Art & Architecture of India

Introduction
India’scultural heritage is extremely rich and counts among the most ancient in the world.
The art of sculpture, the most highly respected medium for artists, was widely practised
throughout the subcontinent, and buildings were lavishly adorned with sculptures. The
subject matter of Indian sculpture was almost invariably abstracted human forms that were
portrayed to instruct people on the truths of the Hindu, Buddhist or Jain religions.

Painting in India encompasses Buddhist murals from the Ajanta caves in Maharashtra to the
Brihadishvara Temple in Thanjavur, from the large wall paintings of Ellora to the miniaturist
tradition of Mughal and the mixed-media embellished works from the Tanjore school.

Indian civilisation also displays mixed architectural styles and influences, the most famous
exampleof which is possiblythe Taj Mahal in Agra, Uttar Pradesh.

Origin of art in India

Art is an integral part of culture.India had always been known as a land of cultural and
traditional vibrancy through its conventional arts and crafts. The 29 states and 7 union
territories across the country have their own distinct cultural and traditional
identities,visible through the various forms of art prevalent there. Every region in India
boasts its own range of unique folk art forms.

Statues and Seals of the Indus Valley

Among the surviving works of the Harappan Civilisation is a miniature bronze girl with
beautifully formed limbs holding a bowl against her thigh. Of the various other sculptural
pieces found, the best known is that of a bearded man, probably the image of a priest.Clay
animal figures have been found painted with designs and themes from nature.

Sculpture in India
The art of sculpture began in India during the Indus Valley civilisation which encompassed
parts of Afghanistan, Pakistan and north-west India as far south as Rajkot. Indian
sculptureechoes the brilliance and finesse of a most advanced civilisation while
demonstrating the eroticism and spirituality, the mysticism and passion of Indian art forms
with beauty and magnificence.

In India, sculptures have been made of all kinds of raw material. While some of them have
been created out of a single solid chunk of the material, others have been crafted in parts,
and then joined together. Some of the materials used by artisans are wood, brass, paper-
mache, bronze, clay, fibre glass etc.

Kushan Period
Kanishka I, the greatest of the Kushan Emperors, was a great patron of Buddhism. Two main
spheres of Kushan Art are recognised today:on the one hand, the broader Bactria-Gandhara
region (in modern day Afghanistan) and the upper-Indus region (around Peshawar in
Pakistan) where works showing strongly Hellenic (Greek) and Persian influence were
produced; and on the other, Northern India, particularly around Mathura where works in
the Indian style were produced.

Gandhara School
The most notable of the Gandharan icons was that of the Buddha seated in a yogic position.

Mathura School
This school drew inspiration from Jainism as well as Iranian and Greco-Roman styles. The
forms of BrahmInical deities became crystallised at Mathura for the first time.

Gupta Period
Art of the Gupta period was marked by a deep spiritual quality and a vision which tried to
record the higher level and deeper truths of life. An enormous amount of sculptures have
been found from this period, the best known of which is perhaps the statue of the God
Hari-Hara (half Shiva-half Vishnu) from Madhya Pradesh which dates back to the 5 th century
AD. One of the finest creations of the period is the high-relief statue of Buddha found in the
ruins of Sarnath.

Painting Styles
In Bhimbetka, near Bhopal, in Central India, is India’s largest and oldest collection of cave
paintings – belonging to the Neolithic Age and depicting the everyday lives of people.

Numerous references to painting are found in literature dating back to the Pre-Christian
period. Vatsyayana listed painting as one of the 64 kala or fine arts in his Kamasutra. He
went further and elaborated on the 6 principles of art, or its limbs or shadanga: Rupabheda,
Pramanam, Bhava, LavanyaYoganam, Sadrisyam and Varnikabhanga.

Cave Paintings
The caves of Ajanta, Bagh, Sittanavasal, Armamalai are all examples of cave paintings. The
themes are mainly drawn from Hindu, Jain and Buddhist religious inferences.

Early Miniature
The Pala School of Bengal (9th to 12th century AD) developed illustrations on palm leaf and
paper manuscriptsand on their wooden covers. A counterpart of these schools was the
Apabhramsa School in Western India.

Vijayanagar Period

The best preserved and well-known paintings are those at the Virbhadra temple. The
Lepakshi paintings are characterised by earth tones and the near absence of blue.

