----:ANCIENT HISTORY:----

 Manusmriti- 1st book to be translated in English. It is a law book of

Manu. (named: A code of Gentoo Laws)

S)
 Then William Jones translated Abhi jnanamshakuntalam (by Kalidasa)
and Bahagvad Gita translated by Wilkins.
 Need to know---1) Britishers wanted to rule

(IR
--2) missionaries wanted to convert by knowing
loopholes in religion
 To meet these needs scripts were converted on massive scale
under editorship of Marx Muller (published under—Sacred books of
the East). A.L. Basham wrote “Wonder that was India”.

N
 Epigraphy –study of inscription
 Paleography—study of old writing used in inscription
HA
 Early inscription were on stone, then on copper plates.
 Earliest inscription are in Prakrit in 3rd B.C. Sanskrit adopted for
inscriptions in 2nd A.D.
 Harappan inscription are in Pictographic script, there was also
DU

Brahamni script (left to right), Kharosthi script (right to left). Brahmi

script was not used in North-west. James Princep: some epigraphs
deciphered.
 Vedic culture originated in NWFP and Punjab, and flourished in
western Gangetic basin.
 Major part of India had no bronze age because it was deficient in tin
KH

which is used to produce bronze (tin +copper).

STONE AGE:
1. Paleolithic age divided into 3 phases based on tool nature and
E

change in climate.
 -- early or lower (10,00,000 - 50,000) BC - ice age
AL

 --- middle (50,000-40,000) BC - flakes

 ----upper (40,000-10,000) BC - warm and less humid
2. Mesolithic (9000-4000) BC hunting, fishing, food gathering. Later
stage domesticated animals and microliths (tools). Example- Adamgarh
(MP) and Bagor (Rajasthan)

1
 3. NEOLITHIC AGE:---FOOD PRODUCERS
 Tools and implement of polished stone, used stone axe
 earliest farming communities, also used microlith blades
 Led a settled life

S)
 Pottery 1st appears
 This age became a little late in India.
 People were on verge of civilization but two limitation:

(IR
o Stone tools (so could not settle for from hills)
o Lack of surplus.

CHALCOLITHIC:-- COPPER AGE:--

 Use of metals (copper was the 1st one). Used microliths along with

N
copper ones.
 Good coppersmiths; tools weapons and bangles of copper; beads of
semi precious stones ; cloth; beginning of social inequalities
HA
 Pre-harappan chalcolithic cultures promoted the spread of agriculture
farming communities and created conditions for rise of urban
civilization of Harappa.
 OCP--- ochre colored pottery
DU

 Terracotta figure of women suggest worship of mother goddess.

 Except in alluvial plains and thickly forested areas.

HARAPPAN CULUTRE:--- BRONZE AGE

 Older than chalcolithic culture
 Distinguished by its system of town planning great bath; granaries;
KH

burnt impressive drainage system ‘

 Agriculture—fertile lands due to annual inundation by rivers; canal
irrigation was absent, surplus food grains were produced to sustain
town people; earliest to produce cotton.
E

 Domestication of animals:-- oxen , buffaloes, goats, sheep and pig;

presence of horse doubtful; Rhino and elephant were known to
AL

people; elephant domesticated in Gujrat.

 Technology and craft:-- well acquainted with Bronze; but low % of tin
found as it was not available locally; brick laying; cloth-making;
bead making; jewelry making; seal making and terracotta
manufacturing.

2
  Trade:-- considerable trade in stone, metal shell etc., developed
seals, uniform script and regulated weights and measures; did not
use metal money, commerce within and with Iraq , Afghan,
Mesopotamia.

S)
 Mohenjodaro (literal meaning: Mound of the dead)
 Kalibangan (literal meaning: black bangles)

(IR
 POLITICAL ORGANISAITON:-- no clear idea but such cultural homogeneity
would not have been possible without a central authority.
 RELIGION:--- Terracotta figurines of women , looked upon earth as
Fertility goddess:-- (only from 6th cent A.D. onwards mother goddess
like Durga , kali, chandi etc…. came to be regarded as goddess in
puranas and tantra literature )

N
 Male deity (Pashupati Mahadeva), tree worship, animal worship, but
gods were not placed in temples like --- Egypt and Mesopotamia.
HA
Amulets found in large numbers. (Amulet: charm worn against evil)
 Athrava veda associated with non- Aryans traditions, contain many
charm and spells and recommends amulets forwarding off disease and
evil forces.
DU

 SCRIPT:--- invented art of writing like Mesopotamians ; not alphabetic

but pictographic, not deciphered yet.
 Great experts of pottery making, great artists creation was seals.
Many figures made of fire baked earthen clay called terracotta, no
major artistic work on stone,
 Date:---mature Harappan culture: 2550—1900 BC.
KH

 Distinct characteristics--- town planning, drainage, unique script,

wide spread, used bronze in a limited way.
 Carried out long term trade in Lapis Lazuli.
E

ARYANS AND AGE OF RIG VEDA:----

AL

Aryans – spoke same language i.e. European, male-dominated society,

horse was domesticated and most important for them. We know about
Aryans from Rig Veda.
 Rig Veda:--- Earliest text in Indo-European language; collection of
prayers; consists of 10 Mandals or books , bo o ks 2nd to 7th form

3
 earliest portion, 1st and 10th seem to be latest.
 Aryans:--- Earliest wave of Aryan migration to India was in 1500 B.C.
They defeated local inhabitants because they had superior weapons
(maybe) and horse driven chariots. They also fought among themselves.

S)
Bharata was an Aryan tribe that ruled; battle of 10 Kings led to victory of
Bharatas.
 Well acquainted with Agriculture; pastoral people (most of their wars

(IR
were fought over cows). Land was not a form of private property; metal
working was known; acquainted with land routes.
 Tribal policy:--- tribal chief was in centre and called Rajan; was assisted
by functionaries most imp. of which was Purohit; Vishwamitra
composed Gayatri mantra to widen Aryan world; no signs of taxation; it
was not an ideal society and thefts etc., took place. By and large a tribal

N
system with a strong military element. People gave their primary loyalty
to tribe; Territory of king was not yet established.
HA
 Family:--- Patriarchal; several generations lived under same roof;
women could attend assemblies and offers sacrifices along their
husbands; institution of marriage established; widow remarriage; no
example of child marriage.
DU

 Social Divisions:--- conquest of indigenous people by Aryans

contributed most to this. The Dasas and Dasyus were treated as slaves.
The booty was divided unequally and thus created social divisions. In
age of Rig Veda differentiation based on occupation had began but was
not very sharp.
 Rig Vedic Gods:--- Indra, Agni, Varuna, Soma, Maruts, worshiping was
KH

though prayers and sacrifices; not accompanied by any ritual or

sacrificial formulae; magical power of the word not so important. Some
female divinities like Aditi & Ushas for appearance of dawn (not important
Gods).
E
AL

4
LATER VEDIC PHASE ( 1000-500) B.C.---
 Collection of Vedic Hymns or mantras were known as Samhitas. The
Rig Veda Samhita is the oldest text. For purpose of recitation, prayers
of Rig Veda were set to tune and modified collection called Sam Veda

S)
Samhita.
 In post-Rig Veda period there were also Yajur and Atharva Veda
Samhita.

(IR
 Yajura Veda contains not only Hymns but also rituals to
accompany prayers.
 Atharva Veda contains charms and spells to ward off evils and
diseases. It throws light on beliefs and practices of non- Aryans. It is
most important from historical perspective as it throws light on many
aspects of society.

N
 Brahmanas:--- composition of a series of texts and are full of
ritualistic formulae and explain the social and religions meaning of
HA
rituals.
 Painted Grey Ware (PWG) was used.
 Bharatas and Purus tribes joined to form Kurus, who later occupied
upper area of Ganga –Yamuna doab called Kurukshetra.
DU

 Iron appeared in west U.P. around 800 B.C.

 Agriculture was primitive; Rice and wheat became chief crops.
 The later Vedic period saw rise of Arts and crafts. Copper was one
of the first metals to be used by Vedic period. The later Vedic
period people were acquainted with pottery – 4 types:
i. Black and red ware
KH

ii. Black slipped ware

iii. Painted Grey Ware (PWG) – most distinctive
iv. Red ware – most used
 PWG consisted of bowls and dishes used for eating or rituals.
E

 Faint beginnings of town towards the end of later Vedic period.

 Great advance in material life. Agriculture became main occupation
AL

and people became settled. Peasants produced marginal surplus.

