UNIT 3 IRON AGE

Structure
3.1 Introduction
Objectives
3.2 Science in Iron Age India
Search for Agricultural Land and M~nerals

_ Emergence of Urban Societ~es

Emergence of Science
Developments in Mediclne
3.3 Science in Iron Age Greece
Developments in Some Areas of Sc~ence
3.4 Atomic Theory in Antiquity
3.5 Decline of European Science
3.6 Summary
3.7 Terminal Questions
3.8 Answers

3.1 INTRODUCTION
In Unit 2, we briefly surveyed the ideas and techniques of the early human beings, and
traced the roots of science in the primitive culture. You also read about the emergence and
growth of science in the ancient world, in the historical epoch known as the Bronze Age.
Now, we turn our attention to an equally important period in the history of science, known
a:; the Iron Age.
From about the fifteenth century B.C., we find that civilisation was no longer limited to a
few river basins but had spread to the major cultivable areas of Asia, northern Africa and
Europe. The spread of civilisation was aided by the discovery and use of a new metal, iron,
which led to this period being called as the Iron Age. The Iron Age did not bring about any
remarkable technical advances, such as in the Bronze Age. However, the availability of a
cheap and abundant metal led to widespread changes as this civilisation spread far and wide.
It also affected the relations between various social classes. ,
We have already read that the Bronze Age river valley civilisations were decaying due to
many problems of stagnating economy and culture. Their decline was hastened by the
constant incursions and raids of barbarian clans. The nomadic barbarians were pastoral
people who had learnt to use iron. They had great mobility as they had tamed wild horses for
travel, and carried their food alongwith them. They ran through the decaying civilisations,
picking up local techniques as it suited them. The devastation left in their wake was often
irreparable for the people they had over-run. The barbarians spread far and wide in the
world, giving rise to civilisations that were less peaceful, even less developed, but more
flexible to change.
In this unit, we shall study about the developments in science and technology in the Indian
and Greek civilisations of the Iron Age. In the next unit, we shall take up the study of one of
the most fruitful periods of scientific.developments in India, which saw tremendous
advances in the areas of astronomy, mathematics and technology.

Objectives
After studying this unit you should be able to :
describe, in an objective manner, the major developments in science and technology in
India and Greece in the Iron Age,
compare the developments invarious scientific ideas and techniques in India with those
in Greece,
explain the factors that led to the decline of science in Europe.
 History of Science
3.2 SCIENCE IN IRON AGE INDIA
In the Indian subcontinent, nomadic Indo-Aryans came from the steppes of what is now
Soviet Central Asia and Iran. They came in waves, the first one being around 1500 B.C.
They moved south-east, and finally settled in the areas shown in Fig. 3.1 as postoral -
agricultural communities and kingdoms. For these people, transformation from
pastoral to settled agricultural communities took between 1000 to 1500 years, the
period lasting until about 700-600 B.C.
,.*. -.,
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0'"W.c.
E.t.llu
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am. .-.<-
0, - We get information about this period from the literature of Vedic.times such as the Vedas.
Samhitas. Upanisads, Sutras etc.. and from the tools and artefacts found in excavations at
various sites. Let us now try to recolistruct this history.

3.2.1 Search for Agriculturql Land and Minerals

For the Aryans, the period of transition from pastoral to agricultural 'communities was
characterised by war and strife against the local population. They were constantly in search
of agricultural land. mineral deposits and ores. and they cleared dense forests for these
purposes. This is called the Rigvedic period.
-
Rigvedic Period (1500 B.C. 700 B.C.)
Fig. 3.1: Distribution ofthe 1n the Rigvedic period, the Aryan groups were always on the move and in constant strife
Grey Ware pottery in the Gangetic plain with each other or with the local non-Aryans. Therefore, they did not have enough
provides evidence of the Aryans' opportunity to develop science and technology. Their technology amounted mostly to the
movement towards the east.
construction of chariots, iron tools and weapons of war. The pottery of those times (1000B.C.
to 600 B.C.) foundin the Gangetic plain is called the 'Painted Grey Ware' pottery. It is
not as developed as the Harappan pottery. You camsee this in Fig. 3.2. Similarly, there was
no brick technology of any great note, especially in comparison to that achieved in the
Harappan period. Craftsmen such as wood-workers, cabinet and chariot-makers, metal-
wcrkers arid ship-builders. were free members of the tribe. Weaving and spinning was done
onlv by women.

Fig. 3.2: Sketches of some pottery f m the lndus Valley and Painted Grey Ware sites. Harappan pottery:
a) from Daimabad dated about 2000 B.C.. b) from Lothal: c) from Navadatoli, dated about 2000 B.C. Painted
Grey Ware pottery; d) bowl (Panipat) and e) d~sh(Ah~cchatra).Considerations of range, type, design. temperature
of baking show that Harappan pottery is better than the Painted Grey Ware.

As for their knowledge in other areas of science, we find a reference to the division of the
universe into tllrce regions - the earth (pritlivi), tlle 1-mament (anrariksh) and tlle heaven
(&orts) in the Rig Veda. We now know that this is incorrect. The priests needed calendars
for pcrforming sacrificial ceremonies, which depcnded on the position of sun. moon and Ihe
A Yajuwedic hymn ponrays the planets. This meant tracking the motion of these heavenly bodies. The calendars they drcw
quest of land and other up gave the division of time into days, months and years and also indicated the seasons.
resources. "May for me . . . low
grade grain, food, freedom from
I-Iowevcr, these attempts did not go deep into the study of the motion of planets, of stars
hunger, rice, barley, sesame, and constellations. We also iind stray reference to different plants. their classificatio~land
kidney beans, vetches. wheat. struclure ill the hymns and verses of Rig Veda. Interest in medicine is also rcflectcd in some
lentils, millet ... and wild rice of Lhese hymns.
(prosper through sacrifices):
May for me stone, clay. hills..... Yajurvedic Period (700 B.C. - 400 B.C.)
gold, bronze, lead, tin, ~ron,
copper, fire ..... . What grows on The Rigvedic period was followed by a wave of eastward push in search of agricultural land
ploughed land and unploughed and metallic resources. This era, called the Yajurvedic period, lasted for 300 years.
land, tame and wild cattle, Yajurveda speaks of ploughs drawn by teams of twelve oxen. Such ploughs were
prosper through the sacrifice."
indispensable for driving deep furrows and turning over heavy soil which would not
otherwise yield well or retain its fertility. The snong plough could be made of wodd
trimmed down by bronze tools, but the ploughshare for cultivating strong soil had to be of The mobility of the Aryans was
iron. Where did the iron come from? Copper may have been available in Rajasthan, but iron also helped by their knowledge
of sailipg. We find a mention of
deposits lay much farther away in the east. India's finest deposits of iron and copper lie at ships with hundred oars even in
the eastern end of the Gangetic plain in south-east Bihar. We also find evidence of the the Rig Veda. Boats were used
Aryans' movement for ores from the copper harpoons, shoulder celts and semi-human to g o down the Ganges for
figures dated about 1000 B.C., which are found all over the Gangetic plain. The tools and trading and exploration, past
artefacts lead us to surmise that these were peddled by Aryan traders. These objects imply Varanasi down lo Pataiiputra and
the Gangetic delta.
that Aryans knew copper refining by controlled fire using good kilns (Fig. 3.3).
The demand for high grade iron increased tremendously with time. As a result, Aryans
Anhasastra is the most important
explored new deposits of iron all over the country, going as far as Andhra and Mysore by text that we now possess. It was
about 200 to 100 B.C. Knowledge of the metallurgy of iron, copper, silver and tin continued written by Kautilya. minister of
to be developed by the Aryans till well into the Maurya period. We find that in Arthasastra, Chandragupta. sometime
between 321 and 300 B.C.
directions are given for reducing and melting of ores with distinction between various
grades.

