Vedic Civilization – History Study

Material & Notes

The Vedic Civilization was the culture and traditions of the society prevalent during the Vedic
age ( 1500- 600 BCE). In various examinations which have a section of general studies, often ask
a question or two about the Vedic civilization. This chapter of the history study material & notes
is meant to cover the essential and exam-worthy details of the ancient Vedic period.

It should be noted here that after the decline of Indus Valley civilization by 1500 BCE, the next
wave of civilization began to take shape in form of Aryan occupation of Indo-Gangetic plain.

The Aryans:

 Typically, the age of Aryans is known as the Vedic age because the four major Vedas
were created in this time.
 The word Aryan is derived from the Sanskrit word “arya” which means noble, not
ordinary.
 They arrived from russian steppes, as is believed and agreed to by majority historians.
 But various scholars voice different opinion about thier origin. Bal Gangadhar Tilak
argued that Aryans came from the Arctic region following their astronomical calculations.
 It is generally agreed that they spoke Indo-Aryan Language, Sanskrit.
 They were semi-nomadic, pastoral people, who led a rural life as compared to the urban
Harappans.

Vedic Literature:

 The term Veda means “superior knowledge” in Sanskrit.

 Four major Vedas constitute the vedic literature. They are – Rig Veda, Yajur Veda, Sam
Veda, and Atharva Veda.
1. Rig Veda – Earliest veda. Has 1028 hymns in praise Gods.
2. Yajur Veda – Has details of rules to be followed during sacrifices.
3. Sam Veda – Has a collection of songs. The origins of Indian music are traced to
it.
4. Atharva Veda – has a collection of spells and charms.
 Besides these Vedas, there were Brahmanas, Upnishads, Aryankas, and epics- Ramayana
and Mahabharata.
 Brahmanas – Prose about vedic hymns, rituals and philosophies.
  Aryankas – Deal with mysticism, rites and rituals.
 Upnishads – Philosophical texts dealing with soul, mysteries of nature.
 Ramayana was authored by Valmiki.
 Mahabharata was written by Ved Vyasa.

Classification of Vedic Period:

The period of Vedic Civilization(1500-500 BCE) is divided into two broad parts –

1. Early Vedic Period (1500-1000 BC), also known as Rig Vedic Period.
2. Later Vedic Period (1000- 600 BC).

We will study the following features of the Vedic Civilization under these two periods.

Political Organisation in Vedic Age:

In Early Vedic Age:

 ‘Kula‘ was the basic unit of political organization.

 Multiple families together of kinship formed a ‘grama‘.
 Leader of ‘grama’ was ‘Gramani‘.
 Group of villages were called ‘visu’, headed by ‘vishayapati‘.
 The highest political and administrative unit was ‘jana‘ or tribe.
 There were several such tribal kingdoms – Bharatas, Matsyas, Yadus and Purus.
 The head of kingdom was ‘Rajan‘ or king.
 The Rig Vedic polity was hereditary monarchy normally.
  There were two bodies- Sabha(council of elders) and Samiti(general assembly of people).

In Later Vedic Age:

 Larger kingdoms by amalgamation formed ‘Mahajanapadas or rashtras‘.

 Therefore, the power of king increased and he performed various rituals and sacrifices to
make his position strong like Rajasuya (consecration ceremony), Asvamedha (horse
sacrifice) and Vajpeya (chariot race).
 The kings assumed titles of Rajavisvajanan, Ahilabhuvanapathi(lord of all earth), Ekrat
and Samrat (sole ruler).
 But, importance of the Samiti and the Sabha diminished.

Society in Vedic Civilization:

In Early Vedic Age:

 The Rig Vedic society was basically patriarchal.

  The basic unit of society was ‘graham’ or family, its head was called as ‘grahapathi’.
 Monogamy was practiced while polygamy among royal and noble families was
observed.
 Women had equal opportunities as men for their spiritual and intellectual development.
Apala, Viswavara, Ghosa and Lopamudra were women poets.
 Women could attend the popular assemblies.
 No child marriage, sati practice.

 Social divisions were not rigid.

In Later Vedic Age:

 The Varna system became prevalent- four divisions of society :Brahmins, Kshatriyas,
Vaisyas and Sudras.
 A Brahmin and Kshatriyas occupied a higher position than others.
 Various sub-castes on the basis of occupation emerged.
 Women were considered inferior and subordinate to men now and also lost their political
rights of attending assemblies.
 Child marriages became common.

Economic Conditions in Vedic Civilization:

In Early Vedic Age:

 The Rig Vedic Aryans were pastoral, cattle rearing people.

 After they permanently settled in North India they began agriculture.
 Carpenters produced chariots and ploughs.
 A variety of articles with copper, bronze and iron were made by workers.
  Spinning was an important occupation – cotton and woolen fabrics.
 Goldsmiths made ornaments.
 The potters made different kinds of vessels for domestic use.
 Trade was conducted by barter system in begining but later shifted to use of gold coins
called ‘nishka‘ for large transactions.
 Rivers acted as means of transport.

In Later Vedic Age:

 More land was put under cultivation by clearing forests. Knowledge of manure saw
development.
 Hence, Agriculture became the chief occupation of people growing barley, rice and
wheat.
 Industrial activity became specialized with metal work, leather work, carpentry and
pottery advancement.
 Internal trade as well as foreign trade also became extensive (they traded with Babylon
through sea).
 Hereditary merchants (vaniya) came into existence as a different class.
 Vaisyas indulged in trade and commerce organized themselves into guilds known as
‘ganas‘.
 Coins: Beesides ‘nishka’, ‘satamana’– gold coins and ‘krishnala‘ – silver coins were
also used as a media of exchange.

Religion in Vedic Period:

In Early Vedic Age:

 Rig Vedic Aryans worshiped natural forces like earth, fire, wind, rain and thunder by
personifying them into many gods.
 Some important Rig Vedic gods
– Prithvi (Earth), Agni (Fire), Vayu (Wind), Varuna (Rain) and Indra(Thunder). And
‘Indra’ was most popular. Next came ‘Agni’ – an intermediary between the gods and the
people.
 ‘Varuna’ – the upholder of natural order.
 Female Gods – ‘Aditi’ and ‘Ushas’.
 No temples and no idol worship.
 Prayers were offered to gods for rewards.
In Later Vedic Age:

 Indra and Agni lost their importance.