 Political organization:--- rise of kings and chiefs; popular assemblies

lost importance; Vidhata (General Assembly) disappeared; women were
not allowed in Sabhas; Chiefs tried to perpetuate their rule by making

5
 post hereditary, king’s influence strengthened though rituals like Rajasuya
(more powers to King), Vajpaye (chariot race, royal one wins), Ashavemeda
etc. Taxes were collected. King did not possess a standing Army.

S)
 Social Organization:--- four Varnas , growing cult of sacrifice added hugely
to Brahmanas’ power. Only Shudras were disallowed the sacred thread
(Upanayana) and recitation of Gayatri mantras. Vaishyas were tribute-

(IR
payers. Institution of Gotra (literally cow-pen) appeared and Gotra
exogamy started.
Asharamas or four stage of life not established in Vedic times.
(Brahamachari, Grihastha, Varnaprastha and Sannyasin). Only first three
have been mentioned in later Vedic period to make it easier to follow.

N
 Gods, Rituals and Philosophy:--- upper doab developed as cradle of
Aryans culture under Brahaminical influence. Indra and Agni lost value.
HA
Prajapati (creator), Rudra (God of animals) and Vishnu (preserver and
protector) came to prominence. Signs of idolatry appear in late Vedic
period. Mode of prayer changed as sacrifices became more important;
sacrifices were accompanied by formulae to be corrected pronounced
(power of words) invented, adopted by Brahmanas.
DU

 Towards end of Vedic period began a strong reaction against priestly

domination, cults and rituals in land of Panchalas where Upanishads
were compiled in around 600 B.C.

 Upanishads:--- (very philosophical, could not be understood by common

KH

man); Philosophical texts criticizing rituals and stressed value of right

to belief and knowledge of self or Atman should be acquired and
relation of Atman with Braham should be properly understood.
Beginning of territorial kingdoms and war fought over it. Agriculture was
E

still not very surplus. Therefore, State could not be setup as low scope of
taxes.
AL

6
JAINISM AND BUDDHISM:-----
 CAUSES:
1. Kshatriya reaction against Brahmanical domination. Both Mahavir and
Gautam Buddha belonged to Kshatriya clan.

S)
2. Spread of agriculture economy in north-eastern India which called for
ending of sacrifice of animals.
3. Use of coins started, leading to increased trade, that added value to

(IR
Vaishyas. They looked for some religion to improve status.
4. Reaction against new material culture e.g. promote ascetic living.

 VAISHYAS supported these religions because:

1. Jainism and Buddhism in initial stage did not value Varna system.
2. Gospel of non- violence which would help in trade.

N
3. Earlier Brahmanas decried interest on money.

CONTRIBUTION:----
HA
JAINISM:
 Mitigated evils of Varna system.
 Prakrit language use started (Sanskrit used mainly by Brahamans)
DU

 Many regional languages grew out of Prakrit. Prakrit  Shaurseni 

Marathi
 Initially did not do image worship, but they began later on, leading to
contribution in art and architecture in medieval times.
 Jain TriRatnas: Right Knowledge, Right Faith, Right Action.
KH

BUDDHISM:
 Does not recognize existence of god and soul; liberal and democratic;
use of Pali; no discrimination based on caste and sex.
 But disappeared by 12th cent. A.D. from India; objective to secure
E

nirvana.
Due to emphasis on non-violence and sanctity of animal life, the cattle
wealth of country increased. Developed a new awareness by
AL

teaching people to argue and judge things.

 Pali literature was enriched by their sayings.

 Early Pali literature can be divided in 3 parts.
1. Suttapitaka: had saying and teaching of Buddha.

7
 2. Vinaypitaka: rules to be followed by members of Sangha.
3. Abhidhammapitak: presents the philosophical exposition of the
Dhamma.
 In the 1st 3 centuries of A.D. Buddhists created a new language, Hybrid

S)
Sanskrit, by mixing Sanskrit and Pali. Their literary activities
continued even in mid ages and they created APABHARAMSA
writings in east India.

(IR
 Buddhist monasteries developed as great centre of learning as
residential universities e.g. Nalanda (Bihar), Vikramashila (Bihar), Valabhi
(Gujarat).

 ARTS:--
 Buddhism left a mark on Indian arts.

N
 The 1st human statue worshiped was probably of Buddha. Devotees
portrayed various events of life of Buddha in stone e.g. panel image
HA
of Buddha at Sanchi , gaya etc.
 Greek and India sculptors worked together to create new kind of
art in north-west Frontier of India called Gandhara art.
 For residence of monks, rooms were carved out of stone, so
began cave architecture in Gaya and western India around Nasik.
DU

 Buddhist art flourished around Krishna delta (Amravati school of

Arts) and Mathura (Mathura school of arts).

TERRITORIAL STAGES AND FIRST MAGADHAN EMPIRE:

 From 6th B.C. onwards widespread use of iron started, leading to
agricultural surplus; conditions for formulation of large territorial
KH

states (people used strong allegiance to Janapada or territory, then

Jana or tribe).

MAHAJANAPADAS:---
 age of Buddha had 16 Mahajanapadas, mostly in north of
E

Vindhaya (e.g. Magdha, Koshola, etc.)

 Out of these states, kingdom of Magadha emerged to be most
AL

powerful and succeeded in founding an empire.

 Magadha came into prominence under Bimbsara (Haryanka dynasty)
and contemporary of Buddha; started policy of aggression. This
ended with Ashoka, Kalinga war. Bimbisara used marriage alliance
and diplomacy. He was succeeded by Ajatashatru (followed policy of

8
 aggression). Avanti (capital at Ujjain) was finally won over. Magdha
was strongest under Nanda rulers. Magadha capital were at Rajagir
and Patliputra (Patna later).

S)
Benefits:
1. Iron
2. Fertile soil

(IR
3. Strategic location of capitals
a. Rajgir- hilly
b. Patliputra- Jaldurga (water fort)
4. Towns, metal money , trade and thus taxes
5. Used elephant in war (1st to do so)

N
Magadha Empire Dynasties:
- Haryanka
- Shishunagas
HA
- Nandas (during Alexander)
- Mauryas
DU

INVASIONS ( IRANIAN AND MACEDONIAN):---

 Indian satrapy or province of Iran consisted of Sind, NWF and
western Punjab. Indian–Iranian contact lasted for 200 years.
 Iranian brought into India a form of writing called as Kharosthi
script written right to left. Some Ashokan inscriptions in North- west
India have used it.
KH

 The monuments of Ashoka’s time (3rd B.C.) especially the Bell shaped
Capitals (in pillars), owed something to Iranian models. Greeks came
to know of Indian riches through the Iranians leading to coming of
Alexander (4th B.C 326 )
 Alexander’s invasion: 1st time ancient Europe came in contact with
E

ancient India; paved way for expansion of Mauryan empire in North

west Area.
AL

STATE AND VARNA SOCIETY IN AGE OF THE BUDDHA:--

 Archeologically 6th cent. B.C. marks beginning of Northern Black
Polished Ware (NBPW) which were very glossy, shining type of pottery

9
 made of fine fabric and apparently used by rich.
 This phase saw use of iron, burnt bricks, metal money. Burnt bricks
and ringwells appeared in middle of NBPW phase.
 NBPW marked 2nd phase of urbanization in India after Harappan

S)
period after a gap of about 1000 years.
 Guild system of artisans (smiths, carpenters, leather works etc.)
 Metal coins (e.g. Nishka and Satamana) first appear in age of

(IR
Buddha; earliest were made of silver though some of copper were
also used. They were punch marked i.e. punched with certain mark
such as hill, tree, fish etc.
 Writing started probably couple of centuries before Ashoka. It led to
book- keeping (essential for trade, tax-collection, etc), compilation of
laws and rituals.

