much of heave energy is lost as air blast.Thus, the optimum fragmentation burden is that which
allows the gasses to losses virtually all of their energies bythe time they escape into the
atmosphere without producing any air blast, with minimum objectionable side effects,like toe, air
blast, ground vibrations etc.
Optimum Burden B = 37.8 (Pe/Pr) 1/3 x d

Pe = Density of Explosive
Pr = Density of rock
d = Dia of Hole (mm)
For lime stone quarry B = 0.024 x d + 0.85 other formula
K = 20 - 35
B = Burden in feet
D = Dia in Inches
CMRI equation (Pal Roy 93)
B=
De 5.93 L ½
H x ------- x ------- + 0.37 -----
Dh RQD C
Where B = Burden (M)
S = Spacing (M)
H = Bench Height (M)
De = Dia of Explosives (MM)
Dh = Dia of Hole (MM)
RQD = Rock quality designation
= 100 (0.1λ + 1) e -0.1 x λ
λ = No. of bedding per meter
L = Loading density Kglm
C = charge factor Kg/M3
Thumb Rule B = 20 - 30 times dia of hole.
Spacing
Spacing must be large enough to prevent excessive overlap and over break zones behind adjacent
holes but justsmall enough to give a relatively even distribution of Explosives energy in the rock
to be broken.An interesting conclusion of the study conducted by the Department of Mining
Engineering, Banaras HinduUniversity was that, at Burdens smaller than optimum fragmentation
burden, the fragmentation was finer even at S/Bvalue of 5.0 compared to the results obtained at
optimum and greater than optimum fragmentation burden withsmaller S/B values of even 1.0.
For Lime Stone
S = 0.9 B + 0.91
KD
B = --------
12
Sub - Drilling

Effective sub drilling of about 8.d or 0.3 x B has been found to be satisfactory. In dipping faces,
sub drilling of 10.dto 12.d may be necessary in front row because of the excessive toe burden.
Sub drilling beyond 12.d rarely succeedsin pulling heavy toe. Instead it tends to make the
situation worse.
Optimum Ratio of Toe Burden
------------------------------------- = 40
Hole Dia
Stemming
The gaseous energy of an Explosives column will be utilised only if stemming is proper. It
should be around 0.7 xBurden.
Depth of Hole
It mainly depends upon the size of machinery, but for better blast results depth D = 2.1 - 2.25 B
(B is Burden)
Delay Initiation Sequences
In multi row blasting, various delay initiation sequences are possible. They are :
1. Instantaneous
2. Row Delay
3. V, V1, V2 pattern
Delay Initiators commonly used are :

1. Electric delay detonators (ms) in conjunction with detonating cord down lines and/or Trunk
lines. Delaydetonators are tied to down lines of individual holes or to trunk line.
2. Cord Relays (Detonating Relays) in conjunction with detonating cord trunklines and down
lines.
3. Down-the-hole non-electric delay initation system such as NONEL/ Raydet with of without
additional surfacedelays.
4. Use of electric delay detonators in conjunction with sequential blasting machine.