 Prajapathi (the creator), Vishnu (the protector) and Rudra (the destroyer) became.
 Sacrifices and the rituals became more elaborate.
 But the importance of prayers declined.
 Priesthood became a hereditary profession. They dictated the rules for these rituals and
sacrifices.
 Therefore, by the end of this period there was a strong reaction against this priestly
domination (also against elaborate sacrifices and rituals). This led to the rise of Buddhism
and Jainism.

Later Vedic Period: Politics, Social

and Economic Life – Explained!
The period that followed Rig Vedic Age is known as Later Vedic Age.

This age witnessed the composition of three later Veda Samhitas namely,
the Samveda Samhita, the Yajurveda Samhita, the Atharvaveda Samhita as
well as Brahmanas and the Upanishads of all the four Vedas and later on
the two great epics—the Ramayana and the Mahabharata.

All these later Vedic texts were compiled in the Upper Gangetic basin in
1000—600 B.C. During the period represented by Later Samhitas the
Aryans covered the whole of Northern India, from the Himalayas to the
Vindhyas.
 image source: raobharata.files.wordpress.com/2014/09/img_5152.jpg

The Aryans of Vedic age had reached the highest stage of civilization. This
age had excelled in every walks of life. All the valuable things in man’s life
—philosophy, religion, science and code of conduct were all developed in
the Vedic age.

The spread of Aryans over the whole of India completed before 400 B.C. Of
the new kingdoms in the east, the most important were Kurus, Panchalas,
Kasis, Kosalas and Videhas.

Gradually the Aryans moved towards South India. It is believed that their
southern movement began during the period of Brahmana literature, about
1000 B.C. and went on steadily till they reached the southernmost
extremity of the Peninsula in or sometime before fourth century B.C.
The great grammarian Katya Yana who flourished in the fourth century B.C
had knowledge about the countries of south such as Pandya, Chola and
Kerala. But the Aryan colonization in the South was not as complete as in
the north. With the progress of the Aryans in Northern India, their centre of
civilization was shifted towards east. The territory between Saraswati and
Ganga was the seat of Aryan civilization.

Political Organisation:
ADVERTISEMENTS:

Rise of Big States:

With the progress of Aryan settlements in the eastern and southern part of
India, the small tribal states of Rig Vedic period replaced by powerful
states. Many famous tribes of Rig Vedic period like Bharatas, Parus, Tritsus
and Turvasas passed into oblivion and new tribes like the Kurus and
Panchalas rose into prominence. The land of the Yamuna and Ganga in the
east which became the new home of the Aryans rose into prominence.

Growth of Imperialism:
With the emergence of big kingdoms in the Later Vedic Age the struggle for
supremacy among different states was of frequent occurrence. The ideal of
Sarbabhauma or universal empire loomed large in the political horizon of
ancient India. The sacrifices like Rajasuya and Asvamedha were performed
to signify the imperial sway of monarchs over the rivals. These rituals
impressed the people with the increasing power and prestige of the king.
The Rig Vedic title of “Rajan” was replaced by the impressive titles like
Samrat, Ekrat, Virat, Bhoja etc. These titles marked the growth of
imperialism and feudal ideas.

Origin of Kingship:
There were two theories regarding the origin of kingship. The Aitareya
Brahmana explained the rational theory of election by common consent of
origin of kingship. Side by side the Taittiniya Brahman explained the divine
origin of kingship. It explained how Indra, “though occupying a low rank
among the gods, was created their king by Prajapati.”
Growth of Royal Power:
ADVERTISEMENTS:

The king had absolute power. He became the master of all subjects. He
realized taxes like “bali”, “sulka” and “bhaga”. The Satapatha Brahmana
described the king to be infallible and immune from all punishment. The
sabha of the Rig Vedic Period died. The king sought the aid and support of
the Samiti on matters like war, peace and fiscal policies. There are
references to the Samiti sometimes electing or re-electing a king.

The authority of the government in the later Vedic period was perhaps
more democratic in the sense that the authority of the leaders of Aryan
tribes was recognized by the king. However in spite of the existence of the
popular assemblies the powers of the king went on increasing due to the
growth of large territorial states and the evolution of an official hierarchy.

Administrative Machinery:
The growth of the royal power was largely reflected in the enlarged outrage
of the king. In the work of administration the king was assisted by a group
of officers who were known as Ratnins (Jewels). They included the
Bhagadugha (collector of taxes), the Suta (charioteer), the Akshavapa
(superintendent of gambling), the kshattri (chamberlain), the Govikartana
(king’s companion in the chase), the Palogala (courtier) the Takshan
(Carpenter), the Rathakara (Chariot marker) in addition to the
ecclesiastical and military officials like the Purohita (chaplain) the senani
(general), and the Gramani (leader of host or of the village).

In the Later Vedic Period Gramani was both a civil and military officer
Gramani was the medium through which the royal power was exercised in
the village. According to Frasna Upanishada Adhikrita was the village
officer and was lowest in the rank. The king administered justice.
Occasionally he delegated his judicial power to Adhyakshas. In the villages,
Gramyavadin (Village judge) and Sabha (court) decided the cases.
Punishments for crimes were severe.

The father was the head of the property of the family. In case of inheritance
of property the law of primogeniture was applied. By this rule the eldest son
would inherit the property of the deceased father. Neither the women nor
the sudras had any right to property.

Social Condition:
Changes of far greater significance were gradually taking place in their
society.

Caste Society:
Most important change was the evolution of caste system. Various sub
castes evolved in addition to the traditional four-castes. The Brahmanas
and Kshatriyas emerged as the two leading castes out of the general mass of
population, known as vaisyas. The vaisyas were superior to the sudras but
their position was steadily deteriorating. The Aitaraya Brahmana clearly
indicates the absolute dependence of vaisyas on the two higher classes. The
Sudras were held in great contempt.

