Contents

Preface to the Third Edition .............................................................................V

1 Extrusion Machinery ................................................................................1

1.1 What is an Extruder? ....................................................................................1
1.2 Different Types of Extruders .........................................................................2
1.2.1 Single Screw Extruders ......................................................................2
1.2.2 Twin Screw Extruders ........................................................................2
1.2.2.1 Co-Rotating Twin Screw Extruders .....................................2
1.2.2.2 Counter-Rotating Twin Screw Extruders ............................3
1.2.3 Ram Extruders ...................................................................................4
1.3 Components of an Extruder ...........................................................................5
1.3.1 The Extruder Screw ............................................................................5
1.3.2 The Extruder Barrel ............................................................................5
1.3.3 The Feed Throat ..................................................................................6
1.3.4 The Feed Hopper ...............................................................................7
1.3.5 Barrel Heating and Cooling ..............................................................7
1.3.6 Screw Heating and Cooling ................................................................9
1.3.7 The Breaker Plate ...............................................................................9
1.3.8 The Screen Pack ................................................................................10
1.3.8.1 Screen Changers ...............................................................11
1.3.9 The Extrusion Die ............................................................................12
1.3.9.1 Coextrusion Dies ..............................................................14
1.3.10 The Extruder Drive .........................................................................14
1.3.10.1 Coupling between Motor and Gearbox .............................15
1.3.11 The Speed Reducer .........................................................................16
1.3.11.1 Thrust Bearing Assembly ................................................16
1.3.12 The Gear Pump .................................................................................17
2 Instrumentation and Control ................................................................1 v
2.1 Instrumentation ..........................................................................................19
2.2 Most Important Process Parameters ...........................................................19
2.2.1 Melt Pressure ..................................................................................20
2.2.2 Pressure Transducers ......................................................................21
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2.2.3 Temperature Measurement............................................................... 22

2.2.4 Melt Temperature Measurement .................................................... 23
2.2.5 Barrel Temperature Measurement.................................................... 24
2.3 Temperature Control ......................................................................................26
2.3.1 On-Off Control ..................................................................................26
2.3.2 Proportional Control .........................................................................26
2.3.3 Fuzzy Logic Control ..........................................................................28
2.4 Collection and Interpretation of Extrusion Process Data .............................29
2.4.1 Introduction ......................................................................................29
2.4.2 Vital Signs of the Extrusion Process ................................................29
2.4.2.1 Melt Pressure .....................................................................30
2.4.2.2 Melt Temperature ..............................................................35
2.4.2.3 Training ..............................................................................44
2.4.3 Examples of Extrusion Problems Solved by Using a
Data Acquisition System................................................................. 44
2.4.3.1 Variation in Stock Temperature .........................................44
2.4.3.2 Variation in Feed Housing Temperature ...........................46
2.4.3.3 Variation in Melt Pressure ...................................................48
2.4.4 Process Optimization ..........................................................................50
2.4.5 Temperature-Induced Dimensional Changes of Extrudate ...............50

3 Complete Extrusion Lines ..................................................................... 53

3.1 Tubing and Pipe Extrusion Lines ................................................................53
3.2 Film and Sheet Lines Using the Roll Stack Process ....................................54
3.3 Film Lines Using Chill Roll Casting ............................................................55
3.4 Combination of Materials .............................................................................56
3.4.1 Coextrusion .....................................................................................56
3.4.2 Extrusion Coating ............................................................................57
3.4.3 Extrusion Lamination .......................................................................58
3.5 Blown Film Lines ........................................................................................59
3.6 Extrusion Compounding Lines ................................................................... 59
3.7 Profile Extrusion Lines .................................................................................61

4 Plastics and Their Properties Important in Extrusion .......................... 63

4.1 Thermoplastics and Thermosets ..................................................................63
4.2 Amorphous and Semi-Crystalline Plastics ...................................................64
4.3 Liquid Crystalline Plastics (LCPs) ................................................................66
4.4 Elastomers ...................................................................................................66
4.5 Flow Behavior of Plastic Melts ......................................................................67
4.6 Melt Index ...................................................................................................68
4.7 The Effect of Shearing .................................................................................69
4.8 Shear Thinning or Pseudoplastic Behavior .................................................69
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4.9 Effect of Temperature on Viscosity ................................................................70