N
 Period produced texts dealing in sophisticated measurement.
 Sulvasutra (by Baudhayan) may have helped demarcation of fields etc.
 For the 1st time an advanced food- producing economy spread over
HA
the alluvium soil of the middle Gangetic plains and beginning of
urban economy in this area.
 ADMINISTRATION:-- Koshala and Magadha were the two powerful
kingdoms. King enjoyed highest stature and yielded ground to only
DU

great religious leaders like Buddha. King ruled with help of officials –
high and low. High mainly form priestly class of Brahmana.
 ARMY:-- maintained a large army.
 Tribal institution decayed and was taken up by varna system.
 Some states with a Republican nature also existed during various
phases.
KH

 India legal and judiciary system originated during this period

(based on varna system).
(Mahajanpadas  6th to 4th B.C.)
E

THE AGE OF MAURYAS:--

AL

 Founded by Chandragupta Maurya; with the help of Kautilya overthrew

Nanda rulers. (Mudrarakshasa drama by Vishakadatta). Leaving kerala,
T.N and north east India he ruled over whole subcontinent. He
defeated Seleucus to win NWF form Greek.
 Magasthenes --- greek ambassador sent by Seleucus to

10
 Chandragupta’s court. Arthashastra by Kautilya wrote about his
dynasty/empire; Indika (work by several Greeks about Mauryan
economy, society, administration), huge army was maintained.
 Ashoka (273—232 B.C. ) Chandragupta was succeeded by his

S)
son Bindusara whose son was Ashoka)
 History of Ashoka is reconstructed on basis of his inscriptions,
numbering 39 these are classified as Major Rock Edict, Minor Rock

(IR
Edict, Separate Rock Edicts, Major Pillar Edicts and Minor Pillar
Edicts. Name of Ashoka occurs only in copies of Minor Rock Edict 1.
(3 places in Karnataka and 1 in M.P). In others only
Devanampiyadasi (dear to Gods). In most of sub-continent they were
composed in Prakrit written in Brahmi script but in N.W part they are
written in Kharoshti script & Aramic language, these inscription carried

N
royal order. Also in Greek script.
 After Kalinga war Ashoka gave up policy of physical occupation
HA
(Bherighosh) to one of cultural conquest (Dharmaghosh). He asked
people to follow Dhamma (dharma).
 Ashoka’s faith was not a sectarian one, his broader aim was to
preserve the social order.
 Followed policy of peace, non-aggression and cultural conquest.
DU

 Appointed Dhamma-Mahamatras for propagating dharma among

various social groups.

SIGNIFICANCE OF MAURYAN RULE:----

 BUREAUCRACY: espionage, regulation on economic activities,
KH

landmark in system of taxation (assessment, collection and storage,

assessment was given the most importance); punch-marked coins
used silver; Tirthas were important state functionaries.
 ARTs and ARCHITECTURE: remarkable contribution by Mauryans
E

introduced stone masonry on large scale; attained technical skill in

polishing the pillars (as shining as NBPW); started practice of cutting
AL

caves from rocks for monks to live in e.g. Barabar hills caves (Bihar).
Nagarjuna caves nearby from same period for Ajivikas.
 Spoked wheel, sickles and plough wares; burnt bricks used for the 1st
time in North-east India; ringwells spread; spread of middle Gangetic
material culture to different parts of empire including lower Deccan

11
 plateau (A.P and Karnataka).

CAUSES OF FALL:--
(began to disintegrate after fall of Ashoka in 232 B.C.)
1. Antipathy of Brahmanas (Ashoka had banned animal sacrifice, rituals

S)
which affected income of Brahmanas).
2. Financial crisis (as large army and Bureaucracy was maintained)
3. Oppressive rule in province by officers.

(IR
4. New knowledge in the outlying areas (like iron usages so there was no
special advantages any longer)
5. neglect of North west Frontier (Scythians were a nomadic tribe
constantly moving on horses and posed danger to settled Indians and
Chinese. Chinese made great wall of china in 220 B.C. whereas Indians

N
did not do anything).
 Mauryan empire was ended in 185 B.C. by Shungas.
 Indo Greeks  Shakas  Parthians (Iranians)  Kushanas (Central
HA
Asia).

CENTRAL ASIAN CONTACTS AND THEIR RESULTS:

 After 2nd B.C. Mauryans were succeeded by a no. of native rulers in
eastern, central India and Deccan like Shungas, Kanvas and Satvahanas.
DU

 In north-west there were constant invasions because of pressure

by Scythians on the rulers there. Greeks were the 1st to invade
(Scythians turned their attention to this region because Chinese had
built the Great wall of China).
 Indo-Greeks rule is important as they issued large number of coins.
They were 1st rulers in India to issue coins which can be definitely
KH

attributed to the Kings. They were also 1st to issue gold coins.
 Greek rule introduced features of Hellenistic art in India’s NWF, it
was not purely Greek and was result of Greek contact with non-
Greeks conquered people after Alexdars’s death e.g. Gandhara Art.
E

 Famous Indo-Greek ruler  Milinda (Menander). Milinda Panho

(Questions of Milinda).
AL

THE SHAKAS:
 Greeks were succeeded by Shakas. They had 5 branched with
seats of power in different parts - Afghanistan, Punjab (Taxila
capital), Mathura, Western India, Upper Deccan. They did not meet
much resistance. But in 57-58 B.C. King of Ujjain defeated Shaka and

12
 called himself VIKARAMDITYA. It is reckoned with era called Vikram
Samvat from 57 B.C. onwards.
 Only Shakas in western India could rule for considerable time
(about 4 centuries).

S)
PARTHIANS:
 Ruled in North-west India after Shakas; originally from Iran; St.
Thomas is said to have visited India for propagation of Christianity.

(IR
KUSHANS:
 They were nomadic people from north central Asia. Their empire
included good part of central Asia included in commonwealth of
Independent states (former USSR), a portion of Iran, a portion of
Afghanistan and almost whole of Pakistan and almost whole of

N
Northern India.
 Created a unique opportunity for intermingling of people and cultures.
HA
 Two successive dynasties of Kushans –Kadphises and Kanishka.
 They issued gold coins which were better in quality than of Guptas.
 Kanishka was the most famous ruler, known in history for 2 reasons.
1. He started an era in 78 A.D. called Shaka era and followed by GoI.
DU

2. He extended patronage to Buddhism.

 Kanishka rulers ruled till 230 A.D. in N. W. India.

IMPACT OF CENTRAL ASIAN CONTACTS:

 Typical pottery was red ware, both plain and polished, with
KH

medium to fine fabric. Red pottery techniques were widely known in

Central Asia.
 Better cavalry – Shakas and Kushans added new ingredients to Indian
culture. They did not have their script, written languages, or organized
E

religion, so they adopted these from India. They settled in India for
good and contributed immensely.
AL

 They introduced cavalry and horse on large scale. Introduced

turbans, tunic, trousers and heavy long coat (sherwani is a successor of
long coat), they brought cap, helmet and boots (used by warriors at
the time) Because of these advantages they made clean sweep of their
opponents.

13
  Kushanas controlled the silk trade in their area and prospered by
levying taxes on traders.
 Shakas and Kushanas strengthened the idea of divine rule of kings,
called themselves sons of God (borrowed from Chinese). Also

S)
introduced curious practices like hereditary dual rule. Followed Satrap
system of govt.
 Greeks , Shakas , paratihara and Kushanas ultimately lost their

(IR
identify in India and became completely Indianized in time. Since they
came as warrior so they were introduced in society as Kshtriyas.
 They adopted Indian religions like Vaishnavism, Buddhism etc.
 Pillar of Heliodorus to honour Vasudeva in Vidisha (M.P.)
 Milind became Buddhist.

N
ORIGIN OF MAHAYANA BUDDHISM:
HA
 Rise of trade and artisanal activity affected all religions but
particularly Buddhism. Monks and nuns got used to gold & silver
donations and took to eating non-veg food; some even left the
Sangha and started family life. This new form of Buddhism is called
Mahayana or the Great wheel. Image worships of Buddha was also
DU

started (this seems to have led to this practice in Brahmanism on large

scale).
 The old puritan school of Buddha came to be called Hinayana or the
lesser wheel.
 Fortunately for Mahayana, Kanishka became its great patron.
KH

GANDHARA AND MATHURA SCHOOL OF ARTS:

 Foreign Princes become enthusiastic patrons of Indians of Indian arts
and literature. They (Kushan) brought together masons and
artisans together from different parts. This led to rise of several
E

school of Arts: Gandhara, Mathura and Central Asia.

 Gandhara School of arts: the craftsman from N-W came in contact with
AL

Greeks, Romans and central Asians. This gave rise to new kind of
art in which image of Buddha were made in Grecco-Roman style.
 Influence of Gandhara art spread to Mathura also. Mathura produced
beautiful images of Buddha and its particularly famous creation was
headless Kanishka (name on lower part). It flourished in early A.D.

14
 and its products made of Red sandstone.
 Similarly beautiful works of arts were produced in Vindhayas and
beautiful Buddhist caves were constructed out of rocks in
Maharashtra.

S)
LITERATURE AND LEARNING:

 Foreign princes patronized and cultivated Sanskrit. From now on

(IR
inscriptions were made in chaste Sanskrit. Ashvagosha wrote
Buddhacharita, biography of Buddha (Ashavagosh enjoyed patronage
of Kushanans)
 Progress of Mahayana Buddhism led to composition of numerous
Avadanas and these were composed in Buddhist-hybrid Sanskrit. Their
objective was to preach Buddhist teachings to people.