The Brahmanas of the later Vedic age were the intellectual and priestly
class. The Brahmanas retained a high standard of excellence and knew the
details of the rituals. The kshatriyas were the fighting class in the society.
War, conquest, administration of the kingdom was the principal duties of
this class. By their superior learning some kshatriyas raised themselves to
the status of a Brahmana. They composed hymns and performed sacrifices
and also challenged the supremacy of Brahmanas.

Two Kshatriya kings Janak and Viswamitra attained the status of Rishi. For
a long time the kshatriyas resisted the supremacy of the Brahmanas and
claimed that the priest was only a follower of the king. Vaisyas were
engaged in trade, industry and agriculture, and animal husbandry. They are
debarred from the privileges which were enjoyed by the Brahmanas and
kshatriyas. However the richer people among the vaisyas known as Sresthin
were highly honored in the royal court.

The condition of the Sudras was very miserable. They had to serve the other
three castes. They were untouchables. They had no right to approach the
sacred fire, i.e., perform sacrifice, or to read the sacred texts. They were
further denied the rite of burning the dead body. The structure of the caste
system became hereditary.
Education:
A vast mass of vedic literature as well as a highly developed intellectual life
speaks abundantly about a well planned system of education in the later
Vedic Period. The students had to learn Vedas, Upanishad, grammar
prosody, law, arithmetic and language.

After the Upanayana or sacred thread ceremony and initiation to studies

the students were sent to the Gurukula for their education. They had to live
in the house of the teacher (guru) and lead the chaste life of a
Brahmacharin whose principal duties were study and service to the teacher.
The students received free boarding and lodging at the house of the Guru.
At the completion of their study they paid fees (guru-dakshina) to the
teachers.

Position of women:
The women lost their high position which they had in the Rig Vedic Age.
They were deprived of their right to the Upanayana ceremony and all their
sacraments, excluding marriage, were performed without recitation of
Vedic mantras. Polygamy prevailed in the society. Many of the religious
ceremonies, formerly practiced by the wife, were now performed by the
priests. She was not allowed to attend the political assemblies. Birth of a
daughter became undesirable—for she was regarded as a source of misery.
The custom of child marriage and dowry crept in. The women lost their
honored position in the society.

Food and Dress:

In the later Vedic age rice became staple food of the people. Gradually the
practice of eating meat was declined. Killing of cow was looked with
disfavor. Wool was used in addition to cotton.

Economic Condition:
Like political and social conditions, the economic condition of the Aryans of
the later Vedic period also underwent significant changes. Due to the
emergence of caste system various occupations also appeared.

Agriculture:
The Aryans of the later Vedic period lived in the villages. In the villages
small peasant owners of land were replaced by big landlords who secured
possession of entire villages. Agriculture was the principal occupation of the
people. Improved method of tilling the land by deep ploughing, manuring
and sowing with better seeds were known to the Aryans. More lands were
brought under cultivation.

The cultivator yielded two harvests a year. Varieties of crops like rice,
barley, wheat, maize and oil seeds were raised. But the cultivator was not
free from trouble. Dangers of insects and damage of crops through hail-
storm very badly affected the land of kurus and compelled many people to
migrate.

Trade and Commerce:

With the growth of civilization, the volume of trade and commerce had
increased by leaps and bounds. Both inland and overseas trades were
developed. Inland trade was carried on with the Kiratas inhabiting the
mountains. They exchanged the herbs for clothes, nattresses and skins. The
people became familiar with the navigation of the seas. Regular coinage was
not started.

The coins which were in circulation were “Nishka”, “Satamana” and

“Krishnala”. The unit value of goods was a gold bar called “nishka”
weighing three hundred and twenty ratis, which was also the weight of a
satamana. A ‘Krishnala’ weighed one rati, i.e. 1.8 grams. There was a class
of merchants called ‘Pani’ who controlled the trade. References to “ganas”
or corporations and the “sreshthins” clearly speak of the formation of guilds
or corporations for facilitating trade and commerce. Usuary and money
lending was also practiced in this period.

Occupation:
The emergence of caste system brought varieties of means of livelihood.
There are references about money lenders, chariot makers, dyers, weavers,
barbers, goldsmiths, iron smiths, washer men, bow makers, carpenters,
musicians etc. The art of writing probably developed in this period. The use
of silver was increased and ornaments were made out of it.
House Building and Transport:
The house had many rooms with a special place for ‘Grahapatha’ fire which
was kept continuously burning. Houses were made of wood. The Taittiriya
Aranyakas refer about a special type of house known as ‘Dhandhani’
(treasure house). The Atharvaveda mentions about ‘Patninam Sadan’
(women’s apartment).

The means of transport and communication developed with the growth of

trade and commerce. Regarding means of transport mention may be made
of wagons drawn by oxen, chariots for war and sport and rough vehicle
known as ‘bipatha’ for transport of goods. Elephants and horses were also
used. Ships and boats were also used as means of transport.

Religious Condition:
During the later Vedic period the religious spirit underwent a great change.
Religion was overshadowed with rites and rituals. New gods and goddesses
emerged during this period.

New Gods:
The Rig Vedic gods, Varun, Indra, Agni, Surya, Usha etc. lost their charm.
The people worshipped them with less zeal. New gods like Siva, Rupa,
Vishnu, Brahma etc. appeared in the religious firmament of the Later Vedic
Period. The grandeur of the Rigvedic gods passed into oblivion, though we
find in Atharvaveda the omniscience of Varuna or the beneficence of the
Earth goddess.

Certain less important duties of the Rigvedic Period now became popular
with the Common People. One of them was Rudra who already bore the
epithet of Siva. Very soon Rudra came to be worshipped as ‘Mahadeva’
(great god) and the lord of animate beings (Pasupati).