4.10 Viscous Heat Generation ................................................................................71
4.11 Thermal Properties ..........................................................................................71
4.11.1 Thermal Conductivity .........................................................................72
4.11.2 Specific Heat and Enthalpy ..................................................................72
4.11.3 Thermal Stability and Induction Time .................................................73
4.11.4 Density ................................................................................................74
4.11.5 Melting Point .......................................................................................76
4.11.6 Glass Transition Temperature ...........................................................76

5 How an Extruder Works .......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

5.1 Solids Conveying ...............................................................................................78

5.1.1 Gravity Induced Conveying ..................................................................78
5.1.2 Drag Induced Conveying .......................................................................81
5.1.3 Starve Feeding ....................................................................................82
5.1.4 Grooved Feed Extruders .....................................................................83
5.2 Melting .............................................................................................................85
5.2.1 Contiguous Solids Melting ..................................................................85
5.2.2 Dispersed Solids Melting ...................................................................86
5.3 Melt Conveying ................................................................................................89
5.3.1 Melt Temperatures ...............................................................................90
5.4 Mixing .............................................................................................................93
5.4.1 Distributive Mixing .............................................................................93
5.4.2 Mixing Sections ...................................................................................98
5.4.2.1 Distributive Mixing Sections ...............................................98
5.4.2.2 Dispersive Mixing Sections ............................................. 102
5.5 Degassing ................................................................................................... 108
5.6 Die Forming................................................................................................... 110
5.6.1 Size and Shape Changes .................................................................. 111
5.6.2 Tubing and Pipe Dies ..................................................................... 114
5.6.3 Flat Film and Sheet Dies .................................................................. 117
5.6.4 Profile Dies ...................................................................................... 119

6 How to Run an Extruder ............................................................................. 123

6.1 Introduction................................................................................................... 123
6.2 Before Start-up ............................................................................................ 123
6.3 Getting Ready for a Run .............................................................................. 124
6.4 Starting the Extruder .................................................................................. 126
6.5 Actual Operation .......................................................................................... 128
6.6 Shutdown....................................................................................................... 129
6.6.1 Purging ............................................................................................ 129
6.7 Safety Issues ................................................................................................ 131
6.7.1 Heat .................................................................................................. 131
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6.7.2 Moving Parts ................................................................................... 131

6.7.3 Electrical .......................................................................................... 132
6.7.4 Weights ............................................................................................ 132
6.7.5 Pressure ........................................................................................... 132
6.8 Inspection and Training ............................................................................... 133

7 How to Troubleshoot Extrusion Problems .......................................... 137

7.1 Objectives ................................................................................................... 137
7.2 Prerequisites ................................................................................................ 137
7.2.1 Good Instrumentation ...................................................................... 137
7.2.2 Good Understanding of the Process ................................................. 138
7.2.3 Collect and Analyze Historical Data ............................................... 138
7.2.4 Teamwork ......................................................................................... 138
7.3 Main Types of Problems................................................................................. 139
7.3.1 Output Problems ............................................................................. 139
7.3.1.1 Low Extruder Output ........................................................ 139
7.3.1.2 Variation in Extruder Output .......................................... 141
7.3.2 Appearance Problems ..................................................................... 144
7.3.2.1 Lines ................................................................................ 145
7.3.2.2 Die Drool ........................................................................... 145
7.3.2.3 Discoloration and Degradation ......................................... 145
7.3.2.4 Voids ................................................................................. 147
7.3.2.5 Vent Flow............................................................................ 156
7.3.2.6 Air Entrapment................................................................... 156
7.3.2.7 Gels .................................................................................. 157
7.3.2.8 Poor Mixing........................................................................ 158
7.3.3 Functional Product Problems .......................................................... 160
7.3.4 High Melt Temperature ................................................................... 160
7.3.5 High Motor Load ............................................................................. 161
7.3.6 Wear Problems ................................................................................. 161
7.4 Systematic Problem Solving ....................................................................... 163
7.5 Machine Troubleshooting and Maintenance .............................................. 164
7.5.1 Check the Oil ................................................................................... 165
7.5.2 Unusual Noises ............................................................................... 165
7.5.3 Drive Motors and Belts ................................................................... 167
7.5.4 Spare Parts ....................................................................................... 167
7.5.5 Screw and Barrel ............................................................................. 167
7.5.6 Extruder Maintenance Checklist .................................................... 168
7.6 Troubleshooting Lists ................................................................................... 171