N
 Greeks contributed to Indian theater through introduction of the
curtain (Yavanika) (Yavana means foreigner).
HA
 The best example of secular literature was Kamasutra in 3rd A.D. by
Vatsyayana.

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY:

DU

 Indian astronomy and astrology gained from contact with Greeks.

Greek term ‘Horoscope’ led to ‘Horoshastra’ used for Astrology in
Sanskrit.
 Copper and gold coins of Romans which were better shaped were
imitated by Kushanas.
 But Indian did not owe much in field of medicine and botany and
KH

chemistry which were dealt by Charak and Sushruta. Charaksamhitha

contained names of plant and their medicinal benefits. For cure of
ailments, Indians relied chiefly on plants (oshadi) to develop
medicine which itself came to be called Aushadhi.
 Working in glass was influenced from foreigners and it develop a lot.
E
AL

THE AGE OF SATAVAHANAS:

 Satvahanas succeeded Mauryas. Ikshvakus succeeded Satvahanas.
 In Deccan and central India Satvahanas succeeded Mauryas though
after a gap on 100 years. Their most famous king was Gautamiputra
Satkarni.

15
  Paddy transplantation, ironshare and coming of urbanization & writing
etc. created conditions for state formation under Satavahanas.
 In 1st B.C. they defeated Kanvas and established their power in parts
of Central India. But their greatest competition came from Shakas

S)
(who were in upper Deccan and North West India (for Konkan coast
and Malwa).

MATERIAL LIFE:

(IR
 Fusion of local and northern ingredients; were acquainted with iron
and agriculture; issued coins of lead mostly (others like copper, bronze
etc.); region between mouths of river Krishna and Godavari came to
be known as great rice bowl. Also produced cotton which was very
famous. Good portion of Deccan developed as good rural economy.
 Through contacts with north came to known of burnt bricks, metal

N
money, ring-wells, art of writing etc. These facilitated dense
habitations and finally towns (Firstly in Maharastara 1st B.C.), trade
HA
increased as indicated by Roman and Satvahana coins.

SOCIAL ORGANISATION:
 Satvahanas originally seem to be a tribe of Deccan but were
Brahmanized.
DU

The northern orthodox Brahmanas considered them as mixed caste.

This confusion was probably caused by the Shaka infiltration in society
as Kshtriya by intermarriage with Satvahanas.
 Family structure shows signs of matrilineal social structure. It was
customary for kings to be named after their mother, e.g.
Gautamiputra, indicating that mothers enjoyed importance but were
KH

basically patriarchal societies as throne passed to sons.

ADMINISTRATION:
 Rulers strove for the royal ideal set forth in Dharamshastras. King
was attributed with divinity by comparing him with figures like Arjun,
E

Rama etc. and was represented as upholder of Dharama.

 Satavahnas retained some administration units of Ashoka and
AL

Mauryan times but these were military and feudal traits in the
administration. This was because tribal people of Deccan were not
completely Brahamanized and needed to be controlled.
 Satavahanas started practice of tax-free village to Buddhist and
Brahmanas. These in turn to stabilize society. Through preaching of

16
 peace and non-violence, good conduct and respect for political
authority and Brahmanas by helping enforce the Varna system which
made society stable.

RELIGION:

S)
 Rulers were Brahmanas and followed rituals like Ahswamedha,
Vajapeya etc.; worshipped Vaishave gods like Krishna, Vasudeva etc.
and donated liberally. They also promoted Buddhism especially

(IR
Mahayana form.

ARCHITECTURE:
 In Satavahana phase Chaityas (sacred shrines) and monasteries were
cut in solid rock in North-West Deccan or Maharashtra with great skill
and patience.

N
 Two common religious constructions were chaityas (Buddhist temple)
and monastery which was called as Vihara.
 Chaitya was a large hall with no. of columns and Vihara consisted of
HA
central hall entered by a doorway from a varandha in front. Most
famous chaitya is that of karle in west-Deccan.
 Viharas or monasteries were excavated near Chaityas for monks to
reside in rainy seasons.
DU

 Rock cut Architecture was in A.P. in Krishna Goavari region but this
region is famous for independent Buddhist Structures, mostly in
form of Stupas. Most famous are at Amarvati and Nagarjunkonda.
o Amravati Stupa is full of sculptures that depict various
scenes from life of Buddha.
o Nagarjunakonda developed under successors of Satvahanas
KH

and it not only has Buddhist monuments but has

Brahamnical Brick temples.
LANGUAGE:
 Official language was Prakrit and all inscriptions are in Prakrit written in
Brahmi script as was case with Ashokan times.
E
AL

THE DAWN OF HISTORY IN THE DEEP SOUTH:

 Several elements mark the beginning of historic period from prehistoric:

 settlement of large scale rural population that practices agriculture
using ironshare;
 formation of state system and social classes;

17
  use of writing and metal money;
 beginning of written literature.
All these are not found until 2nd B.C.
 Up to this time this area was inhabited by Megaliths who are known

S)
from their graves which were surrounded by large rocks. They used
various types of pottery like Red ware, Black and red ware (more
popular). The practice of burying these along dead was popular. They

(IR
used ironshares but fighting and hunting tool were more than
agricultural tools showing that advanced type of agriculture was not
practiced.
 They practiced Urn burials which was different from pit-buriyal prevailing
in Krishana-Godavar valley. They produced paddy and ragi. But generally
did not settle in plains due to thick forests.

RISE OF CIVILISAITON:

N
HA
 By 3rd cent. B.C. megalithic people moved to plains and reclaimed
marshy land. They came in contact with material culture brought
from north by traders, conquerors and Jains, Buddhists and some
Brahmana missionaries and due to this started practicing wet paddy
DU

cultivation; founded villages and towns and social classes came up.
Cultural and economic contact b/w North and deep south is called
Tamizhakam( very important after 4th cent. B.C). The route to south
called Dakshinapatha was very important to northerners because it
supplied gold, pearls and precious stones. The Brahamanical
influence also spread to Tamizhakam after 4th A.D. and elements of
KH

Tamil culture spread to north (Kaveri started to be considered one of

holy rivers).
 Southern Kingdoms could not have developed without spread of
iron technology. Coins use also spread in south showing rising trade.
E

 Flourishing trade with Roman empire contributed to formation of

three states – Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas; coastal trade with
AL

eastern dominions of Roman empire like Egypt.

THREE KINGDOMS (Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas)

 The Pandya territory occupied the southern-most and southern-
eastern portion of Indian peninsula. Capital was Madurai; the

18
 Sangam literature complied in early A.D.s in Tamil Academies refers
to Pandya rulers.
 For Sangam literature it is clear that Pandyas were wealthy and had
profited from trade with Romans. Brahmans enjoyed influence and

S)
sacrifices were performed by kings.
 Chola (or Cholamandalam, Cormandal) was situated in north east
of Pandyas. Their early capitals were Uraiyur and Kaveripattinam.

(IR
Uraiyur was famous for cotton. Karikal was their most important King.
Main source of wealth was trade in cotton. After Karikal cholas
declined. Chera and Pandyas grew at their expense.
 CHERA or KERALA kingdom was to west and north of Pandyas. It too
had imp. trade links with Romans. Cheras had continuous fight with
cholas and Pandyas. After 2nd A.D. they declined.

N
 These Kingdoms were rich because of trade with west in spices
especially pepper, cloth (silk and muslin), ivory and precious stones
HA
which were in great demand there. When Egypt became Roman
dominion and when monsoon was discovered in 1st A.D. trade further
boomed. With decline in this trade, these Kingdoms declined.
DU

PURSE AND SWORD:

Customs and transitional taxes were levied; soldiers were maintained for
safety of trade; tip of peninsula and other areas were very fertile
producing rice, ragi and sugarcane. Also grains, fruit, pepper and
turmeric were produced. A rudimentary army was maintained out of
these taxes.
RISE OF SOCIAL CLALSSES:
KH

Income from various sources allowed kings to maintain professional

warriors and patronage to priest and artisans. Brahmanas appeared in
Sangam period (ideal king was not supposed to hurt them). They took
meat and wine. Kshtriya and vaishya appear in sangam texts. The 4 th
E

varna was that of Peasants (rich and poor). The class distinctions were
there but not very acute as seen later on.
AL

BRAHMANISATION OF SOCIETY:
The Tamil society developed under the influence of Brahamanism in
early A.Ds. But it was confined to some parts of land and upper
society. Kings –vedic sacrifices. Murugan and Vishnu were worshiped.

19
 Old megalithic practice of providing for dead continued. Cremation
started but inhumation was not abandoned.

TAMIL LANGUAGE AND SANGAM LITERATURE:

S)
 Sangam was assemblies of poets held under the Pandya Kings patronage
(in Madurai). Available Sangam literature was compiled in 300 BC to 300
AD.