Vishnu, the preserver rose into Prominence during this period. He occupied
the place of Varuna, as the most sublime among the celestials. To attain his
“Paramapada” (highest step) became the goal of the rishis. The worship of
vasudeva was also started. He was regarded as Krishna Vasudev, the
incarnation of Vishnu. Semi divinities like Apsara, Nagas, Gandharbas,
Vidyadharas etc. also came into being. This age also witnessed the
beginning of the worship of Durga and Ganesh.

Rituals and Sacrifices:

During this period the rites and ceremonies of Vedic religion were
elaborated and became complex. In the Rig Vedic age Yanjas were a simple
affair which every householder could do. But in the later Vedic age sacrifice
became an important thing in worship. Now the priestly class devoted their
energy to find out the hidden and mystic meaning of the rites and
ceremonies.

People had a firm belief that gods must submit to the sacrifice if properly
performed. Vedic hymns were regarded as charms to be used in sacrifice.
The belief that gods were satisfied by Yanjas led to a rise in the number,
variety of sacrifices which were prescribed for every householder. In fact
every Aryan performed a number of sacrifices under the supervision of the
Brahmana priest.

Morality and Duty:

The Later Vedic Period prescribed a code of righteous conduct. The
Brahmins had spread the belief that, “man is born with certain rinas or
debts” which he must repay in his life. He has to repay the debts to his gods,
to the rishis, to the munis, to men, to the ancestors and to the lower
creatures. And he redeem himself from these debts, if he worships the gods
and performs Yajnas study Vedas, performs funeral ceremonies and
Sraddha, etc. One should perform all these duties with selflessness. The
first requisite of a good life were prayers and good works. One should
restrain himself from the sins like theft, adultery, and murder.

Religious Philosophy:
The Later Vedic age witnessed the emergence of a new intellectual thought.
The people thought deeply about the problems of creation, life and death
and arrived at the conclusion that there is one ‘Brahma’ (one Unchanging
Principle) beyond the universe—the creator and controller of the whole
order.
It is the universal soul or the Absolute “that dwelleth in everything that
guideth all beings within, the Inward guide, Immortal.” After the death of a
person his soul passes into another body and again into another and this
process continues till it can be liberated from all its imperfections and
merged in the Universal Soul. This is the doctrine of transmigration of
souls.

The Aryans had also faith in the doctrine of Karma. It lays down that all
actions, good or bad, reap their proper fruits. Souls have to be born again
and again and bear the fruits of the actions (Karma) of their previous lives.
There is also doctrine of ‘Moksha’. It is a state of birth-lessness and
deathlessness at a point when a soul is liberated from the cycle of births and
deaths and mingled into the universal soul.” It was essential for a man to
attain moksha. All these are embodied in the Upanishad which were
composed in the Later Vedic Period.

Ascetic Life:
The later Vedic Aryans developed the concept of ascetic ideal of life as the
rites and ceremonies were not the only means of attaining success in this
world or bliss in heaven. So there developed the ideas of Tapas and
Brahmacharya (celibacy) leading to the same or even more important
results. Tapa means meditation, accompanying by physical tortures.

An ascetic person renounced the worldly life and retired to the solitude and
exercised all the ascetic practices with the belief that they would not only
obtain heaven, but also develop, “mystic, extra-ordinary and superhuman
faculties.” This asceticism was widely practiced in the Epic age.

The Aryans of Vedic age had reached the highest stage of civilization. This
age had excelled in every walks of life. All the valuable things in man’s life—
philosophy, religion, science and code of conduct were all developed in the
Vedic age. In fact Aryans served as the torch-bearers of Indian civilization
throughout the ages.
Aryans and their Socio Economic
Life | India | Vedic Period | History
The hymns of the Rigveda the later Samhitas, give us pictures of different
stages of social progress. The absence of proper landmarks, as well as the
difficulty in differentiating the srata stands in the way of separating, these
various phases of social evolution.

In spite of this however two distinct phases of economic life can

be distinguished e.g.:
1. During the earlier of these two stages the nomadic instinct predominated.
The tribes were more or less in a migratory condition; villages and
settlements moved from place to place. In such a state of life cattle-rearing
remained the chief occupation of people though agriculture during the
period of temporary settlement was not altogether neglected.

Constant wars, either with the aborigines for self-existence, or internecine

feuds continued. Victory in battle not only ensured life and existence, but
brought in the wealth of the conquered and consequently added to the
prosperity of the community.

2. This state of existence was gradually supplanted by a more settled

condition of life. Agriculture became the chief feature of social life.
Everybody took to agriculture excepting perhaps the warrior or the priest,
who accompanied the conquering host. Villages were established in the
midst of the fertile conquered country—the conquered being pushed back
either to the bills, or allowed to live a life of servility on conditions of
submission, service or tribute.

Land was plentiful. The conquering tribes were hardy and vigorous. They
were as yet not imbued with any high notions of personal dignity. Labour
was not distasteful to them. In such a state of affairs, their progress was
rapid. The whole fertile plain of Northern India was appropriated and
colonized. Villages were established all over the country.
Each village contained a number of families, each family contained a
number of able bodied either had joint interests in the field, or worked
under the authority of the head of the family i.e., the Grhapati—the lord of
the house

The Grhapati, whether the eldest male member of the agnatic group or
simply the father of the children, was the master of the house, who
exercised control over the family superintended their working in the fields,
and performed also the sacrificial duties of the home.

The Vedic House:

Each one of such families possessed its own separate, dwelling. The Vedic
house variously designated as Ksiti—Dama, Pastya, or Harmya, was so
constructed as to suit the needs of a people whose main occupations were
agriculture and cattle rearing. Generally it was a walled-up enclosure
containing not only apartments for the family, but room for the sheep and
cattle, so valuable to the Vedic householder.

We get a good description of the Vedic house from the Atharva Veda (see A.
V.III. 12; A. V. IX. 3) which gives us not only description of the house, but
tells us of the contents of the house. In the Grhya-sutras we find direction
laid down as to the choice of the ground on which the house was to be
constructed.

In the Rigveda, Atharva Veda and the Kausika Sutra we find innumerable
prayers offered to “the God of the house” or to the “Queen of the house” for
the safety of the house and the prosperity of the family dwelling therein.