Transition

After the advent of Islam, an age of synthesis began. The Sultanate painting style reflected
in the Mandu School shows a synthesis of Indian and Persian traditions.

Mughal Painting

In the courts of Babur and Humayun, the Timurid style of Persian painting continued.

Mughal painting reflects an exclusive combination of Indian, Persian and Islamic styles. As
the name suggests, these paintings evolved as well as developed during the rule of Mughal
Emperors in India, between 16th to 19thcentury. The themes of that time revolved around
musical parties, lovers on terraces and gardens, ascetics gathered around a fire, etc.
A Mughal Miniature

Rajasthani Painting

This has several schools included in it like the Mewar, Marwar, Kishangarh, Bundi and Jaipur
schools each with their own characteristics.

Pahari Painting

The painting styles developed in the hill states (corresponding largely to Himachal Pradesh
today), described by the generic name ‘Pahari Art’, was deeply rooted in the feelings and
experiences of the human heart. Basohli and Kangra are the two main centres of this art.

Mysore Painting

It is a rich traditional art form of South India that enables us to understand the rich cultural
values of our past. Painting in Karnataka has a long and illustrious history, tracing its origins
back to the Ajanta times (2nd century B.C. to 7th century A.D.)

Historically, Mysore had been a place governed by manyrulers with a strong passion for
visual arts, which included architecture and painting.

Mysore paintings have a variety of forms: murals depicting scenes of Hindu

mythology,portraits of heroes and kings, icons of Hindu mythology, strictly adhering to
principles of iconography.

Mysore School

Tanjore Painting

The history of Tanjore Paintings dates back to the Maratha invasion of South India during
the 16thcentury. Tanjore paintings are known for vivid colours, surface richness and compact
composition. These paintings have a long-lasting glow, adorned as they are with
semiprecious stones, glass pieces and gold that add colour and opulence.
Madhubani painting

Also known as Mithila painting due to its origins in the Mithila region of India and Nepal,
Madhubani is a traditional Indian folk part made on canvas, cloth or cow dung washed
handmade paper.

According to local mythology, its origins can be traced to the time of the Ramayana, when
King Janaka of Mithila ordered his subjects to decorate the town for the wedding of his
daughter Sita to Lord Rama.

Natural dye and colours are used in creation of Madhubani artworks, with geometrical
figures and vibrant colours being key elements.

Pattachitra painting
Pattachitra is a term which is literally derived frompatta, meaning cloth, and chitra,meaning
picture. Hence, Pattachitra is a picture painted on a piece of cloth. Pattachitra resembles
the old murals of Odisha especially of the regions of Puri, Konarkand Bhubaneswar.
Warli painting
Warli is a beautiful folk art of Maharashtra, traditionally created by the tribal women
belonging to theWarli and Malkharkoli tribes found on the northern outskirts of Mumbai, in
Western India. This centuries-old rudimentary domestic form was first explored for purely
artistic purposes in the early nineteen seventies,and owing to its origin it was named as
Warli art.

The paintings are beautifully executed and resemble prehistoric cave paintings in
execution.They usually depict scenes of human stick-type figures engaged in activities like
hunting, dancing, sowing and harvesting.

Kalamkari
Kalamkari means painting with a pen. It is a form of textile art with a heritage dating back to
ancient times. ‘Kalam’ is the Persian word for pen, and ‘kari’ in Urdu implies the
craftsmanship involved.
Started originally in the Sasani era in Iran (almost 2500 years ago), there are two distinctive
styles of kalamkari art in India – the Srikalahasti style and the Machilipatnam style.

Srikalahasti : a style of Kalamkari work which involves dyed hand- painting of a fabric.

Machilipatnam: a style of Kalamkari work which involves vegetable dyed block-painting of a

fabric.

The rich cultural diversity of India is well reflected in the vivid, distinct and enchanting folk
art and crafts. Various painting styles like Kalighat, Phad, Gond, Pichwai are prevalent across
various regions, each representing tradition, customs, and ideologies passed on from one
generation to other.
Modern Oriental Art
E.B.Havell and Abanindranath Tagore began the Bengal School in painting which was also
called the Renaissance School or the Revivalist School.It aimed to revive lost values and
revitalise the indigenous system. Its main exponents were Nandlal Bose and
GaganendranathTagore.

20th Century Art

Indian Art was taken forward by stalwarts like Gaganendranath Tagore, Amrita Sher-Gil,
S.H.Raza, Jamini Roy and others.