5. Combination of 3 and 4.
The success of blasts using electric delay detonators largely depends on its accuracy, quality and
satisfactoryfunctioning of these detonators. Only II delay periods (0-10) are available in short
delay detonators (ms) whichgreatly restricts the blast size, especially if one plans to use v or vi
patterns or is required to provide a delay intervalhigher than their nominal values, thus
warranting a need to skip one or two delay numbers.
In cord relays, the blasting engineer has a very simple and versatile tool, which helps him carry
out big blasts usinglarge number of rows and yet ensuring adequate delay interval provided for.
The probability of a misfire in a blastusing cord relays is rather remote, because, while blasting,
with detonating relays, additional surface detonationpaths are always provided for the blast holes
thus ensuring trouble free blasts. the pros and cons of the variousinitiation sequences mentioned
earlier are discussed below.
1. Instantaneous Blasts:Figure shows a multirow blast where are no delays in the surface
hookup. Allboreholes detonate more or less simultaneously. Except the first row, the back rows
cannot effectively breakoutand move in a forwardly direction. They crater up towards the only
free face available, viz. bench surface. Suchblasts results in poor fragmentation, tight muck piles,
excessive fly rock and ground vibration/air blast. Thismethod is not recommended.
2. Row Delay:Most blasters prefer this method for ease of tying-in. In this method, individual
rows in a blast aredelayed in a sequence, (figure) so that the front row fires first and then the
back rows in a sequence, thuscreating free face for the individual rows. Though lot of forward
movement of broken rock is achieved in thismethod. The muck pile is generally very loose and
scattered. Simultaneous detonation of all holes in a row,results in high charge weights per delay
resulting in excessive ground vibrations and often back break isconsiderable because of
simultaneous detonation of all charges in the back row. This result in uneven walls andslope
stability problems, modified row delay is shown in figure, which reduces, side-tear. Staggered
holepatterns give marginally better fragmentation as compared to in-line patterns figure.

3. V, V1, V2 Patterns:These Pattern are far superior, to row delays. These result in superior
fragmentation due toreduce hole burdens and increased spacing at the time of hole initiation and
also due to inflight collision ofbroken rock during its movement. For example, in square pattern
where holes are drilled S = B initiation in a 'V'sequence results in holes getting effectively
staggered and also the effective spacing (se) to effective burden(Be) ration viz Se/Be is equal to
2 and Be reduces to a value equal to approximately 0.7B. In this sequence,though fragmentation
is superior, forward dis-placement of rock is slightly restricted resulting in heaping up atthe
centre of the face. This can be overcome by using patterns such as modified square V of
square/staggeredV1/V2. The delayed action of holes in the back row reduces over break ensuring
increased wall stability.The best available pattern is one where the holes are drilled (staggered)
on a equilateral triangle pattern. This ina drilled spacing to burden ration of approximately 1.16.
It has been observed that an effective spacing (Se) toBurden (Be), ratio of about 3.5" is achieved
with holes drilled on an equilateral triangle grid and fired using aV1 initiation sequence.
Drilling (staggered) equilateral triangular pattern require more operator skill and supervision as
compared to inlinepatterns. Clear marking of the hole positions in advance by a responsible
person would help the drillersimmensely. Fig. gives various delay patterns discussed above.
FLYROCK PROBLEMS IN OPENPIT BLASTING

Flyrock in open pit blasting usually means the unexpected/undesired outward projection of rock
mass from blasting.Flyrock should be differentiated from 'throw' which now a days can be fairly
controlled to produce a desired shapeof the muck-pile for efficient loading. The Flyrock

generated as such often poses a serious problem to the users ofExplosives, as not only the mine
equipment are at risk, but also the personal safety and adjacent property areendangered.
Cause / Formation of Flyrock

Many factors could contribute to the occurrence of undesired fly rock, like:
i) Front Row Burden:Flyrock can be ejected from front row blast holes where insufficient
burden exists eitherat the collar or at the toe. Reduced collar burden often occurs with vertical
drilling in an inclined face to take care ofthe desired toe burden; on the other hand sufficient toe
burden; could occur where the face has been under-cut orwhere excessive blast-hole deviation
has occurred in angle drilling (see figure)
ii) Stemming Depth/Stemming Material:The collar region is usually fractured before hand due
to back-breakfrom previous blast or due to sub-grade blasting from the bench above. As the
stemming depth decreases, a largerproportion of explosion gases become available for premature
ejection of this pre-fractured rock.
The stemming material acts to confine the explosion gases to perform the useful work before
venting. Withinefficient stemming material the gases stream-up the blast-hole prematurely
resulting in fly rock formation.
iii) Initiation Sequence:Progressive relief of burden in forward direction through use of inter-
row delays isessential for optimum fragmentation and muck-pile looseness. However if the inter-
row delay intervals are notadequately designed then the rear rows of holes may crater upward in
absence of forward displacement; this willcreate substantial fly rock. Similar phenomena can
happen when blast-holes are initiated out of sequence (back rowinitiated before front row).
iv) Blast Pattern/Blast Shape:When Explosives charge column is overburdened, vertical crate
ring can takeplace causing fly rock. Also when the borehole depth to burden ratio is around
unity, forward displacement isinhibited due to higher stiffness length may have to be reduced to
accommodate the necessary quantity of charge inthe hole, leading to the fly rock from the collar
region.If the shape of the blasting round is such that length to width ratio fir the bench is less
than 1.5, the rock on bothsides of the blast area has a constraining of drag effect on forward
displacement thus resulting in fly rock from rearrows.
v) Major Geological Faults : Where Explosives charges intersect or are in close proximity to
the majorgeological faults or planes of weakness, the high pressure explosion gases
preferentially stream out along theseweakness plans. The concentrations of gas pressure energy
in these areas lead to fly rock formation.
Range of Fly Rock