From the description in the Atharva-veda IX. 3 which concerns itself

mainly with the consecration of a newly, constructed house, it appears that
the house of the Vedic Aryans stood in the midst of a walled up enclosure. It
was constructed mainly of bamboo and wood.

Perpendicular posts or vertical pillars (Upamit) were set up on the ground

and there were cross-beams (Parimit). Bolts and ropes were used for
fastening the poles. The roof was formed with bamboo poles and was
thatched with straw or with mats of reeds.
The Atharva Veda (IX. 9) describes the house as grass-covered and straw-
clad. The extensive use of wood, bamboo and straw, is further proved by
innumerable prayers which we find in the Atharva Veda against the ravages
of fire which readily consumed these materials, and thus put the family in a
state of destitution and helplessness.

In this connection the material used by Indo-Europeans in constructing

their houses is worthy of comparison. According to Schrader the early Indo-
European houses were built of wood, basket-work and loam and not of
atone. (see Schrader. Pre. Hist. Ant. P. 342).

The house generally contained several apartments. One reserved for the
sacred fire (Agnisala). Some were reserved for the women of the house
(Patninam Sadanam) or for other members of the family. In addition to
these, there was a big store-room or Sala full of clear corn (Puti Dhanya)
and sheds for sheep and cattle.

In the Atharva Veda (III. 12) the owner of the house speaks of his sheep,
goats and cattle. The house itself is described as a spacious store full of
clean corn. Rooms were furnished with Sikyas for hanging vessels and
contained the necessary furniture e.g. wooden chairs, bedstead, the pestle
and mortar, the winnowing basket, spoon, ladle, fork, wooden tubs, and
earthen pots etc.

In every house, guests were welcomed and attended to. The Atharva Veda
(IX. 6) mentions an Avasatha in this connection, but it is difficult to
determine whether it was a big apartment set apart for that purpose. This
was the Vedic house of simpler construction used by poorer householders.
Most probably richer people and princes lived in more comfortable
dwellings made of stone or other materials.

They seem to have employed doorkeepers and a large number of attendants

(A. V. IX. 6). In the Rigveda we find mention of forts of stone and houses of
three materials (R. V. VI. 46. 9)and in another place we find mention of a
house with 1000 pillars (R. V. V. 626). But from this we cannot form any
opinion as yet. The use of brick came into vogue during the time of the later
Samhitas. Brick—both burnt and unburnt were used for constructing fire-
altars or pillars (see Yajurveda XIV; Taitt. Sam.; and Satap Br.).

The Vedic householder regarded his house as his strong-hold and was
intensely attached to it. The house was supposed to have its own presiding
Deity and his favour was constantly sought. The householder’s devotedness
to his dear home is amply expressed in a hymn of the Artharva Veda (see
A.V VII, 60) in which a parting traveller bids adieu to the houses of his
village, in terms which amply express his warm attachment to his own
house and the comforts dwelling therein.

Household Furniture and Implements:

As to house-hold implements, utensils and furniture, we get some
interesting details from the Atharva Veda (A. V. IX. 3 and A. V. IX. 6). Of
implements, there we find mention (apart from those used in sacrificial
purposes) of the pestle and mortar made of stone, the winnowing basket,
the spoon, the ladle, the fork, the stirring prong, cooking pots and jars
(Drona-kalasa), vessels (Patrani) made of metal, wooden tubs, and various
other things made of khadira or udumvara wood.

Of other furniture, we have the Asandi which according to the Atharva Veda
and the Brahmanas was a rocking chair, made of wood and cordage, the
Prostna or lying bench for women, the bedstead, the pillow (Upabarhana,
coverlets) (Upastarana Upavasana) cushions and mats made either of grass
or of kusa, antilope’s skin and such other articles. In the Kausitaki Up, we
find mention of the Paryanka and later on of the Prenkha. (see Kathaka
XXXIV. 5, Panch. Br. V.5.7 Dola)

Food:
From the above two hymns, in addition to scattered, references elsewhere,
we get some interesting details about the food and drink of those days.

In connection with the food of Vedic Aryans the following may be

mentioned:
1. The milk (Payas) of the cow, goat, and buffalo was used. From it various
preparations were made. Fresh milk (Payas) and mixed milk (Payasya), are
separately mentioned, as also butter (Navanita), creamy butter (Phanta),
Ghrta, and curd (Dadhi). Goat’s milk is mentioned in the Taitt. Sam.
2. Various preparations of rice, barley and wheat and other food grains and
cereals were used. Thus, barley, rice, or wheat were either parched or boiled
in water or soaked in butter. Of fried grains we find mention of Saktu,
Parivapa, Laja. Wheat, barley or rice were often crushed powdered or
boiled and made into various kinds of bread or cakes along with milk and
other ingredients. Of such we have the Pista, Purodasa, Apupa, Pakti.
Rice was often boiled in milk and this kind (Ksiraudana) of food was highly
valued Brahmaudana was offered in the sacrifices (A.V. IV, 35. 7, XI. 1. 1).
Taitt. Sa. III. 4.8.7). Other varieties of mess were used and we have mention
of Dhadyaudana, Mudgudana, Tilaudana, Udaudana, Ghrtaudana,
Mamsaudana.

3. Meat:
The Aryans seem to have been fond of meat-eating. The flesh of sacrificed
animals e.g. of the cow, the buffalo, the sheep, goat, and occasionally of the
horse, was taken by all classes of people. In addition to these, the flesh of
hunted animals and of various birds was taken.

The taking of beef or the flesh of the buffalo or the hors gradually came into
disfavour. Meat boiled with rice (Mamsaudana) was highly prized. The
question of beef-eating has been discussed separately, in connection with
the cow. Moreover, various kinds of fruits and vegetables and honey were
also largely used.

4. Fish:
We hear very little of fish-eating in the early Samhitas, though in later
periods fish-eating was not condemned. Far from that, fish was regularly
prescribed food and was offered to guest and the manes.