3.2.2 Emergence of Urban Societies

The writings of this period also give us a picture of the social conditions. The social
structure was undergoing radical changes at this time, from the tribal to a more structured Members of the conquered
tribes, Aryan or non-Aryan, were
urban society. By the time the Aryans started their eastward progress, a new sort of tribal treated as 'dasas' by the
slave, the 'dasa' was being used for extra labour. A highly developed priesthood, conquering tribes.
specialising in sacrificial rites. combining Aryan and pre-Aryan practices, was also coming
into being. Most importantly, however, commodity production was becoming established.
This means that craftsmen and labourers were producing, not for direct consumption of the
local society, but for trade within the far flung Aryan and non-Aryan settlements. Trade
routes of Uttarapatha, and later Dakshinapatha, were established. You can see these routes in
Fig. 3.4. Traders known as Sar:havahas (Caravaneers) and Vaidehikas started to ply along
the routes, from Taxila to Magadha. From the coins found in the excavations, we can deduce
that regular coinage had come into use by the end of the seventh century B.C.
At about the end of this pcr~od,professionals appeared in the fields of science, medicine and
technology. Students from al! along Uttarapatha started to travel to centres of learning, such
as Taxila, for specialised training. The learned grammarian Panini taught in Taxila around
the fourth century B.C. Atreya taught medicine around the sixth century B.C. Atreya's
students and successors Jivaka, Kuniarabhacha, Bhela, Parasara and others, came to have
profound influence on the development of medicine and chemistry in India in the next 1000
years.
A new 0rdel.1~social life came into being around 800 to 600 B.C. This was free from
shortages and unending conflicts of the Vedic society. Small states or 'Janapadas', headed
by kings and governed by codes and laws formulated by state powers, were being formed.

Fig. 33: Sketches of some copper

objects found in the Gangetic plain:
I) semi-human figure; 2) axe;'3) ring;
4) bar-celt; 5) double axe; 6&7)
harpoons; 8) sword.

BAVOF BEWAL

Fig. 3.4: Sixteen principal Janapadas (tenitories) of the

seventh century B.C. Trade routes of Uttarapatha (-)
and Dakshinapatha ( . . . . . . . . ). Magadha empire under
Mahapadma Nanda. 4th century B.C.
There were sixteen Janapadas in the seventh centyry B.C (see Fig. 3.4). The state income
came from agriculture and trade. These societies had kings, priests, scholars, soldiers,
traders, peasants, craftsmen and lowly civic labourers. For the efficient running of the state
and ensuring that power remained firmly with the wealthy. the social hierarchy soon became
rigid and got codified into four 'varnas', the Brahmins, the Kshatriyas,'the Vaisyas and the
Sudras. Divine sanctions were invoked to maintain this hierarchy.
SAQ 1
The following statements tell us about the various aspects of ths Bronze Age and Iron Age
societies in India. Put the letter B (for Bronze Age) or I (for Iron Age) against each
statement to indicate the society it depicts.
i) This civilisation was spread far and wide in the Gangetic plain of India. ...........
ii) Most of the habitations of this period were located in the valley of river Indus .......
iii) Trade in this civilisation was essentially barter trade, i.e. goods of one kind were
exchanged with other kinds of articles ...............
iv) Commodity production had started, i.e. certain articles were produced not ibr local
consumption, but for trade in far flung areas ...............
V) A caste system had emerged in this society ...............
vi) Trade was mainly done in the goods that were surplus, ie. after the consumption
needs of the society were met ...............
vii) A large number of people were involved in innovations. ..............
viii) Regular coinage had come into use in the trade practices. ..............
ix) There were two main social groups: priest-kings; farmers and urban craftsmen, etc.

x) Small groups of people had started specialising in specific areas of science and
technology ......... : .....

3.2.3 Emergence of Science

In the previous section, we gave you a glimpse of the social structure in India during the
Iron Age. With the emergence of ordered urban societies, the stage was set for a tremendous
development in science and technology. We will now describe, in brief, the advances in
various areas of science, such as astronomy, mathematics, chemistry, botany and zoology.
Astronomy and Mathematics
We have described earlier the level of knowledge in astronomy in the Rigvedic times. Much
of the later work in astronomy in this period is merely a detailed or expanded version of the
astronomical knowledge already found in Rig Veda. We could, perhaps, understand this
feature if we realise that the developments in astronomy in this period, stem mainly from the
astrological practices of sacrificial ceremonies. As a matter of fact, astronomy degenerated
into astrology in the later years of this period.
You already know about the Sulvasutras which we described in Sec. 2.3.3. They show a
fairly high level of knowledge of geometry. Arithmetic was equally well developed.
Numbers in multiples of 10 going up to as high powers of 10, as 1012(one million million),
were known and used. All the arithmetic operations on numbers were also known.
Sulvasutras contain several instances of addition, subtraction, multiplication, division and
squaring of fractions. Quadratic equations, indeterminate equations, permutations and
combinations also appear in the Sulvasutras.
Chemistry
The level of chemical knowledge and practices in the new ordered society is reflected in the
pottery, iron tools and glass objects found at various Iron Age sites. The iron tools that you
see in Fig. 3.5,indicate a fairly advanced knowledge of iron smelting. By the fifth or the'
fourth century B.C., the Indian metalworkers had attained a high degree of perfection in the
techniques of producing iron and steel.
Glass objects unearthed in over 30 sites indicate that production of glass came to be known
only towards the end of this period (Fig. 3.6). Ceramic bowls, dishes, lids and carinated
jars ('handis') dated from about the sixth century B.C. to the second century B.C.. were
also found in these sites. Fermentation methods, dyeing techniques, the preparation
and use of a number of cheniicals and colour pigments were well known.
 Iron Age

Fig. 3.5: Sketches of some ancient iron objects found at various sites Fig. 3.6: Sketches of some ancient glass
such as Taxila, Hastinapur. Ujjain and Sisupalgarh: I) ringed chain; specimens from a) Taxila (6th century
2) lower portion of an iron axe: 3) miniature bell; 4) staple from a B.C.-1st century A.D.): I) ear-reel; 2)
looped head: 5 ) spearhead; 6) slightly convex iron disc with seal; 3-5 beads; 6) bangle piece; 7) wine
perforation; 7) spike of square section; 8) door ring; 9) circular flask (the thicker line was the piece that
piece of iron with a nail rivetted into it; 10) fragment of a chain. was found); b) Arikamedu (1st
century-2nd century A.D.): 8). 10)
Roman glass bowls; 9) millefiori glass.