(IR
 SANGAM literature consists of two parts- Narrative and didactic
(pedagogical).
 Narrative texts are called Melkannaku or 18 major works (comprising of
8 anthologies and 10 idylls)
o (Anthologies – collection of poems, essays, stories, etc.)
o (Idylls – Account of picturesque seen or incident etc.)

N
 The didactic works are called Kilkanakku or 18 minor works.
 Both these texts suggest social evolution stages.
HA
NARRATIVE TEXTS:
 These were basically heroic poetry where heroes are glorified
and perpetual wars and cattle raids mentioned frequently. These
DU

show that early Tamil people were primarily pastoral. Texts

suggest that war booty was important source of livelihood. They
also state that when a hero dies he becomes a stone.
 Narrative texts also tell us about the state structure where Army
consisted of warriors and judiciary and taxation system appear in
rudimentary form. It also tells about trade, merchant, artisans,
farmers etc.
KH

 A good deal of Sangam texts were work of (including didactic)

Brahaman Prakrit –sanskrit scholars.

DIDACTIC TEXTS:
E

 prescribe a code of conduct for the kings and his subjects.

 Texts refers to Kings as descents of solar and lunar dynasties .
AL

OTHER TEXTS:
Besides these we have following important works of literature:
 MANIMEKALAI
 TOLKKAPPIUM--- deals with grammar and poetries

20
  TIRUKKURAL- by Thiruvalluvar; tamil philosophy and wise maxims
 SILAPPADIKARAM – by Ilango Adigal - The tale of an Anklet. Around
Kannagi who having lost her husband due to miscarriage of justice
wrecks her revenge on kingdom of a Pandyan king. It is considered

S)
brightest gem of early Tamil literature.
Tamils knew the art of writing before the A.D.s

(IR
CRAFTS ,TRADE AND TOWNS IN POST MAURYAN TIMES:
 The age of Shakas, Kushanas and Satavahanas (200B.C—300A.D.) and
1sts Tamil States was the most flourishing period in the history of
craft and commerce in Ancient India. (Milinda pano or Questions of
milinda (greek ruler) is book).
 Great advances In mining and metallurgy; Indian Iron and Steel including

N
cutlery were exported to west Asia and Romans; cloth making; silk-
weaving and making of arms and luxury articles made progress. Dyeing
HA
thrived in South India; ivory work, glass manufacture and bead-cutting;
coin minting; beautiful pieces of terracotta were made; Artisans were
organized into guilds (called Shrenis).
 The most imp. economic development was the thriving trade b/w India and
Eastern Rome. Initially it was carried on through land but once Parthians
DU

of Iran came to power it was disrupted and sea route was used. Annexing
of Egypt in 30 B.C. and discovery of monsoon in 1st century A.D. further
helped this trade. (Uttarpatha was the trade route through Nort-west).
 Trade between India and Romans was basically in luxury items. They
imported spices, ivory, silk, muslin, precious stones, steel cutlery etc.
form India. Certain articles like silk were brought 1st in India from China
KH

and central Asia and then sent through. (Pepper was called Yavanpriya
since foreigners liked it very much).
 In return Romans exported wine, various types of pottery, lead (used by
Satvahanas for coins) and gold and silver coins (most important part
E

indicating favorable BOT of India)

 Romans played the significant role in trade and shipping and lived in
AL

India but very few Indians lived in Roman.

 Urbanization was at its peak during this period. The most important
town was Ujjain because it being at node of two trade routes, one
through Mathura and other through Kaushambi.
 The end of trade in 3rd century A.D. dealt a severe blow to these towns

21
 due to the ban on the trade with Indian by Roman Empire.

THE RISE AND GROWTH OF THE GUPTA EMPIRE:

 Both Kushans and Shakas came to an end in the middle of 3rd cent. AD.

S)
On ruins of these empires was formed Gupta empire. Though not as
large as Mauryan empire, it kept India politically united from (335 AD to
455 AD)

(IR
 Guptas had learnt many things from Kushanas like use of saddle, rein,
 buttoned coats, trousers and boots. All this made them excellent
horsemen and this became the main strength.
 Initially the main centre of power of Guptas was U.P.
 Material advantages: Fertile land; proximity to iron mines in lower Bihar

N
and central India; proximity to areas through which silk route trade
happened.
 The dynasty of Guptas came to power in about 275 A.D. in central India.
HA
CHANDRAGUPTA-I (319-334 AD)
1st important king of Guptas. He married Lichhavi princess from Nepal
strengthening his position (since Gupta seem to be Vaishyas, marrying
DU

a Kshtriya enhanced their status). He started Gupta era in 319-20 A.D.

which marked the date of his accession.

SAMUDRAGUPTA (335-380 AD)

 Succeeded and was son of Chandragupta-1. He increased the empire
enormously and was opposite of Ashoka i.e. war-loving.
KH

 He conquered many areas. These are divided into 5 groups

1) Princes of Ganga-Yamuna doab.
2) Eastern Himalayas states and some frontier states like Nepal
Assam, Bengal etc. parts of Punjab also.
3) forest kingdoms in Vidhaya region known as Atavika rajyas
E

4) twelve rulers of eastern Deccan and south India. His army reached
as far as kanchi in T.N. where Pallavas were forced to recognize his
AL

suzerainty.
5) Shakas and Kushanas, some of them in Afghanistan.
 Because of all these conquests he is called NAPOLEAN OF INDIA.

CHANDERGUPTA 2 (380-412 A.D):

22
 Peak reached during his time; he used policy of expansion through
marriage alliance and conquest. Using marriage alliance he conquered
most of Malwa and Gujarat which were under Shakas-Kshatrayas for last
4 centuries. This gave impetus to foreign trade trough western coast. This

S)
led to prosperity of Ujjan that was made 2nd capital by him.
 He adopted the title of VIKARAMADITYA (1st used by Ujjain ruler in 57
B.C. after victory on over Shaka Kshtrapas.) (Vikramaditya: King who

(IR
defeated foreigners)
 His court at Ujjain was adorned with scholars like Kalidas and Amarasimha.
 Fa-Hsien (399-414) visited India during this period and wrote about
people and life of India.

FALL OF EMPIRE:

N
 Successors of chandragupta-2 had to face invasion from Hunas of central
Asia in 2nd half of 5th century. Initially they tried to cope but later Kings
HA
proved to be weak. Hunas by 485 A.D. occupied till eastern Malwa region.
(Hunas were excellent horsemen and archers).
 The Guptas were further weakened due to rise of feudatories (the
governors appointed become independent rulers) in Bengal. By 550 Bihar
and U.P had slipped out of hand.
DU

 All this led to decrease of income –loss of trade though sea, agricultural
land loss, land grants for religious purpose. They made attempt by reducing
content of gold in gold coins but of no use.

LIFE IN GUPTA PERIOD:

KH

ADMINISTRATION-
 adopted pompous titles; kingship was hereditary; practice of primogeniture
was absent which created uncertainty which chiefs and officials took
advantages of. They made gifts to Brahmanas who expressed their
E

gratitude by comparing them to different gods. Horse chariots receded into

background and Horse archery became prominent in military tactics. Land
AL

taxes increased and those on trade and commerce decreased. (forced

labour: vishti)
 JUDICIAL SYSTEM was far more developed than earlier times. For the 1 st
time civil and criminal laws were clearly demarcated. Theft and adultery
came under criminal law. Many laws continued to be based in Varna system

23
 as before and it was duty of king to uphold the law. The guilds of merchants
and traders, artisans and other were governed by their own laws.
 GUPTA BUREAUCRACY was not elaborate one as Maurayans. Since Guptas
were Vaishyas, recruitment were not based on Varna system but several

S)
posts were hereditary and this weakened the royal control. They followed a
policy of provincial and local administration (i.e. decentralization). The
village headman became more important in Gupta times.

(IR
 In urban areas administration organized professional body were given
considerable share. Artisans, Merchants were in these bodies. Guilds
especially those merchants enjoyed certain immunities.
The system described applied only to North-Bengal, Bihar, U.P and
adjoining parts of M.P. which were ruled directly by officers appointed by

N
Kings.
 The major part of empire was helped by feudatory chiefs many of whom
HA
had subjugated to Samudragupta. They had to carry out three obligations:
(i) Pay homage to king in his court by personal attendance, (ii) Pay tribute,
(iii) provide daughters for marriage. In turn, these chiefs were given
Farmans to rule and royal seals were issued to these vassals.
DU

 The 2nd important Feudal development was grant of fiscal and

administration concessions to priest and administration i.e. land free of tax
forever and authorized to collect tax from that land.