Around the time that India gained independence, a remarkable group of artists started the
Progressive Artists’ Group (PAG) in Mumbai. Its members included F.N.Souza, M.F.Husain,
S.H.Raza, and others. Others like Tyeb Mehta, V.S.Gaitonde and Ram Kumar also gravitated
towards it.
Indian Architecture
Indian Architecture evolved over the ages in different parts and regions of the country.
Apart from these natural and obvious evolutions from prehistoric and historic periods, the
evolution of Indian architecture was generally affected by many great and important historic
developments. Naturally, the emergence and decay of great empires and dynasties in the
sub-continent, each in their way influenced the growth and shaped the evolution of Indian
architecture. External influences have also shaped the nature of Indian architecture, similar
to the influence of different regions of the country.

Ancient Indian architecture

The excavations at Harappa and Mohenjodaro and several other sites of the Indus Valley
Civilisation have revealed the existence of a very modern urban civilisation with expert town
planning and engineering skills. The very advanced drainage system along with well-planned
roads and houses show that a sophisticated and highly evolved culture existed in India
before the arrival of the Aryans. The sites of the Indus Valley Civilization were excavated
under the Archaeological Survey of India established by the British.

City Planning in the Indus Valley Civilisation

Another remarkable feature was the existence of a well-planned drainage system in the
residential parts of the city. Small drains from the houses were connected to larger ones
along the sides of the main roads. The drains were covered and loose covers were provided
for the purpose of cleaning them. The planning of the residential houses was also
meticulous. Evidence of stairs shows houses were often double storeyed. Doors were in the
side lanes to prevent dust from entering the houses.

Harappan architecture was way ahead of all civilisations at the time

The most important features of Harappan architecture are its superior town planning skills
and cities that have been built on a clear geometric pattern or grid layout. Roads cut each
other at right angles and were very well laid out. As the Indus Valley settlements were
located on the banks of the river, they were often destroyed by major floods. In spite of this
calamity, the Indus Valley people built fresh settlements on the same sites. Thus, layers
upon layers of settlements and buildings were found during the excavations. The decline
and final destruction of the Indus Valley Civilization, sometime around the second
millennium BC remains a mystery to this day.

The Vedic Aryans who came next, lived in houses built of wood, bamboo and reeds; the
Aryan culture was largely a rural one and thus one finds few examples of grand buildings.
This was because Aryans used perishable material like wood for the construction of royal
palaces which have been completely destroyed over time. The most important feature of
the Vedic period was the making of fire altars which soon became an important and integral
part of the social and religious life of the people even today. In many Hindu homes and
especially in their marriages, these fire altars play an important role even today. Soon
courtyard and mandaps were built with altars for worship of fire which was the most
important feature of architecture. There are also references of Gurukuls and hermitages.
Unfortunately, no structure of the Vedic period has survived. Their contribution to the
architectural history of India is the use of wood along with brick and stone for building their
houses.

In the 6th century BC, India entered a significant phase of her history. There arose two new
religions – Jainism and Buddhism, and even the Vedic religion underwent a change. The
emergence of Buddhism and Jainism helped in the development of an early architectural
style. Buddhist Stupas were built at places where Buddha’s remains were preserved and at
the major sites where important events in Buddha’s life occurred. Stupas were built of huge
mounds of mud, enclosed in carefully burnt small standard bricks. One was built at his
birthplace Lumbini; the second at Gaya where he attained enlightenment under the Bodhi
Tree, the third at Sarnath where he gave his first sermon and the fourth at Kushinagar
where he passed away attaining Mahaparinirvana at the age of eighty.

The SanchiStupa
Buddha’s burial mounds and places of major events in his life became important landmarks
of the significant architectural buildings in the country. These became important sites for
Buddha’s order of monks and nuns – the sangha. Monasteries (viharas), and centres of
preaching, teaching and learning came up at such places. Congregational halls (chaitya) for
teaching and interaction between the common people and the monks were also built up.