The Vedic Householder’s Condition:

From a study of the Vedic literature it would thus appear that the average
Vedic householders lived a life of self-sufficiency. With the exception of the
princely warriors or the sacrificing priests— high in the favour of the
former, the mass of Vedic householders, depended mainly on their own
exertions. Every man had his farm and cottage. He worked his own fields;
the agricultural products supplied the requirements of the family, and his
chief wealth consisted of his cattle.

Life was Simple:

There was very little of luxury, as well as of scarcity. A man’s wants were
few and his own exertion placed him above want. But this state of affairs
did not last long. Conquest brought in wealth. Luxury invaded society,
gambling, or wants of thrift reduced families to poverty, and much of this
wealth passed into other hands. Capitalism came to be introduced. Usury
came to be the occupation of the rich.

The merchant made large profits; the normal distribution of wealth was
checked. Money came to be accumulated in the hands of the few. The land-
less and homeless poor, had to live either by begging or had to take menial
service. Craftsmen protected their own interests by formic unions. As to the
growing complexity of social condition, we find indications throughout the
whole of the later Vedic literature.

In this connection the following points are to be noted:

1. Growth of capitalism—proved by the existence of debts and usury and the
growth of banking.

2. Growth of a landed aristocracy,

3. Growth of social inequalities.

Development of a Landed Aristocrat:

In the earlier stage of simple agricultural life every householder owned his
plot of land, tilled it, lived a life of simplicity, and practically supplied his
own needs. In those days there was hardly anything like a landed
aristocracy. The king of the tribe could of course claim his Vali or tribute
(see R.V. X. 173), but there is practically no evidence of inter-mediatory
landlords.

Gradually, however, a class of landed aristocracy arose and this

may be attributed to:
1. The custom of granting villages to faithful servants by the ruling princes,
a practice common to all ages and countries. Of this we have no direct
evidence, but we may presume that such gifts were common, since princes
thought of strengthening their own position by creating a band of faithful
adherents.

2. The grant of villages to sacrificing priests or Srotriyas. We have no early

Vedic evidence, but later we find one instance of a gift of a village by
Janasruti to Raikka, when the latter agreed to teach him the Deity he
worshipped (Chan. IV. 2. 4.).

Such gifts were indeed common, and out of such gifts arose the class of rich
Brahmin landlords— the Mahasalas or Maha-srotriyas first mentioned in
the Chandogya Up., who were so common in the early Buddhist Sutras,
where they are described as enjoying the revenue of villages.

3. The acquisition of superior rights by men of merit over equals. As to

these people we have no evidence either in the Rigveda or the Atharva
Veda. But when we come to the Taittiriya Samhita or the Maitrayani
Samhita, we find in connection with special sacrifices, the various rites for
raining mastery over villages.

We have directions for the propitiation of Indra or the “All gods” which
enabled men desiring villages (Grama-kamas) to become owners of villages
—i.e. Gramyas or Gramins. The chief interest of the evidence of these
passages lies in the fact that these village-lords attained that position by
acquiring preeminence over equals (Sajatas and Samanas).

Domestic Labour and Household Economy:

As the Grhapati looked after agriculture and the farm, many of the
household duties were entrusted to the women of the house. The Grha-
patni (or the Grhapati’s wife) was an ‘alter ego’ of the husband and assisted
him in the management of the affairs of the family.

The evidence of the marriage-ceremonial shows, that assistance in

household affairs was considered part of the wife’s duties. She took part
along with her husband in ceremonials and sacrifices. The Atharva Veda
(XI 1.3) shows how they joined in offering sacrifices and how she had often
to take care of the household fire.

In matters of domestic economy, the wife had supreme voice. In the

marriage-hymns she has been described as the Samrajni in her father-in-
law’s household. Philological evidence shows that in more ancient times it
was the mother (Mata) who distributed the food, while the daughter
(Duhita) engaged in milking kine. Similar duties were entrusted to the
other ladies of the household. Weaving or plating was once entrusted to
women.

This is proved by an old simile which represents day and night as two
women engaged in weaving and which has been already referred to. Again,
the marriage hymn (A. V, XIV. 1.48) which speaks of goddesses wearing
garments (see A. V, XIV. 2. 51) refers to the soft touch of the garments
woven by the bride. Cooking was left to women, as is proved by many
passages of the A.V, and by the evidence of the Taittiriya Samhita (V. I. 7).

That the wife bad to partake of the husband’s burdens and household-
duties, seems to be suggested by some of the passages in a marriage-hymn
of the Atharva Veda. For instance, we read- “Blest be the gold to thee,
blessed the water, blessed the yoke’s opening and blessed the pillar.” (XIX.
I – RV, X.85)

Here, the yoke’s opening stands symbolical of agricultural operations, while

the blessed pillar refers to the wife’s participation in the work of the
threshing floor. Husking, winnowing and many other similar duties were
entrusted to women, though towards the close of the Vedic period slave
girls and slaves were employed (see A V, XII. 3. 13). The tending of the
cattle, while at home, was part of the house wife’s duties as would appear
from a passage of the marriage hymn, in which Vrhaspati is asked to make
her gentle to the cattle.

All these marriage hymns end with prayers for the long life of the married
couple, and we have prayers not only for prosperity, devotion to the
husband, but also for children, so that these when grown up might assist
their parents. The labour of women thus played a prominent part in
domestic economy. Consequently, in the Vasor-dhara hymn, we meet with
the prayer that women might become industry.

Social Inequalities:
As to social divisions, we find, in addition to the princes, the existence of a
rich upper class from an early period. The Rigveda mentions Mahi kulas
figuratively, and the Maghavan (givers of beauty R, V. I, 31, 12: II 6. 4. V.
39.1; Ii 6. 4. V. 39.4; VI. 27. 8) who were distinguished by their liberality.

They were probably the representatives of the richer classes and are
repeatedly praised. The wealth of the princes who, stood on a higher level,
can be measured from the innumerable stories of gifts of gold, kine, horses
and ornaments which they bestowed upon the priests.