One of the most extensive study of the distance that fly rock is thrown by uncovered Explosives
has been conductedby Lundborg. His work based on the observations that the throw distance and
eject velocity is proportional to thespecific charge or powder factor. Large specific charges
produce greater throw distances.
Since most production blasting involves holes of 100mm. to 250mm. in diameter, the maximum
throw can be 500 to1000m.As an example for a specific charge of 0.56 Kg/m3 and for hole
diameter 113mm, 150mm and 250mm the maximumthrow of fly rocks will be 250m, 750m and
1020m respectively.For a specific charge of 0-75 Kg/m3 for hole diameter of 32mm (secondary
blasting) the maximum throw will be246 m.


MODULE 5: EXPLOSIVES AND BLASTING MINING

5.1 Purpose of blasting Theory of Breakage
To reduce one solid piece into smaller pieces (fragmentation), which can be easily moved or
excavated. Underground blasting, for example, requires greater fragmentation than surface
blasting because of the size of the equipment that can beused and the difficulty of access.
Theory of rock breakage
Involves two basic processes:
• Radial cracking
• Flexural rupture
Rock is stronger in compression than in tension. Therefore, the easiest way to break rock is to
subject it to a tensile stress greater than its ultimate strength in tension. Rocks are heterogeneous
(contain different types of rocks). They differ in their density.
The distance from the borehole to the free face is the burden.
• The denser the rock the faster the waves
• Proper fragmentation when enough to travel to the face and back overcoming the tensile strength of the
rock.
• Along the face the outermost edge is stretched in tension which causes cracks.
Flexural rupture
The second process in breaking rock by bending the rock to the point where the outside edge, the side in
tension, breaks.
• Caused by the rapid expansion of gases in borehole.
• Analogous to the bending and breaking of a beam.
• Movement or displacement are required in addition to cracking.
After detonation the radial cracks expandsand the gas starts to the movement byputting a CS against the
borehole wallcausing its bending.
• The deeper the hole, the greater the burdenand borehole spacing.
5.2 Development round drilling and blasting pattern design principles

Development blasting is done towards one free face. The rock is thus constricted in the case of
tunnelling and a second free face has to be created towards which the rock can break and be
thrown away from the surface. This second face is produced by a burn cut in the tunnel face and
can be a parallel hole cut, a V-cut, a fan cut. After the cut opening is made, the stoping towards
the cut will begin.
The cut
All cut holes in the large hole cut are drilled parallel to each other and the blasting is carried out
towards an empty large drill hole which is acting as an opening. The parallel hole cut is a
development of the burn cut, where all the holes are parallel and normally of the same diameter.
The cut may be placed at any location on the tunnel face. The cut may be placed alternatively on
the right or left side thus placing the cut in alternatively undisturbed rock.
When designing the cut, the following parameters are of importance for a good result:
1. The diameter of the large hole
2. The burden
3. The charge concentration
4. The drilling precision is of utmost importance as any slight deviation can cause the
blasthole to meet the large hole or the burden to become excessively big. Too big a
burden will only cause breakage resulting in a smaller or greater loss in advance
Drilling and Blasting for Tunneling In Rocks :