TRENDS IN TRADE AND AGRICULTURE-

 In ancient India, Guptas issued the largest number of gold coins called
KH

dinars, vividly portray Gupta Kings indicating their love arts and war.
They also issued silver coins after conquest of Gujarat but Bronze coins
issued were very few showing that use of money did not touch common
people as it did under Kushanas.
E

 There was a decline in long distance trade. Till 550 A.D. there was
some trade with Romans to which silk was exported but around 550 A.D.
AL

Romans learned the art of Silk making adversely affecting trade.

 In M.P. there was emergence of priestly class at cost of local peasants.
Also good deal of virgin land was brought under cultivation and
improved agriculture techniques introduced by Brahmanas in tribal areas
of Central India.

24
SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT-
 Brahamana supremacy (as suggested by large grants). Guptas originally
Vaishayas, came to be looked upon as Kshatriyas by Brahamanas.

S)
 The castes proliferated into numerous sub castes due to:
1) Assimilation of large no. of foreigners into Indian society and each
group of foreigner was considered different caste. e.g. Hunas came to

(IR
be recognized as one of 36 clans of Rajputs.
2) Absorption of many tribals into society through process of land grants
where the tribal chief was given higher Varna and ordinary Kinsmen
given lower status.
 Position of Shudras increased due to change in their economic status as
they increasingly (7th century onward) came to be regarded as

N
agriculturists and they were allowed to listen to Ramayana, Mahabharata
and Puranas and could worship new gods like Krishna.
HA
But no. of untouchables increased especially Chandalas. Their no. and
disability so heavy that even Fa-Hsien noticed them.
 Women were also allowed to listen to Ramayana, Mahabarata and
Puranas and were advised to worship Krishna. Women of lower Varna
DU

were much more free as they were given freedom to earn livelihood
whereas those of Upper Varna were under Control. The property of higher
orders increased much leading to them making polygamous and property
minded.
 The 1st example of immolation of widow after death of husband was in
510 A.D. The main reason for their subordination was complete
dependence on men for livelihood.
KH

STATE OF BUDDHISM-
 No longer received royal patronage, though some stupas were
constructed.
E

 Nalanda became a centre of Buddhist education.

ORIGIN AND GROWTH OF BHAGVATISM OR VAISHNAVISM-

AL

 Centered around worship of Vishnu and originated in Post-Mauryan times.

Vishnu was minor god in Vedic times. By 2nd cent B.C. he was merged with
a god called Narayan (a non-vedic tribal god). Further Vishnu came to be
identified with Krishna-Vasudeva. Great Epic Mahabarata was recast to
show Krishna was identical with Vishnu. By 200 B.C. three streams of

25
 worshippers and their gods had merged leading to Bhagavatism It was
marked by Bhakti and Ahimsa.
It overshadowed Mahayana Buddhism by Gupta period. It preached
doctrine of incarnation or Avatara. By 6th cent. Vishnu became a member

S)
of trinity of gods along with Shiva and Brahma.
 Idol worship in temples became prominent in Hinduism from Gupta period
onwards. The agricultural festivals observed by people were given religious

(IR
colors to turn them into source of income for priest. Overall policy of
tolerance towards religious followers.

ART-
 GUPTA period called “ golden period of Ancient India”. Gupta possessed
a large no. of gold coins.

N
 Samudragupta and Chandragupta 2 were patrons of art and literature. In
Ancient India arts was mostly inspired by religion (survival of non-
HA
religious art very few). Buddhism gave impetus to arts in Mauryan and pre-
Mauryan period.
 In Gupta period beautiful images of Buddha were made at Sarnath and
Mathura. But the greatest work of Buddhist art was that of Ajanta
paintings depicting various events in life of Buddishist. These paintings
DU

are life like and natural and colour rertained till this day. (though Ajanta
painting covered the 1st to 7th cent. A.D. most of them belong to Gupta
period.)
 Since Guptas were suppoters of Brahamanism, for the 1st time we get
images of Vishnu, Shiva and other Hindu gods.
 Guptas period was poor in architecture. Only few temples of brick. The
KH

Buddhist university of Nalanda in 5th cent. A.D.

LITERATURE-
 Remarkable for production of secular literature.
E

13 plays by Bhasa , Mrichchhakatika or little clay court by Shudraka.

 But Gupta period really famous for Abhijanshakuntalam by Kalidas (he also
wrote Meghdoot).
AL

 Two things can be noted about plays in Gupta period:

1) these all are comedies.
2) actors of higher and lower Varnas use different language (Sanskrit and
Prakrit respectively)
 Increase in Production of religious literature. Most works had strong

26
 religious bias. The two great epics- Mahabarata and Ramanayana were
almost completed by the 4th cent. A.D.
 The Puranas follow the line of epics and earlier ones were compiled
in Gupta period. They are full of myths, legends etc. and are basically

S)
for educating common people.
 This period also saw compilation of various Smritis or law book and
religious norms were written in verse (poetic).

(IR
 Gupta period also saw developed of Sanskrit Grammar based on Panini
and Patanjali.
 Overall Gupta period was bright phase of classical literature. From this
period onwards there was greater focus on verse (poem) than on prose.
Amarkosha by Amarsimha (court of Changragupta-II).

N
SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY-
 Aryabahatiya by Aryabhata who belonged to Pataliputra. Decimal
HA
system was known at beginning of 5th cent. In field of Astronomy Romaka
Sidhanata (influenced by Greeks) compiled.
 Gupta period craftsmen distinguished by their work in iron and bronze.
 Several bronze images of Buddha because of advanced metallurgy
technique.
DU

 In case of iron objects best examples that of Iron pillar at Mehrauli in

Delhi made in 4th cent still rust free.
E KH
AL

27
SPREAD OF CIVILISATION IN EASTERN INDIA:
 The period from 4th to 7th century in remarkable for the diffusion of
advanced rural economy, formation of state systems and formation of
social classes in eastern MP, Odisha, East Bengal and S-E Bengal and

S)
Assam.
 Kalinga and coastal Orissa South of Mahanadi.

HARSHA AND HIS TIMES:

(IR
 After Guptas, Hunas established their control over Kashmir, Punjab and
west India from about 500 A D onwards. North and west India passed
under half a dozen feudatories who had divided Gupta empire among
themselves.
 Gradually dynasty ruling at Thanesar in Haryana overpowered them. This

N
was done by King Harshavardhana (606-647) A.D. He made Kannauj the
seat of his power.
HA
 By 7th cent. Patliputra had fallen on bad days due to drying up of the trade.
Once trade declined, money dried up and payments started to be made
in land grants due to which city lost its importance.
 Power shifted to military camps (Skandhavaras) and strategically
important places (which dominated long stretches of land). Kannauj
DU

belonged to this class and shot into political prominences from 2nd half of
6th cent. onwards. Its emergences typifies the advent of feudal age in
north India.
 Early History of Harishchandra in constructed from Harischaritra witten
by his court poet Banabhata . Hsuan Tsang visited during this time and
stayed in India for 15 years. He wrote about life in India during that time.
KH

 Harsha’s authority was limited to north minus Kahsmir (Rajasthan, Punjab,

U.P., Bihar and Orissa were under direct control and surrounding
states recognized his sovereignty).
 Harsha authored three dramas: Priyadarshika, Ratnavali, Nagananda
E

Administration:
 On same lines as Guptas except that Harsha’s administration was more
AL

feudal and decentralized.

 Land grants continued to be made to priests.
 Feudal practice of grant of land to officers as payment and reward
began. That’s why there were so few coins.
 Law and order was not well maintained. Even Hsuan Tsuang was robbed.

28
 Under the influence of Hsuan Tsang, Harsha became a great support
of Buddhism. Hsuan Tsang came to study in Buddhist university in
Nalanda. (In 670 AD another Chinese pilgrim I-Tsing visited Nalanda)
 Old centers of Buddhism had fallen on bad days and Nalanda was the

S)
main Buddhist University.
 Harsha followed a policy of religious tolerance.

(IR
FORMATION OF NEW STATES AND RURAL EXPANSION IN THE PENINSULA
 The period 300-750 A.D. marks the 2nd phase in regions south of Vindhyas.
 In early period northen T.N., southern Karnataka, a portion of southern
Maharashtra and land b/w Godavari and Mahanadi owed allegiance to
various seats of political authority outside their areas but were not
states themselves. There was state formation in these areas now.