Botany
In the Bronze and the Iron Ages, agriculture became the principal mode of production of
man in all lands. It is, thus, not surprising that in India, botany and elementary plant
physiology developed with the advances made in agriculture. The developments in medicine
also helped these sciences. For example, in Rigvedic hymns, Atharvaveda, Taittiriya
Samhita etc., scattered references are made to the following:
i) different parts of the plant such as mula (root), tula (shoot), kanda (stem), valsa (twigs)
etc.
ii) classification of plants such as osadhi (medicinal), valli (climber), guccha (bushy) etc.,
according to their morphology and use, and
iii) physiology of plants in terms of what nourishes a plant through addition to the soil, such
as cowdung etc.
A systematic study of botany, 'Vrksayurveda' by Parasara, however, came into being by
only about the first century B.C. The treatise formalised a lot of the earlier botanical and
medicinal knowledge. We will not go into its details.

Zoology
The domestication of animals like horses and elephants and their use in warfare necessitated
the study of their anatomy and physiology. A survey of Vedic literature has revealed that
more than 260 animals were known at that time. Classification of animals and study of their
dietary value had been attempted. Human physiology had also been studied. Post-Vedic
literature also contains the names of animals and a vast storehouse of observations on their
natural history. These observations may have stimulated the later thoughts and concepts
about classification, heredity, embryology etc.
History of Science However, none of the developments in astronomy, mathematics, chemistry, botany and
zoology that we have described so far, compare with the tremendous advances made in
medicine in that period. We will tell you about these advances in the next section.
SAQ 2
State whether the following statements about the level of scientific and technical
developments in the Iron Age India are true or false :
a) The development of astronomy, which arose from astrological practices and sacrificial
ceremonies, resulted in a study of the motion of sun, moon, planets and stars and many
new models, laws and theories were given . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
b) The need to make sacrificial altars gave rise to a fairly high level of knowledge in
geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
c) Indians knew how to make steel in the Iron Age .....................
d) Plant and animal clagsification, anatomy and physiology were known in an elementary
form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
e) The developments in modem science were all known in the Vedic times and we are just
rediscovering that knowledge ......................

3.2.4 Developments in Medicine

During the early Vedic period, healing was thought to be the duty of the priests. Diseases
were seen as the results of God's wrath for sins committed, or of being possessed by
demons. Interwoven with these ideas, we find speculations about the origin of disease, use
of healing drugs, beneficial treatment and surgery in the Vedic texts. The Ayurvedic concept
of 'medical knowledge as a science' developed only later.
The Ayurvedic System of Medicine
Punarvasu Atreya (about 6th century B.C.) taught medicine at Taxila. Each of his disciples
such as Bhela, Jatukarna, Harita, Ksarapani, Parasara wrote treatises on medicine. Atreya
himself, Patanjali (about 2nd century B.C.) and later many others wrote commentaries on
what is considered to be the main Indian treatise on medicine, the Caraka-Samhita.Very
little of the original samhita survives today. Most of what we know of this treatise, comes
'Caraka' is to be pronounced as from some of these commentaries. The origin of Caraka-Samhita,ana the surgical text
Charaka i.e. and Susmta as Susruta-Samhita,is generally estimated to be around 600 B.C. There is difference of opinion
Sushruta i.e. as to who wrote these samhitas. While some ascribe them to individrlals, others der-ribe the
authors to be practising doctors and surgeons belonging to a group of tribes. The main body
of the work is a meticulous classification and documentation of symptoms of various
ailments, corresponding healing systems, their properties, methods of application and their
dosages. The treatises are so important, because
i) thcy sire sc~:pulouslyscientific in their approach and method,
ii) th& Lave influence on the development of other branches of science such as chemistry
and botany, and
iii) they are transmitted through the ages in a form of practice known as Ayurveda.
Approach and Method
In the words of the original Their approach and method had the following significant features:
"Medical discussion is to allow
no proposition which is i) The physician was interested only in one thing and that was the cure of the patient.
irrelevant, unauthoritative, Towards this, he was allowed to take any steps including subterfuge and lies. For
uninvestigated. without any
example, if it was essential for the patient to eat some flesh, the physician had to work
practical significance, confused
and without any general out some tactics to overcome the patient's religious or aesthetic revulsion.
applicability. Every proposition
ii) The physician was to direct his attention towards curing the patient. Hence, he was not
must be substantiated by reason.
Only those propositibns that are supposed to cause any injury to the patient even though his own life may be at stake.
substantiated by reason and are The physician was to treat the patient as his own son.
untainted by any other
consideration prove useful for iii) Medical knowledge was to be acquired from previous practitioners as well as through
therapeutic purposes." medical discussions.
iv) Empirical data constituted the first and absolute minimum for science. It was said that
of all types of evidences, the most dependable ones were those that were directly
observed by the eyes. A knowledgeable physician was never to try to examine, on
grounds of pure logic, the efficacy of a medicine which was known by direct
observation to have a specific medical action.
Diagnosis and Prognosis
The diagnosis and prognosis of disease were done directly by seeing, hearing, smelling and
touching all external human organs and human waste and often indirectly by pulse
examination. These observations. singly or in combination, were correlated in specific
diseases. Thus, in an abscess, the physician heard the bustling sound of air with frothy
blood. Similarly, the sounds in entrails. the crack of a joint, changes in voice etc.. gave other
indications. His diagnosis was based not only on direct observation but on knowledge of the
patient's home, caste, mode of living, diet and other aspects of medical history. Prognosis
was based on the dictum that a clever physician should not treat an incurable patient.
Accordingly, detailed examination of 'arista' or bad omens (classified according to the
nature of disease) which led to death, was madc.
Curing methods In the Xloraka-Saml~iro.
The most impbrtant curing methods were classified under five heads, namely, inducing purgatives are prescribed in
vomiting, giving purgative, enem;, oily enema and nasal therapy. Specific applications of fever, poisoning. cholera
these were made according to the disease. Possible accidents during their application were hemorrhoids, leprosy. wind.
diabetes, jaundice, colic, cataract
also listed. There was also'extensiveclassification of diseases.
or glaucoma. abscess, fistula of
the anus etc.
Healing substances were classified into prevei..'-e and curative medicines. According to
Caraka-Samhita, these were animal, vegetable and mineral substances. This classification Among the animal substances,
was crossed by another consideration. thzt of groupiqe according to the effect of medicine. the Caraka-Samhilamentions
honey, milk, excreta. urine,
as emetic, purgative etc. These groupings were further s- ' divided into fifty groups of sperm, horns, flesh etc. Minerals
decoctions according to the relief they provided. include gold, silver, copper. zinc.
antimony etc. Curakas mention
Surgery 700 plants according to the
Susruta-Samhita, a.major treatise on surgery, was derived not only from exhaustive diseases for which thcse were to
observation of symptoms of diseases and their possible treatments but also a fairly detailed be applied.
knowledge of human physiology, anatomy, and especially the internal organs. For example,
in treating ulcers or wounds, it is directed that the instruments should be introduced with the
precaution of avoiding dangerous places, such as veins, bones and the like, until the pus is
visible. In the Sarnhita there is also detailed description of different types of iron
instruments, made by local smiths for extraction,cutting etc., in terms of sharpness, shape
and size (see Figs. 3.7 and 3.8). Two interesting features of this treatise are:

i) Scrupulous attention to pre and post-surgical cleaning of the wound, implying some
empirical knowledge of infection, and
. ..
11) uw of anaesthetics. While instructions are given to bind the patient strongly so that he
could not move during the operation, it is also mentioned that he should be given wine
to drink before the operation so that he might not faint and might not feel the knife.

Fa.3.7: Artist's reconstruction of Fig. 3.8: An artist's sketch of Susruta's students practising surgery on vegetables, like gourd (puspaphula). bottle-
Susruta's surgical tools as described in gourd (alavu) or cucumber (ervarukrr).The students were given thorough practical training on vsgetables. water
Susruta-Samhita. bags, dead animals and full-sized stuff@ dolls before performing surgery on.human beings. 51
History of Science Thus, we find that in Iron Age India, a scientific approach and method was adopted in the
practice of medicine. It is not surprising that the scientific practices of Carakas and Susrutas
earned the wrath and displeasure of the priests. This was, possibly, because their practices
often contradicted the prevailing ideas of priests who earned their living by reciting dictums
These dictums are from Aitareya such as "the gods are fond of the obscure" or "the gods are fond of the obscure, they detest
Upanisad and Brhadaranyaka direct observation." In the practice of medicine, the Indian physicians did not distinguish
Upanisad.
between the upper and the lower castes in terms of their medical attention. This was another
reason why they were not too popular with the priests.
This is not to say that the practice of medicine was entirely free from the influence of the
ideas prevalent in society. Cosmogonic speculations, that is, philosophical ideas about the
Note also that pancabhuta is
origin of universe, earth and living beings, find a reflection in Ayumeda. For instance. the
pronounced as panchabhuta. i.e.
practice of ascribing the causes of illness to humours or 'dosas', such as wind ('vayu'), bile
rhqa ('pitta') and phlegm ('kapha'), reflects this influence. So does the practice of relating- the
qualities of curative substances to the five elements ('pancabhutas')-earth ('prithvi'), fire
('jyoti', 'agni'), water ( 'apas', 'jala'), air ('vayu') and empty space ('akasa'). According to
Ayumeda, the 'rridosas', 'vayu', 'pitta' and 'kapha', are supposed to be present in all living
creatures. Diseases are said to be caused by their imbalances, paucity or excess in the body.
However, the prevalent philosophical and religious dogmas did not influence the physicians
while prescribing what they thought was good for the patient.
SAQ 3
Which one among the following features is an exception to the scientific approach and
method adopted in the practice of medicine by the Carakas and Susrutas? Tick the .
appropriate answer.
a) Medical knowledge was based on the observation of previous practitioners and was
obtained through discussions.
b) New therapies were investigated thoroughly and substantiated by reason before being
accepted.
c) Observation and experiment played a great role in determining the medicines or curing
methods that were to be used for various diseases.
d) It was thought that diseases were caused by the three humours, wind, bile and phlegm;
and the curative substances got their healing properties from the five elements--earth,
water, fire, air, empty space.
e) Classification of medicines and diseases was carried out.
It is, indeed, a great tragedy that the medical science which had such a sound Eginning in
meticulous empirical observation never got beyond the stage of classification of such
observations. It never came to acquire a rigorous scientific theoretical basis. No general
laws or theories could be deduced on the basis of this wealth of information. After the third
or the fourth century A.D., it relied less and less on fresh innovatory observation and more
and more on mystical 'causes'. The reasons for this stagnation are many. One of these is,
possibly, the opposition from orthodox religious ideas.
We also find that the nature of the developments in various areas of science, in this era, was
very different from what had happened in the previous era. In the Bronze Age, human
beings innovated and evolved techniques of tool making, metallurgy, ship-building or
medicine as they confronted problems in their struggle for survival or in making a better
living. It was a universal phenomenon, in the sense that a large number of people involved
in production were also innovators.
However, in the Iron Age, scientific pursuits, such as making innovations, deducing general
laws from observations, curing people or transmitting knowledge to future generations, were
limited to a small group of individuals patronised by the state. This had positive as well as
negative aspects. On the positive side, this made it possible to observe and experiment, or to
systematically learn about a complex phenomenon in great depth, or to simply contemplate,
without being burdened by the daily struggle for existence. On the other hand, this led to the
isolation of people with knowledge from those who practised and used techniques. This
made interaction of theory and practice difficult, thus, creating the danger of abstract
knowledge or blind practice. This was true for both Indian science and the Greek science.
We will now describe the developments in science in the Iron Age Greece.
3.3 SCIENCE IN IRON AGE GREECE
One of the most remarkable features of world history of the Iron Age is the sim'ilarity of
clcvelopments of culture in India and in Greece (Fig. 3.9). We know that there was trade
bct ween the two areas. The spread of knowledge may have taken place tl~rougliWest Asia
and finally through direct contact established at the timc of Alexander's incursion inlo north
wcst .India in 327 B.C. It is, therefore, easy to see that Indian and Greek cosmogonic
spcculalion, medicine and surgery came to influence each othcr through these contacts.

Fig. 3.9: a) Greek city states. b) Alexander's empire.