8 New Developments in Extrusion and Methods to

Increase Efficiency .............................................................................. 175
8.1 General Trends ............................................................................................ 175
8.2 High-Speed Extrusion.................................................................................... 175
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8.2.1 Melt Temperature ........................................................................... 175

8.2.2 Extruders without Gear Reducer .................................................... 176
8.2.3 Energy Consumption ....................................................................... 177
8.2.4 Change-over Resin Consumption .................................................... 177
8.2.5 Change-over Time and Residence Time........................................... 177
8.3 Multi-Strand Extrusion.................................................................................. 178
8.4 Reducing Material Cost .............................................................................. 180
8.4.1 Low Cost Filler ................................................................................ 180
8.4.2 Recycled Plastics ............................................................................. 182
8.4.3 Foamed Plastics ............................................................................... 182
8.4.4 Pre-compounded Material vs. In-house Compounding ................. 183
8.4.5 Start-up, Change-over, and Shutdown ............................................ 183
8.4.6 Polymer Processing Aids (PPA) ..................................................... 183
8.5 Increased Automation ................................................................................ 186
8.6 Efficient Extrusion ...................................................................................... 186
8.6.1 Instrumentation ............................................................................... 187
8.6.2 Data Acquisition ............................................................................ 187
8.6.3 Feed Stock Variability ...................................................................... 188
8.6.4 Flood Feeding versus Starve Feeding ............................................. 188
8.6.5 Purging ............................................................................................ 189
8.6.5.1 Melt Displacement Behavior ............................................ 190
8.6.5.2 Effect of Viscosity Differences........................................... 193
8.6.5.3 Effect of Color ................................................................... 194
8.6.5.4 Dynamic versus Static Purging Methods ......................... 195
8.6.5.5 Purging Agents ................................................................. 198
8.6.5.6 Practical Rules to Reduce Purge Times .......................... 198
8.6.6 Methods to Reduce Energy Consumption ....................................... 200
8.6.6.1 Energy Requirement ........................................................ 200
8.6.6.2 Energy Cost per Kilogram ................................................ 200
8.6.6.3 Energy Cost per Year ....................................................... 200
8.6.6.4 Barrel Cooling ................................................................... 200
8.6.6.5 Heat Loss at the Extrusion Die ........................................ 201
8.6.6.6 Melt Temperature ............................................................. 201
8.6.6.7 Pre-Drying ........................................................................ 202
8.6.6.8 Use of Filled Plastics ....................................................... 202
8.6.6.9 Tips to Reduce Energy Use in Extrusion ......................... 202
8.6.7 Flexible Manufacturing .................................................................... 203
8.7 Statistical Process Control (SPC) and Design of Experiments (DOE) 206
8.8 Causes of Process Variation ......................................................................... 208
8.8.1 Melt Temperature Variation ............................................................ 208
8.8.2 Melting Related Instabilities ........................................................... 209
8.9 Grooved Feed and Grooved Barrel Extruders .............................................. 209
8.9.1 Adjustable Grooved Feed Extruder ................................................ 210
8.9.2 Grooved Barrel Extruders ................................................................ 210
8.10 The Rotary Channel Pump (RCP) ............................................................... 213
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8.11 New Developments in Mixing and Screw Design .................................... 213

8.11.1 Elongational Mixing Devices ....................................................... 213
8.11.2 Barrier Screws with Elongational Mixing Action ......................... 214
8.11.3 Floating Sleeve Intermeshing Pin Mixer ...................................... 215
8.11.4 High Heat Transfer (HHT) Screw Design Technology .................. 216
8.11.5 The Single Screw Compounding Extruder (SSCE) ........................ 217
8.12 Fiber Reinforced Plastics ......................................................................... 218
8.12.1 Conventional Methods to Make Fiber Reinforced Plastics ............ 218
8.12.2 Nexxus Technology ...................................................................... 219
8.13 Conclusions .............................................................................................. 219

9 Appendices ......................................................................................... 223

9.1 Appendix 1: Recommended list for further reading ................................. 223
9.2 Appendix 2: Extrusion Theory ................................................................ 225
9.2.1 References .................................................................................... 230
9.2.2 Nomenclature ................................................................................ 230

Index ........................................................................................................ 233