Tunneling in rocks is currently performed mainly by blasting, as this method only is capable of
providingsufficiently high effectiveness and economics in the construction of tunnel in tough
rocks.Tunneling by tunnel borers is considered to be less effective especially as regards the
construction of tunnels of largecross sectional areas.
Drifting /Tunnel Driving Methods in Rocks :

The shot holes in a stone drift or tunnel are arranged in a particular form or pattern. The drifting
pattern, holes aregenerally divided into three groups, e.g. Cut holes, Easer and Trimmers.
Cut holes: Shot holes in this group are generally longer (approx. 15 cm) than the shot holes of
other group. Theseholes are fired first to created free face for the shots of easers. Since these
holes first make the opening in the face,they are prime responsible for the depth of pull.
Easers: The shot holes of this group are placed in the drift around the cut holes in two or more
rings depending onthe cross - sectional area. These holes ease the burden between the succeeding
shot holes to enlarge the excavationarea of the drift.
Trimmers: The shot holes of this group are place around the easer which are fired at the last to
make the finalshape of the drift.

The following type of cuts commonly use in Drifting / Tunneling :

a) Cone / Pyramid / Diamond cut: Four or Six cut holes are driven at the middle of the face
which converges at the end to form either a Cone or a Pyramid or diamond shape. Maximum
concentration of charge is at the apex ofthese cut holes, which are fired first to create a free face
for the rest of the shot, which are fired next with the help ofdelays.
b) Wedge Cut: Horizontal cut holes are driven in inclined at an angle less than 45 degree to the
face towards thecentre. Like Cone / Pyramid cut maximum concentration of charge at the apex of
these cut holes, which are firedfirst to create a free face for the rest of the shot, which are fired
next with the help of delays.
c) Parallel holes cut (Burn Cut, Cylinder Cut, Coromant Cut ) : A cluster of parallel shot
holes are drilled atperpendicular to the face to blast out a cavity in the centre of the heading.
Some of the holes are heavily charge withexplosives while others are kept empty to provided
free face for reflection of shock waves. There is specificgeometrical relationship between the
diameter of empty hole and spacing between the centres of empty hole andcharged holes in a
given rock, which gives the essential condition of free breakage.
d) Drag Cut / Draw Cut : These type of cut is most suitable for the laminated rocks for
"controlled blasting " indrivage of smaller cross-sectional area to brake the rock along the
cleavage planes.

Despite their limitations stated above, burn cuts offer the advantages: The advance per
round does not dependupon the working space available for drilling blast holes at acute angles to
the face. (With a wedge cut, the width theTunnel restricts the apical angle and, hence, the
advance per round, specially in tunnels with small cross-sectionalareas).
Design of Burn Cut holes - The overriding principle of all burn cut designs is as follows:
Burden on loaded holesare selected so the volume of the rock broken by any hole cannot be
greater than what would occupy the void spacecreated by either the burn hole or subsequent
holes firing. In this calculation one must also consider the fact thatwhen rock web breaks
between holes, it will occupy a larger space. In other words, the swell factor of the blastedrock
must be considered.
One of the parameters for good advance of the blasted round is the diameter of the large empty
hole. The larger thediameter, the deeper the round may be drilled, and a greater advance can be
expected. One of the most commoncauses of short advance is too small an empty hole in relation
to the hole depth. An advance of approximately 95%can be expected for a hole depth of 4 m, and
one empty hole with 102 mm diameter. If several empty holes are used,a fictitious diameter has
to be calculated. The fictitious diameter of the opening may be calculated in accordancewith the
formula;
D=d √ nD
Where D = fictitious empty large hole diameter;
d = diameter of empty large holes;
n =number of holes.
In order to calculate the burden in the first square, the diameter of the large hole is used in the
case of one large hole,and the fictitious diameter in the case of several large holes.
The distance between the blasthole and the large empty hole should not be greater than 1.5 times
the diameter of thelarger hole for the opening to be clean blasted. If the distance is longer, there

is merely breakage, and when thedistance is shorter, there is a great risk that the blasthole and
empty hole will meet.
Calculation of the 1st square