One of the similarities between the Indian and the Greek civilisations was growth of the
\arne kind of stratified social structure, at about the same period. While in India, the caste
structure was relegating all practical and manual work to the lower castes, manual work was
bang associated with slaves in Greece. The craftsmen and manual-workers were considered
to be definitely inferior beings to brain-workers or contemplative thinkers. Although much
craft work was done by free men, they were degraded by competition with slaves, so that
thetr work was also called base and servile. This. as we have observed earlier. led to the
4eparation of conternplat~vescience from technique, both in Greece and in India. It reduced
the intluence of thinkers on.practica1work, and of practice on thinking.
The patronisation by the rulers, of a group of people, whose profession was to contemplate
and to teach, led to the peculiar development of science during that period. Initially, it led to
the flowering of Greek sciences such as geometry, mechanics, medicine and cosmogonic
system. But, finally, it made Greek science far too speculative and abstract. The abstractions
were totally removed from life. However, as they were formulated by leading authorities and
philosophers of those times, these abstract ideas. generally, came to be accepted as "laws of
nature". Not much attention was paid to people who challenged such ideas, on the basis of
observation. As such, these abstractions became a major stumbling block to the growth of
science, for the next 2000 years.
In India, abstractions certainly grew in physics and cosmogonic systems, but medicine.
chemistry. botany and agricultural science retained strong links with practice. Medicine, in
addition. required the use of proscribed flesh and other substances for healing. The general
approach of the medical practitioners to healing and saving of life disregarded Karma and
other orthodox tenets. This led to their condemnation by the spiritual and legal authorities,
resulting in the stagnation of medical science in India, by about the third to the fourth
century A.D.
It is interesting to note a basic difference between Indian and Greek science in terms of the
influence of existing ideological and religious systems on science. Indian scientific treatises
of this ape always started with obeisance to divinity. ~ u t the
; actual text, except for those on
cosmogony and. to \ome extent, those on medicine (containing ideas of five elements and
three cfoscrs).were free from philosophical interlacing and inspirations. Greek science'of this
period was. however. deeply influenced by the prevailing social philosophy and ideologies,
u i ~ hsome exceptions. such as the works of Democritus and Mppocrates.
I
I

History of Science In Greek science. this was the age of questioning. The philosopher-scientists continuously
looked for reasons and causes of things. But, in the absence of experimental tools, and more
importantly, being influenced by the social philosophy of slave society. they sought answers
in parallels with the existing order of society.
The early Greek philosophers of the sixth century B.C., such as Thales, Empedocles and
Pythagoras were exceptions, in the sense that they speculated on what the world was and
how it came to be w~thoutthe intervention of god\. The theory of four elements--earth,
water, air and fire 1s attributed to these Ionian philosophers. We will talk more about their
work in the sections that follow..
Aristotle (4th century B.C.), who was one of the leading Greek philosophers came to occupy
a central place in the history of science. He broke away from the Ionian school by refusing
to consider how the world had been made. In his view, the world always had been as it was
then, and would always be the same, because that was the reasonable way for it to be.
Aristotle built his physical world in the image of an ideal social world, in which
subordination was the natural state. In this world, everything, whether fish in the lower strata
of evolutionary tree or slaves in a Greek city state, knew their place, and for the most part,
kept to it. In this order. inanimate objects moved only when they were out of place and
wanted to return to their original place in the pre-ordained order. For example, a stone when
thrown up in air always returned to its native earth. Or sparks flew upwards, to join the
heavenly fires. Animate objects moved because it was in their nature to do so. Thus, it was
in the nature of a bird to fly in the air, of a fish to swim in water. In this way, he tried to
explain all motion in nature by ascribing it to a predetermined reason or a final cause.
Aristotle never told anyone anything they did not already believe. He explained that the
world as they knew it, was just the world as they knew it. As long'as the world remained the
same, Aristotle's ideas would hold. However, as we shall see, the world did not remain the
same and Aristotle's ideas were challenged. although it took a long period of about 2000
years for this to happen.

Fig.. 3.10: Aristotle'r best personal scientific work lay in biology. He

made some careful studies of marine creatures and of bees and the~r
diseases.
3.3.1 Developments in Some Areas of Science
We >hall now de\crihc. In hrict. \onie ot the maior devsloprnrnts in some sre;ih of Greek
hcienct..
Geometry and Astronom!
Tlic need to portray an ideal worl:i of perfect forms and proportions led to the
development of geometry by Pythagoras (583-500 B.C.) and Hippocrates of Chios
(about 450 B.C.) (Fig. 3.11). 'The latter occupied himself with the solution of problems
which were unanswered for a long time. such as squaring the circle and doubling the
cube. H e failed in both. but opened the w;ly to study the geometry ofcurves. Eudoxus
(408-355 B.C.)was probably the greatest Greek matliematician and he was able to
explain the motion of sun, moon and plancts by means of sets of concentric spheres,
each rotatingabout an axis fixed in the one outside it (Fig. 3.12). The model wascrude,
and too simple to explain observed facts, even as known at that time. But the sets of
actual metal spheres based on this mode provided the basis for most of the astronomical
instruments for a long time.
I I

Fig. 3.1 1: Five regular geomelrical

solids much studied by the Greeks:
a) tetrahedron: b ) cube: c ) trlahcdron:
d) icosahedron and e) dodecahedron.
In all these solids. the face\ arc equal In
area and in shape. Pythaguras. [he
Greek mathematician and philosopher.
is credited with their discovery.

The Museum of Alexandria was

the first state-supporlcd rescarch
institute in the West which led to
developments in aslronomy.
oplics, mechanics and
mathematics. These werc no1
much improved upon in the next
2W.l years.

Fig. 3.12: Part o f Eudoxus' model o f spheres within spheres, toexplain the motion o f the planets. n e ~ ~ e v i n g
that planetsorbited the earth i n perfect circles, Eudoxusdrew 27concentric spheres around the earth. Each
sphere, with its planet attached, rotated on a different axis. Arrows i n the figure show the rotation o f spheres.

Around 300-200 R.C.. the tradition of geometry which grew up in the scholarly atmosphere
of academies. schools and lyceun~sof Athens shifted to the Museum of Alexandria. The
geometry of Eudoxus was elaborated by Apollonius of Perga (.about 220 B.C.), who worked
out d ~ dccails
e of conic sections-cllipsc, parahla and hyperbola (Fig. 3.13). A large
part of the previous mathematical knowledge was built together into a single body of
knowledge based on deduct~onfrom axioms. by Euclid (about 300 B.C.). This is the
geometry which is still studied in schools today.