The Mauryan period (322-182 BC) especially under Ashoka architecture saw great
advancement. Mauryan art and architecture depicted the influence of Persians and Greeks.
During the reign of Ashoka many monolithic stone pillars were erected on which teachings
of ‘Dhamma’ were inscribed. The highly polished pillars with animal figures adorning the top
(capitals) are unique and remarkable. The lion capital of the Sarnath pillar has been adopted
as the Emblem of the Indian Republic. Each pillar weighs about 50 tonnes and is about 50 ft
high. The stupas of Sanchi and Sarnath are symbols of the achievement of Mauryan
architecture. The gateways of the Sanchi Stupa with the beautiful sculpture depicting scenes
from Jataka stories are specimens of the skill and aesthetic sense of the artisans.

Medieval Architecture
The Gupta period marked the beginning of the construction of free-standing Hindu temples.
An example of this is the temple at Deogarh (Jhansi district) which had a central shrine or
garbhagriha where the image of the deity was placed. Another temple at Bhitrigaon
(Kanpur district) is a fine example of this period.

The temple building activities that began during the Gupta rule continued to flourish in later
periods. In southern India the Pallavas, Cholas, Pandyas, Hoysalas and later the rulers of the
Vijayanagar kingdom were great builders of temples. The Pallava rulers built the Shore
temple at Mahabalipuram. The Pallavas also built other structural temples like the
Kailashnath temple and VaikunthaPerumal temple at Kanchipuram. The Cholas built many
temples, the most famous being the Brihadeshwara temple at Thanjavur. The Cholas
developed a typical style of temple architecture of South India called the Dravida style,
complete with a vimana or shikhara, high walls and the gateway topped by a gopuram or
cupola. Magnificent temples were built at Belur andHalebid in Karnataka, where the stone
engravings reached even greater heights.

In north and eastern India, magnificent temples were also constructed and the style
followed by them is referred to as the Nagara style. Most of them consisted of the shikaras
(spiral roofs), the garbhagriha (sanctum) and the mandap (pillared hall). Odisha has some of
the most beautiful temples such as the Lingaraja temple built by the Ganga rulers,
theMukteshwara temple at Bhubaneswar and the Jagannath temple at Puri.

The Konark Sun temple

Other Temple Complexes

The sun temple at Konark was built in the thirteenth century by the eastern Ganga ruler
Narsimha Deva I. The temple is dedicated to Surya (the Sun god) and was designed as a
twelve-wheeled chariot. The temple complex at Khajuraho was built by Chandela rulers
between the tenth and eleventh centuries in the Bundelkhand region of Madhya Pradesh.
The most important among them is the KandariyaMahadev temple. Mount Abu in Rajasthan
is known for the Dilwara temple dedicated to Jain tirthankaras. These were built under the
patronage of Solanki rulers in pure white marble and adorned with exquisite sculpture.

With the arrival of the Turks during the thirteenth century came a new technique of
architecture: the styles of Persia, Arabia and Central Asia. The engineering features of these
buildings were domes, arches and minarets. The palaces, mosques and tombs built by these
rulers had these features which were blended with the features of the indigenous
architecture. This new synthesis in architectureoccurred because the Turkish rulers of Delhi
utilised the services of the highly skillfullocal craftsmen in India who had already
constructed beautiful buildings. The buildings that came up reflect the simplicity of Islamic
design as well as the detailed sculptures and designs they made on their own indigenous
structures. A middle path was followed in all their designs in the architecture of this period.
The QutubMinar– the world’s tallest brick minaret

The earliest buildings of this period are the Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque at Delhi and the
QutubMinar. The latter is a five-storeyed tapering tower whose height is over 70 metres.
There are beautiful engravings of calligraphy both in the mosque and on the tower. Many
other buildings were later constructed by the Sultans. AlauddinKhalji enlarged the Quwwat-
ul-Islam mosque and built a gateway to the enclosure of the mosque. This gateway,called
the Alai Darwaza, isan extraordinarily beautiful structure even today. Decorative elements
were used to make the building outstanding in its beauty. AlauddinKhaljialso built the
HauzKhas in Delhi which was a hydraulic structure.

The tomb of Mohammad Tughlaq, FirozTughlaq and the forts of Tughlaqabad are some
examplesthe martial nature of architecture of the early and middle Delhi Sultanate. Though
their buildings were not focussed on aesthetics, they had very strong walls, massive as well
as impressive. During the Afghan rule the tombs of Ibrahim Lodi at Delhi and Shershah’s
tomb at Sasaram were built. The architecture of this period also shows how indigenous
styles were adopted and utilised by the builders. During these years, the Turks were still in
the process of settling down. The rulers were threatened by the Mongols, who made
sudden invasions from the north. This is why the buildings of this period are strong, sturdy
and practical.