So the position of the blastholes in the 1st square is expressed as:
a=1.5 ∅
Where; a = C- C distance between the largehole and the blasthole,
d = diameter of the large hole.
In the case of several large holes, the relation is expressed as:
a=1.5 D
Where a = C- C distance between the centre point of the large holes and the blasthole,
D = fictitious diameter.
Therefore, side of the 1st square w 1=a √ 2
Position of blastholes in the 2nd square of the cut located at a distance of B1 from one of the
sides of the 1st square, insuch a way that B1=W 1 and C-C distance between the centre point of
the large holes and the blasthole in the 2ndsquare is 1.5 w1 . Therefore, side of the 2nd square
w 1=1.5 w1 √ 2 .
Similarly, blastholes in the 3rd square of the cut located at a distance of B2 from side of 2nd
square, in such a waythat B2=W 2 and C-C distance between the centre point of the large holes and
the blasthole 3rd square is 1.5w2.
Therefore, side of the 3rd squarew 3=1.5 w 2 √ 2.Similar calculation be followed for 4th square as
well.
The holes closest to the empty holes must be charged carefully. Too low a charge concentration
in the hole may notbreak the rock, while too high a charge concentrate of ion may throw the rock
against the opposite wall of the largehole with such high a velocity that the broken rock will be
recompacted there, and not blown out through the largehole. Full advance is then not obtained.
Generally, in average blastability rock, for 34 to 37 mm dia. blastholes in the1st square are
charged at a charge concentration of 0.5kg/m; for 2nd square blastholes charge concentration
of0.75kg/m; for 3rd square blastholes charge concentration of 1.15kg/m and for 4th square
blastholes chargeconcentration of 1.25kg/m should be used.

Organisation of blast hole drilling:

1. Making of blast hole: It should be made as accurately as possible, particularly the line holes.
This can be achieved by template, or marking use of spray paint as convenient. A very efficient
procedure of pointing holeson the working face with a light projector with an optical attachment
consisting of metallic casing, lenses and aframe that receives a metallic plate carrying the
location of the blast holes. Each hole is represented on the plateas an orifice 1mm in dia. The
projector is placed at a distance from the working face equal to 1.5-3 times theheight of the
working. Source of the light is a lamp of 1000W. The apparatus is located using two marks.
Spotted on the face is an advance light spot projected through the plate on the face correspond to
the holes to bedrilled.
2. Charging and shooting of blast holes: To reduce the charging time it is possible to employ
compositeexplosive charges consisting of several cartridges placed whether in paper shell or
PVC pipes. The use ofcomposite charge, which is 5-10 times the carting length, shortens the
charging time by 50-60%.
3. Parallel wiring is generally used for firing shots from an electric power mains and series for a
blasting machine.In case of NONEL use of D-cord and electrical instantaneous detonators is
fired with exploder.
4. Periphery holes: To control over break, effective decoupling is required. It can be done by,
(i) By using 25mm dia. Cartridge in 38mm dia. Hole.
(ii) By using comparative weaker explosive
(iii) By keeping air gap between two explosives cartridges by using hollow bamboo spacer of
150mm long.
1. Ring drilling pattern design principles
Blast Design
Is the safe and economic way to do blasting.