N
 Trade had declined and large no. of land grants started to be made now
to Brahmanas. This led to new areas coming under cultivation and
HA
settlement. Also noticeable was march of triumphant Brahmanism. In the
peninsula as a whole Kings carried out Vedic sacrifices.
 This phase marked the beginning of construction of stone temples for
Shiva and Vishnu. During this phase megaliths ceased to exist.
 The language followed by rulers and literate class changed. Now
DU

Sanskrit became the official language.

VARIOUS- STATES
 In north Maharashtra and Vidarbha, satvahans were succeeded by
Vakatakas - a local power. They were great champions of Brahamanism
and Vedic sacrifices.
KH

 Chandragupta-II through marriage alliance gained their support to

conquer Gujrat and adjoining western parts from Shaka Kshatrapas.
Culturally they became a channel for transferring Brahmanical ideas and
social institution to South.
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 Vakatakas were followed by Chalukyas of Badami (543-753 BC) (imp. role

in Deccan History for 2nd cent). They set up their Kingdom in beginning
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of 6th cent. A.D. in West Deccan and capital was Badami (Karnataka). No
other power was as imp. as them during this period.
 On Eastern side Satvahanas were succeeded by Ikshavakus (a local tribe
but adopted Ikshavakas to demonstrate antiquity). They started land
grants in Krishna-Guntur region.

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 They were overthrown by Pallavas (meaning creeper) (275-897 AD) a
local tribe and it took them time to be acceptable in T.N. as Pallava is a
synonym for robber in Tamil. They established authority over Southern
A.P. and northern T.N. and Kanchi (modern Kanchipuram) became their

S)
capital.
 Early Pallavas came in conflict with Kadambas (northern Karnataka and
konkan) established in 4th cent. AD. Kadamba kingdom was founded by

(IR
mayurasharman.
 The Gangas were imp. contemporaries of Pallavas (set up rule in
Southern Karnataka in 4th cent.) Their kingdom lay b/w Pallavas in east
and Kadambas in west. They are called Western Gangas or Gangas of
Mysore because there were Gangas (eastern Gangas) in Kalinga form 5th
century. West Gangas made land grants to mostly Jains.

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 Almost all the Kingdoms followed policy of land grants to Brahmanas
which led to expansion of cultivation and agriculture. This also led to
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new techniques being used in agriculture.
 Very little is known about what happened in southern tip of peninsula.
Kalabhras led a revolt against existing social and political system in South.
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CONFLICT B/W CHALUKYAS AND PALLAVAS

There was continuous conflict b/w them over the doab of Krishna and
Tungabhadra (it would take place b/w later Kingdoms also). [Pulakeshin-II
(Chalukya ruler) also defeated Harsha’s army].

TEMPLES:
KH

 Besides vedic performance, the worship of Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva

(especially last 2) became popular. From 7th cent. onwards cult of
Bhakti began to dominate religious life of south Indians.
 Pallavas Kings constructed a no. of temples in 7th and 8th cent. to house
these Gods. The most famous are the seven Rathas temples at
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Mahabalipuram (built in 7th cent. by NARASHIMHA VARMAN). THE city

is also famous for shore temple. Pallavas also constructed several
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structures at their capital Kanchi e.g. Kailashanathar temple.

 Chalukyas of Badami erected temples at Aihol form about A.D. 610.
Temples also in Badami and Pattadakal. Pattadakal has 10 temples.
The most celebrated are Papanatha temple (in Pattadakal) (30m long, has
a low and stunted town in northern style) and Virupaksha temple (in

30
 Hampi) (purely in Southern style, about 40m long and has a very high
square and storeyed tower (shikara). The temple walls are adorned
with beautiful scenes from Ramayana on sculptures.
 These temples were constructed and maintained out of taxes.

S)
 There were lots of demands on peasants regarding taxes and services.
(forced labour: vishti)
 Rural expansion tool place due to land grants to Brahmanas. The tribals

(IR
learnt value of preserving cattle and better methods of agriculture of
agriculture from them.
 Pandyas of Madurai still continued but were not that influential.

Three types of villages in south India in this period:

1. Ur: usual type inhabited by peasant castes and paying taxes

N
2. Sabha type: those granted to Brahmanas (Brahmadeya village) or
agrahara villages
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3. Nagaram villages: settled by combinations of traders and merchants.
(Land grants: Agraharas
Official to manage these: Agraharika)
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 DEVELOPMENT OF PHILOSPHY
 Thinkers laid down that person should strive for 4 things—Artha, Dharma,
Kama and Moksha.
 On Artha - book ARTHAshatra by Kautilya.

S)
 Laws governing the state and society became subject of DHARMAshastra
and physical pleasure KAMAsutra
 First three relate to material world.

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 Salvation or MOKSHA became the subject of darshana or Philosophy.

By beginning of Christian era 6 schools of philosophy developed:

(the first four neither accept nor deny Vedas’ authority)
1) SAMAKHYA: (lit: count) by Kapila; means number or perfect knowledge.
 initially owed creation and evolution of world to nature or Prakriti

N
and later (4th cent AD) added Purusha or spirit to it.
 According to this philosophy a person could attain salvation through gain
HA
of real Knowledge and this knowledge can be gained by perception
(Pratyaksha), influence (anumana) and hearing (shabda). Such a method
is typical of scientific inquiry.
 It advocates Prakriti and Purusha, ie, a dualistic realism. Realism as it
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considers both matter and spirit equally real/important.

2) YOGA: (Patanjali – Yogasutra) salvation through meditation and physical
application. Practice of control over senses and organs and pleasures
central to this system. Asana (physical exercise) and pranayama (breathing
exercise). Recommended to divert mind from worldly matters. Largely
based on Samkhya philosophy.
KH

3) NYAYA: (by Gautam, not lord) or school of Analysis was developed as a

system of logic. According to it salvation can be attained through
acquisition of knowledge (using logic).
4) Vaisheshika: (Kannada – Vaisheshika sutra) gives importance to discussion
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of material elements or dravya. Earth, fire, water, air and ether (sky)
when combined give rise to new objects. It propounded atom theory.
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According to it material objects are made of atoms and thus marked

beginning of physics in India, but it was diluted by mixing of god and
spiritualism.
5) MIMASA: (or Purva mimamsa); means revered thought; Its an orthodox
system and accepts Vedas’ authority; literally means the art of reasoning

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 and interpretation. But reasoning was used to justify rituals mentioned in
Vedas and salvation was made dependent on their performance.
Principle aim of this philosophy was to attain heaven and salvation.
For salvation mimamsa recommended Vedic sacrifices. This was basically

S)
propagated by priests to earn and wanted to maintain their superiority.
6) VEDANTA: (lit: end of Vedas) aka Uttar Mimamsa; Brahamasutra of
Badarayana (complied in 2nd B.C.) formed its basic text.

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Atma, Brahma, Karma, rebirth or purarjanma.
Three types: Dualism (Dvaita), Qualified Dualism, Non Dualism (Advaita).

 Samkhya and Vaisheshika are the main materialist philosophies.

 CHARVAKA (person) put forward materialistic philosophy (lokayata

N
philosophy). He was opposed to quest for spiritual salvation and said
that whatever a person’s sense feel was real. He said that nothing was
HA
supernatural and it was devised by priest and Brahmanas to earn.
 The schools of philosophy with emphasis on materialism developed in
period of expanding economy and society b/w 500 BC and 300 AD
 By 5th cent A.D. materialist philosophy was overshadowed by idealist
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philosophy which attributed worldly phenomenon to supernatural

forces. This view hindered the progress of scientific inquiry and rational
thinking. Steeped in idealist and salvation schools of philosophy people
would resign to varna system and state oppression.
 Ajivika  Niyati school of Philosphy
 Brahmasutra by Badrayan (2nd BC) forms basic text of Vedanta and later
KH

two famous commentaries: Ramanujan and Shankaracharya

E
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 INDIA’S CUTURAL CONTACTS WITH ASIAN CULTURES
 From beginning of A.D. India maintained commercial contacts with
China, South-east Asia, West Asia, Central Asia and Roman empire.
 The propagation of Buddhism promoted India’s contact with Burma

S)
and Sri Lanka, china and Central Asia. In course of time Buddhism
acquired permanent stronghold in Sri Lanka.
 In early A.D. Buddhism spread to Burma where it developed the

(IR
Theravada form. Burma and Srilanka produced the rich Buddhists
Literature not be found in India. Beginning with, Kanishka, large no of
Missionaries were sent to China, Central Asia and Afghanistan. From
China Buddhism spread to Korea and Japan. Due to this Fa-Hsien and
Hsuan Tsang came to India in search of Buddhist literature. This contact