Architecture in the Mughal Period

The advent of the Mughals heralded a new era in architecture. The synthesis of style which
began earlier reached its zenith during this time. The architecture of Mughal style started
during Akbar’s rule. The first building of this rule was Humayun’s Tomb at Delhi. In this
magnificent building red stone was used. It has a main gateway and the tomb is placed in
the midst of a garden. Many consider it a precursor of the Taj Mahal.

FatehpurSikri, built by Akbar, briefly served as the capital of the Mughal Empire.

Akbar built forts at Agra and FatehpurSikri. The BulandDarwaza reflects the grandeur of the
mighty Mughal empire. This building was made following Akbar’s victory over Gujarat. The
Arch of the BulandDarwaza is about 41 m high and is oneof the most imposing gateways in
the world. The tomb of Salim Chishti, Palace of Jodha Bai, IbadatKhana, Birbal’s House and
other buildings at FatehpurSikri reflect a synthesis of Persian and Indian elements. During
the reign of Jehangir, Akbar’s Mausoleum was constructed at Sikandra near Agra. He built
the beautiful tomb of Itimad-ud-daulaclad entirely in white marble. Shahjahanis considered
the greatest builder amongst the Mughals.

With the declining power of the Mughals, their architecture reflected the loss of power, and
one of the last major works was Safdarjung’s Tomb at Delhi, built in 1754.

Colonial Architecture
Colonial influence can be seen across India especially in Mumbai, Kolkata and Chennai; and
the numerous cantonment towns of the British. Europeans who started coming from
sixteenth century AD constructed many churches and other buildings. The Portuguese built
many churches at Goa, the most famous of which include the Basilica of Bom Jesus and the
church of Saint Francis-Xavier. The British also built administrative and residential buildings
which reflect their imperial glory. Some Greek and Roman influence can be observed in the
colonnaded or pillared buildings, of which Parliament House and Connaught Place in Delhi
are good examples. The British architect Edwin Lutyens designed the Presidential Palace or
RashtrapatiBhavan, formerly the Viceroy’s Residence. It is built of sandstone and has Indian
design features like canopies and jaalis from Rajasthan.

Goan architecture is still heavily inspired by European ideas since Goa was the first place to
be colonised by Europeans.

The Victoria Memorial in Kolkata (formerly Calcutta) is a powerful symbol of the British
Empire, built as a monument in tribute to Queen Victoria’s reign.It now houses a museum
full of colonial artefacts. Writers’ Building in Kolkata, where generations of government
officers worked in British times, is still the administrative centre of West Bengal post
independence.

Some Gothic elements can be seen in church buildings like those seen in the St. Paul’s
Cathedral in Kolkata. The British also left behind impressive railway terminals like Mumbai’s
Victoria Terminus (renamed as ChhatrapatiShivajiMaharaj Terminus). Contemporary
buildings, designed after independenceshow a variety of influences and styles.

Post Independence
India had been dominated by foreign powers and influences for a thousand years. In every
field, efforts were made to modernise yet there was a need to inculcate cultural values that
were important to Indians and needed to be expressed. Architecture was a field in which
these contradictions manifested themselves.

On the one hand several modern buildings were built by a set of architects who had studied
and worked overseas.

A new era of architecture began when the renownedSwiss-French architect Le Corbusier

was invited to design the capital of the state of Punjab, Chandigarh. Le Corbusier’s
uncompromising functionalism consciously broke with the past ‘historicism’ of imperial
architecture.

On the other hand several monumental buildings were built which evoked Indian traditional
architecture like the VidhanaSoudha (Assembly) at Bangalore.

In Delhi, the American architect Joseph Allen Stein, designed The India International Centre
where conferences are held by intellectuals and academicians from all over the world and
more recently, the India Habitat Centre which has become a centre of intellectual activities
in the capital.

Here are some of the important examples of post-independence architecture of India

Chandigarh Assembly Building Bangalore Vidhana Soudha

India Habitat Centre, Delhi Triveni Kala Sangam, Delhi

India International Centre, Delhi VigyanBhawan, Delhi

Swaminarayan Akshar Dham Temple, Delhi Lotus Temple, Bahai House of Worship, Delhi

Indian Institute of Management, Ahmedabad Indian Institute of Management, Bangalore