Factors affecting blasting design
• Geological factors (out of blaster’s control)
• Controllable factors
• Borehole dia.
• Burden
• Spacing
• Stemming
• Design of the delay firing system
Burden & spacing
Burden is the distance from the blast hole
to the nearest perpendicular free face.
BURDEN AND SPACING

DETERMINATION
Spacing determination
Spacing is the distance between blast holes fired inthe same row
• It is necessary to complete burden calculationsbefore determining the spacing.
S= (BL)0.5
• B : burden, m
• L : borehole Length, m
PRINCIPLE IN THE USE OF EXPLOSIVES

Open up a New Excavation
Apart form mining, rock excavation is frequently necessary during the construction of Roads,
Railways, Canals, etc. In opening up a new excavation, the holes are normally drilled with

jackhammers and subsequently charged with gelatins. A drilling pattern suitable for initial cut,
3M deep is shown in sketch.
A cavity of the requisites width is first created by drilling and blasting holes 1.5-1.7 meters deep
in parallel rows. The holes in the two middle rows are inclined so as to form a wedge. These
inclined holes are blasted first, followed by other holes fired in sequence. The resulting
excavation is 1.5 meters deep and can be deepened further.
BENCHING

Bench blasting is normally carried out by blasting a large number of parallel holes in each round.
Considering the blasting mechanics, with a compression- reflection-gas pressure stage in
consecutive order for each charge, it is of vital importance to have a proper delay between each
row, and even between individual holes in each row. A proper delay will reduce rock throw,
improve fragmentation, and limit ground vibrations. The blast should be planned so that the rock
from the first row of holes has moved about one third of the burden, when the next row is
blasted. The horizontal distance between the hole and the free face is the burden, and the parallel
distance between holes in a row is the spacing. The ratio between spacing and burden will have
great impact on the blasting result, and 1.25 can be considered as an average ratio. The optimum
burden depends upon a number of parameters, such as rock type, required fragmentation, type of
explosives, hole deviation, and hole inclination. Nevertheless, as large drill holes can
accommodate more explosives, there is a distinct relationship between burden and hole diameter.
As the bottom part of the blast is the constricted and critical part for successful blasting, it is used
as a basis for deciding all other parameters. Stemming of the top part of the hole is used to ensure
that the energy of explosives is properly utilised. It will also reduce and control the fly rock
ejected from the blast.

Organisation of blast hole drilling:

1. Making of blast hole: It should be made as accurately as possible, particularly the line holes.
This can be effected by template, or marking use of spray paint as convenient. A very efficient
procedure of pointing holes on the working face with a light projector with an optical attachment
consisting of metallic casing, lenses and a frame that receives a metallic plate carrying the
location of the blast holes. Each hole is represented on the plate as an orifice 1mm in dia. The
projector is placed at a distance from the working face equal to 1.5-3 times the height of the
working. Source of the light is a lamp of 1000W. The apparatus is located using two marks.
Spotted on the face is an advance light spot projected through the plate on the face correspond to
the holes to be drilled.

2. Charging and shooting of blast holes: To reduce the charging time it is possible to employ
composite explosive charges consisting of several cartridges placed whether in paper shell or
PVC pipes. The use of composite charge, which is 5-10 times the carting length, shortens the
charging time by 50-60%.
3. Parallel wiring is generally used for firing shots from an electric power mains and series for a
blasting machine.
In case of NONEL use of D-cord and electrical instantaneous detonators is fired with exploder.
4. Periphery holes: To control over break, effective decoupling is required. It can be done by,
(i) By using 25mm dia. Cartridge in 38mm dia. Hole.
(ii) By using comparative weaker explosive
(iii) By keeping air gap between two explosives cartridges by using hollow bamboo spacer of
150mm long.
5.5 Controlled Blasting
Control of Flyrock
It should be possible to control the fly rock formation to acceptable levels with an appropriate
blast design followedby adequate supervision during charging. the major parameters associated
with controlling fly rock include.
i) Blast-Hole Location/Charge Configuration:

To avoid the irregularities on the front row burden it is important to ensure that the holes are
correctly collared withrespect to the back-break/inclination of the face and also that digging
alongside the initiation face well controlled.
Regarding the charge configurations it is often misunderstood to assume that under charging the
front row holessolves all problems associated with fly rock. Inadequate forward displacement of
the front row burden arising out ofthe under charging of these holes result in fly rock from
vertical catering of the rear holes. It is therefore importantthat the charging of the front holes
should be critically determine with some tolerance forforward throw to avoid harmful fly rock
from the back. When the blast hold diameter is increased say from 100 mmto 200 mm, the linear
packing density of fully coupled Explosives increases by the square of the ratio of thediameters.
In such cases change in the explosives charge distribution particularly in the collar portion is a
must totake care of the increased available gas volume with increased packing density. Where
permanent the bedding planesare encountered, deck charging should be used to reduce the
concentration of charge located directly adjacent tothese planes of weakness.
ii) Stemming Medium:Where fly rock posses a serious problem, the stemming length should
not be less thanthe hole burden. Also an effective stemming material like crushed angular rock

should be used to prevent prematureventing of explosion gases through the stemming column.
the fine drill cuttings commonly used in most of theopencast operations have been found to be a
poor stemming medium as far as the fly rock control is concerned.
iii) Initiation Pattern/Sequence : The forward fly rock could be fairly controlled to the
commonly used 'inlineopen loop' pattern. The maximum inter-row delay interval consistent with
the absence of cut off helped inminimising the fly rock formation. As a thumb rule an inter-row
delay of 4-8ms/m of burden could be used for thispurpose. Adequate care should be taken while
connecting the delay devices in the holes/rows and the initiationsequence properly checked
before firing to avoid initiation pf blast holes out of sequence.
iv) Blast Pattern/Shape:Experience has shown that blasts designed on a face length to width
ratio in the range of3 to 4 produces minimum fly rock. In most of our opencast mines as the face
length available is limited; it may beuseful to restrict to a maximum of 4 rows for large diameter
holes.
v) Protection Cover : Protective covering of blast with blasting mats, scrap conveyor belting of
truck tyres etc.can be used when there is a serious need to drastically reduce or even eliminate
the incidence of fly rock. Howeveras this poses a constraint on the overall rock movement,
chances of fly rock due to cratering of rear charges could bethere if the blast is not properly
designed.
Fly rock also result from secondary blasting by pop shooting. This can happen if the charge is
too heavy of if theblast hole is incorrectly positioned in the burden. The blast hole should be
directed as locate the charge in the centreof the boulder. The correct powder factor should also
be determined and adhered to in routine secondary blasting.Using the guidelines given above, it
is hoped that the quarry managers should be able to control the fly rock toacceptable levels from
both primary and secondary blasting thereby avoiding expensive losses.
To control overbreak and to aid the stability of the remaining rock formation.
• There are following methods:
• Line drilling (unloaded),
• Cushion blasting
• Smooth-wall blasting
• Presplitting
Line drilling
• Provides a plane of weakness to which the rock can break.
• Helps to reflect shock waves,

• Reduces the shattering effect of the rock outside the perimeter.

• Do not exceed 3 in in dia and are spaced one to four diameters apart (due to cost).
• Are not loaded
• Requires more drilling more than the other controlled blasting methods.
• Is not very effective in non-homogeneous formations.
Cushion Blasting
• Requires a single row of holes ( 2 to 3.5 in) in dia.
• Permits a reduction in the No. of holes required by line-drilling
• Unlike line-drilling holes, the cushion holes are loaded with light charges.
• Holes are fully stemmed between charges, allowing no air gap, and are fired after the
production shot has been excavated.
• The stemming acts as a cushion to protect the finished wall from the shock waves. The larger,
the borehole, the greater the cushion.
• Not suitable for underground - tough stemming requirements.
• Drawbacks: (1) requires removal of excavated material before firing (costly due to production
delay – no excavation for entire area at once). (2) Sometimes the production shot can break back
to the cushion holes, creating redrilling problems and causing loading changes.
Pre-splitting
• Creates a plane of shear in solid rows along the desired excavation before the production
blast.
• All holes are loaded like cushion blasting
• Reduces overbreak
• Reduces the vibration
MISFIRES IN BLASTING
There are many circumstances under which a misfire can occur and there are official regulations
covering thetreatment of misfires. These should be strictly adhered to and nothing in this chapter
should be construed as alteringor amending such regulations. All misfires should be treated with
greatest care and all operations dealing with themshould be entrusted only to experienced
conscientious and careful men.
No person should be allowed to approach a misfire until either it has exploded or a sage period
has elapsed. Thisperiod should be at least 30 minutes with safety use initiation and at least 5
minutes with electric shot firing.
1. Misfires with Safety Fuse Initiation :
In safety fuse firing faulty cutting of safety fuse, loose crimping, use of non-waterproof fuse in
watery conditionscan lead to misfires.