The Danastutis in the Rigveda (R. V. VIII) speak of the munificence of these
princes. Thus, one sacrifice praises Asanga (VIII. 1), another Medhatithi
praises Vibhinda, who gave him 48,000 pieces probably of gold. A third
praises Kurunga’s gift of 100 (VIII.4), another praises the munificence of
Kasa, the son of Cedi, who gave his priest “a hundred heads of buffalo and
ten thousand kine.” There is another which mentions the gifts of a prince,
which included 10,000 kine and three hundred horses.

Another hymn records the receipt from Prthusravas, 60,000 pieces, ten
thousand kine and 2000 camels, another records the bestowal of “kine
bedecked with ornaments of sparkling gold”; another records the gift of 50
slave girls (VIII, 19), while yet another, records the gift of 100 asses, 100
slaves and sheep. Many other hymns speak of large money- gifts in
standards not specified therein.

As in the case of the princes, the wealth and liberality of the rich Maghavan
is clearly apparent. The munificence of the rich Maghavan may be
appreciated from constant praise bestowed on the people who made gifts of
horses, cattle, clothes, and gold to their priests (R. V. X. 107). They are
praised in glowing terms, and they came to occupy a high social position.

In one place, munificence is described as making a man the chief in his

village (X. 107) and highly honoured by the community. We are told that
“the liberal die not—neither are they ruined, they suffer neither harm nor
trouble—the light of Heaven, the universe about us, all this doth sacrificial
guerdon (gift) give him.” The Taittiriya Samhita goes further and says that
“wealth the true basis of excellence.”

On the other hand, the evils of unequal distribution were very keenly felt.
The misery of the homeless and starving poor is described in some passages
of the Rigveda. Some hymns (see X. 117) of that book tell us of the hungry
poor, who go to others for food. The whole of the 117th hymn of the tenth
Mandala, dedicated to ‘hunger’ and attributed to ‘Bhiksu,’ repeatedly
inculcates upon the rich the duty of feeding the poor.

Society expected the rich to contribute to the alleviation of distress and the
miserly conduct of the niggardly rich was denounced. “The man who does
not offer to the gods, nor give alms to the poor,” we are told, “is a miser who
feeds upon sin only.”

The same hymn (X, 117.9) dwells upon the inequality of human fortune
and of liberality (capacity to give alms to the poor.) The similes there are
really suggestive. We are told that as the two hands of a man are not equal,
as two cows born of the same mother differ in their milk-bearing capacity,
as the strength even of twin brothers is not equal, even so men are not
equal in their fortune or their liberality.

The preceding verses tell us how the unequal distribution of wealth came to
play a predominant part in the evolution of society, how the rich came to be
adored by men of lesser social position or wealth, and how the poor sank
lower in the social scale.

As we proceed onwards, we find a multiplication of hymns directed against

poverty. Wealth came to be a criterion of social position; social inequalities
grew more and more, and the old simple state of existence passed away.
Aryans: Origin and Social
Organisation | Vedic Period |
Indian Histor
In this article we will discuss about the origin and social organization of the
Aryans.

Origin of the Aryans:

The question of the original home of this people has been debated upon for
the past hundred years. This subject is a complicated one and owing to the
lack of evidence with regard to chronology, has given rise to the widest
possible divergence of opinion among philologists, antiquarians and
anthropologists. Affinity in language, mythology, or religion, resemblances
of racial types, supposed or real, have all been exploited to form bases for
theories as to the original location of the Vedic Aryans, along with their
supposed Kinsmen, the ancestors of the European nations.

At one time Central Asia was supposed to be the original home of the Aryan
stock and this opinion was favoured by a large number of scholars. First
propounded by J.G. Rhode (in 1820), the theory of Central Asian home
received countenance from Pott, Lassen, and Grimm and received strong
support from Max Muller in 1859.

Divergences of opinion however soon arose and Adolph Pictet in his

‘Origines Indo-Europeennes’ tried to place them in the region of the
Caspian. He was followed by Justi, the author of the ‘Primeval Indo-
Germanic Period’ and he in his turn was also strongly, supported by
Schleicher. Later on, some tried to prove Southern Russia as the original
home in view of the supposed analogy between Sanskrit and Lithuanian.

Other Scholars, pre-eminently Latham (1854), came to the conclusion that

the original home should be looked for in Europe and he was supported by
Fick, Benfey and Geiger. Pietrement placed it in Siberia while Cuno
attempted to locate it in the North- European plain (1871).

The controversy is not ended yet, and “it still divides scholars into hostile
camps, holding diverse views as to the original home of the Aryans” one
holding the Asiatic hypothesis, while the other party preferring an original
home somewhere in Europe. From the point of view of philological
investigations, the view of Dr. Schrader appears to be free from any party
bias. In his work on the Indo- European races, he has submitted several
points for consideration.

These, along with the solution they call for, may be summarised as follows
“the evidence of linguistic paleontology is far from decisive”. The primitive
Aryan race was pastoral and semi-nomadic and consequently extended over
a vast area. The grade of civilization agreed clearly with that disclosed by
the oldest lake dwellings of Switzerland and consequently it seemed to have
existed in Europe at an early epoch.

The philological evidence thus does not enable us to draw any sharp line of
division between the Asiatic and European branches of the Aryan people. A
comparative study of the vocabularies and religion convinces us of the close
similarity between the diverse branches. The original cradle of the race was
in the cold icy regions of the north, since words for ice and snow are
common to all Aryan languages.

The above is a summary of the views of scholars who carried on their

investigations mainly with the help of philological evidence. This latter was
once a favourite weapon with the anthropologists. Of late, however a great
change has come. Anthropologists, now-a- days do not attach any
importance to the supposed permanence of the relation between race and
language.

Cuno among philologists demolished the assumption that ‘Aryan blood was
co-extensive with Aryan speech.’ Some of his successors attributed the
origin of various languages to a process of evolution and in 1880 they were
followed by Delbruck who denied the existence of any uniform primitive
Aryan speech.
In the bands of the anthropologists, the controversy took a different turn.
Some of the greatest among them like Broca and Topinard repeatedly
raised their voices against the confidence often put in philological evidence.
They have tried to prove the insignificant ethnological value of philological
considerations and following them we have a large number of scholars who
deny altogether the existence of a primitive Aryan people.