The study of astronomy lay between the theoretical and the practical. According to Piato, a
noted Greek philosopher and Aristotle's teacher, it was the 3tudy of an ideal world in the Fig. 3.13: Conic cutr of' Apollon~us:
sky, and the deviations that were observed could be ignored. On the other hand, it was also a ) a cut parallel to the cone'\ ba\e made
important to know the accurate position of stars and planets. As a result. Greek astronomers a circle: b) an oblique cut an ellipse:
C)a slice parallel to a straight line on Ihe
tried to invent complicated models to fit the observations without violating the image of an cone made a parabola: d ) a cul down
ideal, simple and beautiful world. The mathematical basis of astronomy were the spheres ~hroughthe top poinl produced two
of Eudoxus as shown in Fig. 3.12. But for actually working out the planetary motion intersecting lines: e) cutting lhrough the
chne and its mirror image on top
Hipparchus (190-120 B.C.) adopted a flat model, that of 'wheels within the wheels'. He also
resulted iri a hyperbola or double curve.
invented most of the astronomical instruments used for,the next 2000 years. 55
 I

About two hundred years later, Ptolemy (90-168 A.D.) adopted this model in which the
earth was at the centre and the rest of the planets, the sun and the stars revolved around
it (Fig. 3.14). This was to be standard astronomy in Europe till the fifteenth century.

Fig. 3.14: Ptolmny's model of the earth-centred universe. The earth is shown in the cenae. with the four elements,
earth, air, fire and water. Abovefhese elements are the heavenly bodies, the Moon, Mercury, Venus, the Sun, Mars,
Jupiter and Saturn. Then comes the sphere of fixed stars; beyond that the ninth and the tenth spheres driven by
divinity from which all other spheres derive their motion. Beyond this lay heaven, where 'God and the Elect' lived.

An alternative version, that of the sun at the centre and the earth and other planets moving
around it, was also presented by Aristarchus of Samos (310-230 B.C.) and others. But it was
not accepted because it was thought to be philosophically absurd, and violated everyday
experience. It was, however, transmitted by Arabs, revived by Copemicus (1473-1543) and
finally justified by Galileo (1564-1642), Kepler (157 1-1630) and Newton (1642-1727). You
will read more about this in Units 6,9 and 10.
Mechanics
Another h n c h of science which is, perhaps, the greatest contribution of Greek civilisation
is mechanics. Mechanics developed out of the necessities of imgation, moving of heavy
bodies, ship-building and making military equipment with known tools and methods. As the
invading armies of Alexander came in contact with the craftsmen of the iniddleeastem
countries, a number of inventions such as the pulley, windlass and screw came into use and
were improved upon (Fig. 3.15). Archimedes (287-212 B.C.) aided this process of
building machines by his ideas of forces having to balance each other to keep a body
static (at rest). And his contribution to the study of floating bodies and hydrostatics is
useful even today.

Fig. 3.15: Some mechanical devices used in Greece: a) windlass and pulley for drawing water fran a well;
b) crass-section of a water-raising qrew designed by Archimedes. widely used for imgation. Strip of wqal w m
wrapped in a spiral on the edge of a round wooden bedm. This was then encased in boards. When placed in water
and spun, it caused the water to climb the spiral and gush out.
Medicine
The other area, in which the Greek developments had a parallel in India, was medicine,
FIRE
although encouragement for this development in the two cases came from diametrically
different sources. The Carukas and Susruras in India were roaming physiciarls who went
about healing ordinary rural folk and fostered democratP: thinking and world views. Greek
medicine, on the other hand, could continue its olders- because of the support it
received from the aristocracy. In the era when Greek society was declining from the highest
point of its achievement, wealthy citizens could not do without doctors as they led an
increasingly unhealthy life of pleasure and abundance. We find that the Museum of
Alexandria encouraged much research in anatomy and physiology.
HippoeT;ites of Cos is a legendary figure in Greek medicine. His works, probably written
sometime between 450 to 350 B.C., contain a clinical account of many diseases based on Fig. 3.16: The four 'elements' of the
careful observations. Magical or religious causes or cures for diseases are not mentioned. Greek thinker. Empedocles. According
However, the practice of medicine of the original Hippocratic school was superseded by the to Empedocles, the 'primary matter'
doctrine of four humours, firstly put'fonvard by EmpedocIes, an Ionian philosopher (see could change into different substances,
depending upon which primary qualities
Fig. 3.16). His ideas proved very damaging to the practice and theory of medicine. were affecting it. For example. the
primary matter could become earth with
A great doctor of those times, Herophihs (about 300 B.C.) based his work on observation the pair of primary qualitie$, cold and
and experiment. He was the first to understand the working of the nerves, distinguish dry; water, with cold and wet; fire, with
between sensory and motor nerves, and make clinical use of the pulse. Erasistratics (about hot and dry; and air, with hot and wet.
280 B.C.) went further and noted the significance of the peculiar structure of the human
brain. Unfortunately, most of the fine work of this period has been lost in its original form.
But the essence of these findings was picked up and further developed by Galen ( 1 30-200
A.D.) who was born in Asia Minor but practised in Rome. Galen became a great founder of
Arabic and medieval medicine with authority as great as that of Aristotle. He dissected
animals and gained much anatomical knowledge. Galenical physiology described the ebbing
and flowing of spirits, and blood in arteries and nerves, with the heart as the origin of heat,
and the lungs as cooling fans. It provided a comprehensive, though rather unreal, view of
human body. In terms of providing explanation of the phenomena, even Galen could not
break out of the old doctrine of three spirits and souls, a doctrine which blocked any
substantial advance in man's knowledge of his own body for another 1500 years. -
SAQ 4
The developments in Greek science show that at all times, these were influenced by two
streams of thought, one trying to understand the actual observations, the other trying to
work out theories and models fitting their views of an ideal world. In the table given below,
we have listed some developments of Greek science in column 2. Identify, to which of the
two kinds of development listed in column I , do they belong.

i) Study of floating bodies, invention of

pulley, water lifting screw, etc.
ii) Model of the universe with the earth at
its centre.
a) Developments based upon the iii) Study of regular symmetric solids and
Aristotelian views of an ideal, geometrical curves.
symmetric and beautiful world. iv) Clinical accounts of diseases, study
of working of nerves, dissection of
animals, etc.
V) The theory of four humours of the
body corresponding to the four
elements in nature.
b) Developments based upon actual vi) The inability to see any other shapes in
observations of the changing world. nature except for the perfect circle or.
sphere. This led to the model of
concentric spheres to explain planetary
motion.
vii) Studies of marine creatures and bees,.
and their diseases.
viii) Ideas like 'the world was always as it is
now and will always remain so'.
History pf Science So far, we have described the developments in Greek science in areas like geometry,
astronomy, mechanics and medicine. Another aspect which fascinated the philosophers was
the nature of matter. Philosophical speculations about the nature of matter in the universe
gave rise to parallel theories, in India and in Greece. We will now describe some of these
theories. These ideasmay appear somewhat strange to you. We also know that these are not
valid any more. However, they do reveal our ancestors' curiosity about the world around
them and their attempts to understand it.
--