2. Misfires with Electric Shot Firing :

In electric shot firing faulty connections, detonators left-off unconnected, lead wires becoming
bare during stemminginternally shot-circuited cable / damage in the insulation, inadequate firing
current due to failure of the exploder toreach the rated output or the number of detonators being
greater that that can be fired by the exploder, currentleakage and other factors can cause misfires.
3. Misfires with Detonating Fuse :
While firing with detonating fuse incorrect method of limiting the detonating fuse, loop cross-
over, approach of adifferent branch of detonating fuse, improper joints and branch-line failure,
use of detonators with too long a delayinterval, wrong sequencing of shots and improper
handling / use if delay detonator-relays could lead to cut-offs ofdetonating fuse.
4. Misfire with Exploders :
A large number of misfires are generally caused by the use of faulty exploders and use of wrong
type of exploder fora given purpose; Maintenance of exploders is very essential to obtain the
output. Following are the causes ofmisfires with exploders :
a. Inadequate exploder capacity
b. Faulty exploder-defective generator/conductor
c. Poor contact in rotating crank type exploders
d. Exhausted cells
e. Faulty indicator
Wherever possible, it is sager to fire the explosives using a fresh primer than to attempt to
dislodge it and recover thecartridges from the debris. However, before deciding on the repriming
of the explosives, consideration should begiven to the possibility of excessive cracks in rocks,
which may occur because of the relief of the burden of themisfired hole, by adjacent shots.

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Explosives and Blasting

MODULE 1: REACTION AND DEFINATION OF TERMS....................................................................3

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3.4.1 PLAIN DETONATORS..............................................................................................................40

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MODULE 1: REACTION AND DEFINATION OF TERMS

First recorded use of black powder for road construction in Switzerland.

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Blasting cap safety education program launched by IME

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Crazy Horse Memorial - 2003

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Thirty-nine dynamite plants operating in the United States.

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British Institute of Explosives Engineering established.

When the explosive is detonated,

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3. Detonation is the process of propagation of a shock wave through an explosive, which is

Stable parts Industrial cartridge

Expanding gases CJ Plane (plane where actual physical changes

Low energy released

An explosive performs the following functions:-

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1.2 Chain reaction Sequence in a blast

Safety Fuse Electric

NG-Based ANBA NG-Based ANBA

throughout a long column of explosive, or to interlink separate charges, a propagator, usually in

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MODULE 2: EXPLOSIVES PROPERTIES, SELECTION CRITERIA AND TYPES OF

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2.1.3 Water Resistance:Explosives differ widely in resistance to water and moisture

Detonating cap Explosive cap

2.1.5 Fume Characteristics:This is extremely important for underground applications. Toxic

2.1.7 Thermal Stability:Explosives compositions should be such as to be stable under all

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2.1.8 Flame properties

2.3 Types of explosives

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Primary Secondary Tertiary

2.3.2 Low Explosives

(a) Primary explosives

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Class 2 Blasting agent

Class 4 Chlorate mixture

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Class 7 Blasting initiators

2.6 Industrial explosives

Oxidiser - Ammonium Nitrate solid A.N. solution

The basic TNT slurry has a density of approx. 1.45gn/cc.

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2.7 Explosives selection in Colliers and Fiery mines

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The following are the main applications of the available explosives.

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Copper instantaneous electric detonators