N
proved useful and India learnt art of silk making form Chinese and
Chinese learnt art of Buddhist painting from Indians.
 The two other great centers of Buddhism were Afghanistan and
HA
Central Asia. Bagram and Bamiyan in the north Afghan are famous for
Buddhist relics. Bamiyan had tallest Buddha statute out of rock (destroyed
by Taliban in 2001). It had thousands of natural caves used by monks.
Buddhism was ousted by Islam after 7th cent. AD. Similar process
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happened in China.
 In South-East Asia only to Burma Indian culture spread through
Buddhism else where it was due to cult of Brahmans. From 1st cent. A.
D. India had trade relation with Java in Indonesia and called it
Suvarnadvipa.
 Earliest settlement were in 56 A.D. In early A.D.s Pallavas developed
KH

Colonies in Sumatra. These Colonies in Java and Sumatra became radiants

of India culture.
 In Indo-China Indians setup two powerful kingdoms Kamboja and Champa.
 Kamboja was identical with modern Cambodia and its rulers were
E

devotees of Shiva and Sanskrit languages was used. Similarly in Southern

Vietnam Champa rule was there (colonies of Indian traders). The king was
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a Shaiva and official language was Sanskrit. These settlement flourished till
13th cent. and there was continuous intermingling of arts, literature and
language. The greatest Buddhist temple is found in Indonesia (8th cent
A.D.) then there is temple in Cambodia larger than above and stories of
Ramayana and Mahabharata are narrated in relief on its walls. Ramayana

34
 plays are very popular in Indonesia and its Language (Bahasa Indonesia)
contains many Sanskrit words.
 The spread of Indian culture was not only by missionaries but was
backed by trade and conquests. Trade played very imp. role. It not only

S)
led to exchange of goods but also of culture. This culture exchange was a
two-way traffic like India learnt minting gold coins from Romans, silk
growing form China, growing of betel leaves from Indonesia. Similarly,

(IR
method of growing cotton spread from India to Central Asia and China.
However Indian contribution seems to be more in arts, religion, script and
language. The other countries were not a replica of India culture but
developed a hybrid by mixing with their local.

Age North India South India

N
Before 2nd cent. BC Mauryas Megaliths
Shakas, Cholas,
Kushans, Cheras,
2nd cent. BC – 3rd cent. AD
HA
Satvahanas Pandyas
(Central+Deccan)
Guptas, Vakatakas
3rd cent. AD – 7th cent. AD Harsha Chalukyas (Badami)
Pallavas (Kanchi)
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TRANSFORMATION OF THE ANCIENT PHASE:
 The central factor that led to transformation of Indian society to
medical society was practice of Land grants. The charters say that the
kings gave land because they wanted religious sanction and priests

S)
wanted it to perform religious rites. But the practice came because of a
serious crisis that affected ancient social order.
 The varnas system was based on collection of taxes from Vaishyas and

(IR
Shudras and payment to Kings who paid Salaries etc.
But in 3rd and 4th A.D. a deep social crisis described in Puranas as Kaliyug
afflicted this system. Puranas complain that Varnas discarded the
functions assigned to them. The lower orders tried to arrogate to
themselves status and function of higher orders i.e. they refused to pay
taxes and services leading to Varna-Samkara or intermixing of social

N
classes. This happened because of oppressive taxes.
 Several measures were used to overcome this. Law book of MANU
HA
(written during this period) said that Vaishayas and Shudras should not be
allowed to deviate from their status but this could have involved coercion.
A better method was to give land grants to officers and priests. This
would throw the burden of collecting taxes and maintaining law and
order on beneficiaries. Also the peasants could be dealt on the spot,
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more land would bring under cultivation and better methods of cultivation.

RISE OF LANDLORDS:
 Brahmanas collected taxes and also maintained law and order. Villages
were given to them forever by king. So after Gupta period power of
king was heavily undermined.
 Royal control was further eroded by payment of official through land
KH

grants form 6th cent. AD. This created vested interest at the cost of royal
authority.

NEW AGRARIAN ECONOMY:

E

 The new owners could not cultivate land by themselves, so the actual
cultivation was by peasants and sharecroppers who cultivation it but didn’t
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own it. From 6th cent onwards sharecroppers and peasants were asked
to stick to the land in backward and mountainous regions like Orissa,
Deccan etc. and this process spread to north. So they could not move
from village to village and had to get all needs out of same village.
Husan Tsang mentions Shudras as agriculturists.

36
 DECLINE OF TRADE:
 From 6th century onwards there was a sharp decline in trade. Trade with
western part of Roman empire ended in 3rd A.D. and silk trade with Iran and

S)
Byzantium by 6th cent. A D . Some trade was carried with China and south
east Asia but its benefits were reared by Arabs as middlemen. Before rise
of Islam, Arabs had practically monopolized Indian trade. Post-Gupta

(IR
period saw ruin of many important towns.
 Due to restricted trade, artisans, merchants, went back to countryside and
took to cultivation. Due to this, villages had to meet their demands like oil,
cloth, salt on their own. This led to smaller units of production, each for
itself.
 From 6th cent. changes were there in social structure also. In Gangetic

N
plains, Vaishyas were considered as free peasants, but now due to land
grants they were effectively reduced to level of Shudras. This spread to
HA
whole India along with land grants.

CHANGES IN VARNA SYSTEM:

 Frequent seizure and land grants created several categories of people.
A person could be from low Varna but may be landed (given to him by
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his master as land grants). So changes had took place to varna system to
peasants of these categories.
 VARAHMIHIR (6TH cent). prescribed houses in sizes varying according to
the Varna (as was the old practice) but he also fixed the size according to
grades of various classes of ruling chiefs. Thus now land also played part
to determine division in society.
KH

 The no. of castes also on account of nature of economy in which they

could not move. People living in different areas and practicing same
occupations but became divided in sub-castes on basis of territory they
belonged to. Further tribal were introduced.
E

CULTURAL DEVELOPMENT:
 In about 6th-7th cent. started the formation of cultural units which
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later came to be called as Karnataka, Maharashtra, Orissa, Rajasthan,

T.N. etc.
 6th -7th cent equally important for history of Sanskrit literature. As the
rulers came to live in pomp and splendor, the style of their language
became verbose and ornate. The ornate style in Sanskrit prose and

37
 poetry became common after 7th cent.
 From the 7th cent. A.D. onwards remarkable development took place
in linguistic history of India. Buddhist writings from eastern India
show the faint beginning of Bengali, Assamese, Oriya, Hindi, Maithili

S)
similarly in other parts.
 REASONS: On break up of Gupta empire several independent
principalities developed, hindering movement of people. The decline in

(IR
trade meant decline in communication b/w various regions.
 Regional scripts became more prominent in 7th cent. and later. From
Maurya to Gupta period through script underwent changes, but more
or less same script was used throughout. But from 7th cent onwards
every region came to hove its own script.
 In sculpture and construction of temples, every region came to evolve

N
its own style from 7th -8th cent. onwards. Particularly South India
became prominent in temples. Stone and bronze were the two
HA
medium on which divinities were shown. They predominated in
South India because of their use in Brahamanical temples and East
India because of Buddhist temples.
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BHAKTI AND TANTRICISM:

 In post-Gupta period, deities came to be arranged in order of
hierarchy with Shiva, Vishnu and Durga in top rung and Vedic Gods like
Indra, Varuna etc. reduced to position of lokapalas or security guards.
 From 7th century onwards spread the Bhakti cult especially in South.
Bhakti meant that people made all kind of offerings to god in return
KH

for Parasada or favour of God. This was similar to relation b/w

tenant and landholder where tenant offered his services in return for
land and protection as a kind of favour from him.
 Most remarkable development from 6th cent. onwards was spread of
tantricism. This laid great stress on use of magical rituals to satisfy the
E

material desires of the devotees for physical possessions. It evolved as

a result of introduction of various Aboriginals into Brahmanical society.
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Brahmanas adopted many of these tribal rituals, charms and symbols

which were now officially codified.
 The emergence of landlords as a powerful class became a prominent
feature of social, economic and political landscape after the end of
ancient period in both Europe and India. Landlords played key role

38
 in sharping the course of society, religion, art and literature.
 [both the Roman and Gupta empire were attacked by Hunas but
consequences were different. There it led to surrender of freedom of
peasants to landlords i.e. slavery, but nothing as such in India.]

S)
Some important facts:
 Wootz : Indian steel

(IR
 Ashtadhyayi by Panini in 4th cent BC : Sankrit
 Sulvasutras : Baudhayan
 Suryasiddhanta : famous maths work of ancient India
 Brihatsamhita: Varamihira 6th cent. AD
 Borobudur temple in Java (Buddhist)

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