3.4 ATOMIC THEORY IN ANTIQUITY

The oldest of Indian philosophical systems was Samkhya. The system envisaged that
everything except consciousness evolved out of primaeval matter. According to this
philosophy, consciousness, inert mass and energy were three forms of interdependent and
inter-related existence. In the process of evolution, matter could be neither created nor
destroyed and the sum total of all the three, mass, energy and consciousness, remained the
same. The redistribution of mass and energy gave rise to all the diversity of the material
world, the plants and the animals. Matter was re'cognisable through its five qualities-smell,
taste, touch, colour and sound, corresponding to the five senses. There were five forms of
matter-earth, water, fire, air and empty space.
A parallel to this theory, but possibly of a much later origin (about 600 B.C.), was the
materialistic cosmogony of Thales and others in Greece. Thales formulated the idea that
everything originally came from water, and then earth, air and living things separated out.
To earth and air, mist and fire were added to be called elements from which other substances
were made, like words are made from letters. These elements, as in the case of Samkhya,
had to fulfil two incompatible functions. On the one hand, they stood for actyal observed
phenomenon, such as wind, flood, storm etc., while on the other hand they stood for
qualities such as hot, cold, wet, dry, light, heavy etc.
The distinct contribution of Samkhya as well as the Greek school of thought was that they
had set up a picture of how the universe had come into being and how things happened,
without the intervention of gods and a predetermined design. The weakness of these ideas
lay in their vagueness and their purely descriptive character. By themselves, these ideas
could lead nowhere, nothing concrete could be done with them and there was no practical
application. However, with all their shortcomings, these thoughts represent man's first
stirrings to search for his origins and that of the universe.
A very different way to understand the nature of matter was to stipulate the existence of
atoms. Atoms were thought of as the fundamental building blocks of observed substances. A
particular combination of atoms imparted properties and qualities to substances.
The Indian Vaisesika system, the well known proponent of which was Kanada (about 600
B.C.), considered the smallest particles as dimensionless mathematical points. These points
possessed potential quality of the four elements, earth, water, fire and air, on the basis of
which, they were divided into four categories. At least six atoms of the same category joined
together, with the space in between filled by empty space, to form a complex atom which is
analogous to a chemical element.
The problem of different, heterogeneous atoms joining together was overcome by the Jainas.
Jainas said that when two heterogeneous atoms joined together, the combination gave rise to
a new body. The mechanism of joining was by mutual attraction, one positive, the other
negative. All changes in qualities of compounds were explained by the nature of their
mutual attraction.
While the above shows a high level of intellectual activity, the limitations lay in the
abstraction. The philosophers had no hesitation at all in putting together obviously
contradictory ideas in their abstractions. For example, in their cosmogonic system they
included things they observed in the material world alongwith things they did not observe,
or things they learned from religious texts, or things which had no material basis. Thus, the
Jainas brought in karma and soul within their otherwise materialistic system; and the
Vaisesikas formulated that atoms were set in motion by adrista, i.e performance in the
previous life.
The Greek atomists were, curiously enough, free from these distortions such as ideas of soul,
adrista or karma propounded by Indianatomists. Democritus (about ~ ~ o . B . cimagined
.) the
universe to be made out of small innumerable indivisible particles moving in the void of
 empty space. The atoms were unalterable. They were supposed to be of various geometrical
forms to explain their capacity for combining to form all the different things in the world.
Their movement accounted for all visible change.
This atomic theory avoided appeal to pre-ordained harmonies. i.e.. it did not say that the
universe was static, where things worked according to a predetermined design. Instead, it
presented a dynamic univerie where things were not static, but were changing. In this sense.
it remained a heresy, as it challenged the established ideas of Plato and Aristotle.
We cannot consider the Greek or Indian atomism as a part of scientific ideas, in spite of its
brilliance. No conclusions could be drawn from it which could be practically verified.
However, we cannot deny that Greek atomism. with its inherent materialism and
reasonableness did influence the atomism of Gassendi ( 1 592- 1655), Newton ( 1642-1727)
and through them that of Dalton ( 1766-1844), 2000 years later.
SAQ 5
In the table given below, on one side, we list some features of Greek science and society,
and on the other side. the corresponding features of Indian science and society in the Iron
Age. We have left out some blank space on both sides which you have to fill. We have Fig. 3.17: Dernocrilus
worked out the first part as an example.
Greek Science Indian Science
I
a) The Greek society was stratified The Varna system came into being into
into nobles, peasants, craftsmen. India. There were four Varnas. the Brahmins,
merchants and slaves. Kshatriyas, Vaisyas and Sudras.
b) ............................................................. Most of the developments in science were
free from the influence of the prevailing
............................................................... philosophy and ideas in 1ndia:even though
almost all the works started with a reference
.............................................................. to divinity. They retained their links with
practice and observation, depending less on
.............................................................. mere speculation.
c) The Greek medicine flourished mainly ......................................................................
because of the support it received from ......................................................................
the aristocracy.
d) The Greek cosmogonic system was ......................................................................
made of four elements, air, fire, ......................................................................
mist and earth.
e) ............................................................. The Indian atomists brought in the
notions of soul. karma or adrista in their
.............................................................
theories of matter and the notion of atom.

3.5 DECLINE OF EUROPEAN SCIENCE

By the middle of the second century B.C., the Greek empires were collapsing in anarchy and
under the weight of the more vigorous power of Rome. Italy, in the third century B.C., was a
farming country with a good climate and a growing healthy population. By the first century
B.C., the Romans had organised themselves into a powerful military dictatorship, with
popular support. The army went on to conquer the countries of eastern and western
Mediterranean as well as Britain, western Germany and Austria (Fig. 3.18). While the
army became all powerful, the land was ruled by slave owners and wealthy merchants.
The cementing force of the empire was the army, as it was used by the emperor to
collect enough taxes to keep the soldiers from mutinying and choosing another
emperor. The best land wascultivated by the slave gangs from the villas of the wealthy,
while the b r e r areas were left to the pagan natives or to newly settled free slaves from
the villas.
Thus, the mainstay of the economy was loot from the empire by military coercion, and
agriculture by slaves. In such a situation, it is, perhaps, not surprising that there was very
little demand to increase production and to improve the economy through the applications of
new techniques. There was, thefefore, a very limited contribution to culture in the form of
science and arts during the period of the Roman Empire which continued until the second
century A.D.
History d Sekna

- - - A -

Roman Ernpin, -
Fig. 3.18: Roman Empire in second century A.D.

While there was no improvement in techniques and no growth of science in the Roman era,
the existing knowledge was applied to construct buildings for civil and military
administration. Burnt bricks and concrete made from volcanic ash and lime were used to
construct roads, harbours, aqueducts, baths and theatres (Fig. 3.19).
Accumulation of power and wealth in the hands of a few rich men, and general brutalisation
and consequent impoverishment of a population of slaves, lowered the demand for
commodities. This depressed the conditions of merchants and craftsmen still further. With

(c) (dl
Fig. 3.19: a) Roman agriculture. Notice the ploughing and other activhies like sawing wood, malting plough,
basket weaving. Note also a harrow in the background; b) agricultural implements: I) sickle; 2) rake; 3) garden
knife; 4) axe-hoe; c) the aqueducts built of burnt brick and of concrete made f m lime and volcanic ash were
used to carry water across hundreds of kilometres in the Roman Empire. Water pipes passed over the bridge;
d) tools for constructing Roman buildings: 1.5) tongs; 2) trowel for spreading mortar; 3.6) hammer and a
hammer head; 4.7) cutting tools; 8) a mason's square.
 Iron Age
no incentwe for sclcnce to develop new techniques, science lost its essential quality of
inquiring into nature. As the Roman Empire was followed by the serf-owning feudal
economy of Europe, thls state of cultured stagnation continued till the fifteenth century.
Europe was engulfed by the Dark Ages and the centre of learning and enlightenment shifted
to the East. You will study more about the developments in Europe and in the East in Units
5 and 6.
You may enjoy reading the following piece from J.D. Bernal's famous book "Science in
History" (page 231), illustrating how social decline leads to the decline of science.
"Classical civilisation was already intrinsically doomed by the third century B.C., if not
earlier. The tragedy for science was that it took so long to die, because in that period most of
what had been gained, was lost. Knowledge that is not being used for winnins of further
knowledge does not even remain-it decays and disappears. At first the volumes (books-
Ed.) moulder on the shelves because very few need or want to read them; soon no one can
understand them, they decay unread, and in the end, as was the legendary fate of the Great
Library of Alexandria, the remainder are burnt to heat the public-bath water, or disappear in
a hundred obscure ways."
- --

3.6 SUMMARY-- - -

In this unit, we have studied the development of science and technology in the Indian and
Greek civilisations of the Iron Age, in the period 1500 B.C., to about 400 B.C. We have seen
that a stratified social structure had emerged in this period, both in India and in Greece,
which affected the nature and growth of science in these societies. We now summarise some
?mportantaspects:
In India, the search for agricultural land and minerals led to the spread of civilisation all
over the Gangetic plain. It took almost a thousand years for the pastoral Aryan tribes to
settle down as agricultural communities. The society changed from a tribal to a more
urban and structured f o m which was relatively free from conflicts. Trade within the
urban settlements grew and commodity production started. These changes were
accompanied by the emergence of a caste system which became rigid as time passed.
Around the same time, a slave society had evolved in Greece.
Initially the period witnessed significant advances in many areas of science like
astronomy, geometry, mechanics, chemistry, botany, zoology and medicine in both the
civilisations.
However, in the rigid stratified social structure, those who worked with their hands got
isolated from the thinkers. The separation of theory and practice had serious implications
for the growth of science. In Greece. it led to an idealist philosophy about the universe
and the world as reflected in Aristotle's ideas. Aristotelian ideas dominated not only
Greek science but also the world science for the next 2000 years.
In India, the scientific practice of medicine adopted by Susrutas and Carakas was an
exception. These travelling mendicants went about healing the rich and poor, regardless
of their caste or creed. Medicine, therefore, suffered much less except for some
aberrations like the theories of thfee humours and five elements.
The middle of the second century B.C. saw the collapse of Greek empire and the rise of
Roman empire. Roman economy was based on loot by military coercion and agriculture
by slaves. There was no incentive to absorb new ideas and improve techniques to
increase production. Therefore, the Roman era.made very little contribution to the growth
of science and culture. This state of cultural stagnation continued in Europe until about
the fifteenth century A.D.

3.7 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1) In the Roman phase in the Iron Age, existing knowledge was applied to build roads,
aqueducts, theatres etc. There were no improvements in techniques and no new ideas
were developed. Gradually, science lost its spirit of enquiry. What features of social life
led to this stagnation of science?
History of Science

2) Certain concepts and ideas that you studied in the Unit 1, are illustrated by some
instances described in this unit. In the space provided below, write the instances from
this unit that illustrate each one of the following statements.
a) The separation of theory from practice becomes an iinpediment in the growth of
science.

b) The theories ofscience are influenced by the general intellectual atmosphere and
ideas prevailing in the society.

C) New theories or practices which contradict the prevailing social ideas or philosophy
come into conflict with them. They may slowly be wiped out and be revived only
later in a different society.

d) Stability leads to social stagnation and~ventuallyto stagnation in science.

3.8 ANSWERS --

Self Assessment Questions

1) (i) I (ii) B (iii) B (iv) I (v) I (vi) B (vii) B (viii) I (ix) B (x) I.
2) a) F b) T c) T d) T e) F.
3) dl.
4) a) (ii), (iii), (v), (vi), (viii).
b) (i), (iv), (vii).
5) b) The developments in Greek science were greatly influenced by prevailing social
philosophy and ideologies, with only a few exceptions.
c) In India, the physicians healed ordinary rural folk as well as the rich and treated
them on the same footing.
d) The Indian cosmogonic system had five element-arth, fire, water, air and empty
space.
e) The Greek atomists were free from the ideas of soul, adrista or karma. Their
atomic theory presented the picture of a world that was changing.
Terminal Questions
1) a) The Roman economy was based on loot by army ahd agriculture by slaves.
Power and wealth accumulated in the hands of a few, while the majority of the Iron Age
people were poor.
Thus, science had no incentive to improve or to develop new techniques to improve
production.
The practical and manual work was done by lower caste peasants and craftsmen in
India and by slaves in Greece. There was no contact between them and the small
group of thinkers who pursued science and had state patronage. This separation of
practice from theory became an impediment in the growth of science.
In India, the Ayurvedic system of medicine adopted the ideas of the 'tridosas' and
'pancabhutas' under the influence of the cosmogonic speculations. Also in the
atomic theory, the elements of soul, 'karma', 'adrista' were introduced. In Greece,
the Aristotelian views of an ideal world influenced many areas of science as you
have seen in SAQ 4.
The scientific practices of Carakas and Susrutas contradicted the ideas of the
priests in Indian society. By the third or the fourth century A.D., due to the
opposition from orthodox religious ideas and other factors, the Ayurvedic system of
medicine began to rely more on mystical 'causes' than on observations. It is only
now that attempts are being made to give it a scientific basis again.
Similarly, in Greece, Aristarchus of Samos presented a heliocentric (suncentred)
theory of planetary motion, which was not accepted because it contradicted the
prevailing philosophical ideas. It was revived by Copernicus.
The decline of science in the Roman empire is an illustration of this concept.