ADVERTISEMENTS:

This view now-a-days is gaining ground everywhere, and eminent men like
Keane have come to regard the term ‘Aryan’ as a mere linguistic expression
“entirely forced into the domain of ethnology by philologists,” though some
anthropologists still believe in the past existence of communities, who
living in the Hindu Kusb and Carpathian, evolved the Aryan mother tongue
and had a certain amount of uniformity in their physical characteristic.
They believe moreover in the absorption of this race in a hundred other
races even in pre-historic times. Hence, in their opinion the use of the word
‘Aryan’ must be regarded as a misnomer.

The Aryan question is far from being settled. For our purpose, it may not be
of so much importance, as it is in the domain of Anthropology or of Pre-
historic culture. We may still give the name ‘Aryans’ to the Vedic Indians,
since that was the term they used in designating themselves. As to the
original home of these people, something may be said here regarding the
evidence of the Vedas.

The hymns give us absolutely no clue as to the original home of the

composers but they show a south-easterly expansion of the race from the
region of the hills of the western Punjab, to the plains eastward. Moreover,
they betray a familiarity with the regions of the western Punjab and the
region of the Kabul valley as we shall see later on. All these seem to point to
the fact that these regions formed the home of the Aryans during the period
that some of the hymns were composed.

Formerly they must have lived somewhere in the region to the north of the
Hindukush along with the fore-fathers of the Iranians, with whom they had
much in common, in religion, language and custom and from whom they
separated after a bitter struggle, which had its origin probably in religious
disputes. Apart from this, we cannot say anything about the home of the
Vedic Indians in their pre-Iranian days and an investigation of that subject
must be left to antiquarians and anthropologists.

Social Organization of the Aryans:

In the earlier period the tribe (Jana) was the highest political union among
the Aryans and was probably an agglomeration of several settlements or
Visas and included a fairly large number of villages. The exact relation,
social and economic, subsisting between the Jana and the Vis is yet to be
found out.

As yet it is almost impossible “to state in what exact relation the grama in
Vedic times stood to the Vis whether it was a mere local division, or
whether it was “a unit of blood relationship.”

The question is still further complicated by the existence of an older social

division—e.g., that of the gotra, which liter on became the basic principle in
the formation of exogamous groups. By the period of the composition of the
Buhmanas, the Jana and the Gotra became the real dements of division of
the community, while the Vis practically disappeared.

Caste System of the Vedas:

Whatever might have been the original state of things the social fabric was
wholly modified by the rise of the caste system, the germs of which can be
unmistakably traced in the hymns of the Rigveda, though we have very little
of an exposition of the theory of the division of castes in that book. The only
explanation of the theory of caste is found in Rig. X. 90. e.g. the Purusa
sukta, where the Rsi Narayana, describes a system which seems to have
already existed in his time.

Beyond this we have no history—no tradition— about the origin of caste,

excepting a late Brahminical tradition in the Visnu Purana and in the
Harivamsa, which ascribes the division into castes, to Saunaka, the
descendant of Grtsamada, the traditional revealer of the second Mandala of
the Rigveda.
Brehmaoa and Kiatriya:
The majority of European scholars regard the Purusa sukta as a later
interpolation. They seem to entertain the view that the Rigveda knew very
little of caste divisions and they try to explain its rise as being due to the
eastern migration of the Vedic Aryans and the consequent rise of
complexities in social life.

But when we proceed historically we find unmistakable evidences to the

contrary, and a careful study of the hymns convinces us that social divisions
existed even during the period in which the oldest parts of the Rigveda were
composed.

Thus in some of the hymns, which are admitted to belong to the oldest
portions of the Rigveda, we find in more than one place, the mention of a
threefold or fourfold division of the community e.g. Brahma, Ksatra, and
Vis (R.V., VIII. 35. 16-18 and I. 113. 6).

Not to speak of this mere reference to a social division we have separate

mention of the three classes. Thus the word Brahmana meaning a member
of the priestly or the sacerdotal order occurs in more than one place.
Similarly we have evidences which clearly point to the separate existence of
the fighting class.

Their formation into a separate section of the community is proved by the

repeated mention of the words ksatra (R.V. I. 24. 11; 136-1-3; IV. 17.1; V. 62.
6;), ksatriya (R.V. IV. –12 3-; IV. 42. 1; V.69. 1; VII. 64. 2; VIII. 25.8),
rajanya, and such other terms. The mass of the common agricultural people
seem to have formed a separate division and was known by the term Vis or
as we have it later on, the Vaisyas. While the servile classes, whether
descended from degraded Aryans or from conquered enemies, formed a
body to which the name Sudra was given in the Rigveda.

The Vedic evidence goes further than this, and a study of hymns admittedly
belonging to the older portion convinces us that even in those days, we had,
instead of a casteless society, a complicated social organisation with a
highly developed priesthood.
And further we meet with evidences which conclusively prove not only the
existence of the three above mentioned classes, but clearly point to a
tendency of subdivision even among these various groups.

To take the priesthood first- even in the days of the oldest hymns of the
Rigveda we find evidence of the development of the sacrificial art, requiring
the use and presence of no less than six different priests. Thus, in the
Rigveda 1.162 (the Asvamedha hymn) we find mention of the Hota,
Adhyaryu, Avayaj, Agnimindha, Gravagrabha and Samstar. Of these, two
indeed go to the Iranian Period e.g. the Hota (Zd. Zota) and the Adhyaryu
(Rathwi).

In another old Rik we find mention of Somina Brahmana and of the

Adhyaryu (R.V., VII. 103). In another place we find mention of the
Gayatrinah, Arkinah and Brahmana (i.e. the udgatr priests). All these point
to an early separation in the body of the priestly class itself and the
formation of separate priestly orders. In course of time the priestly offices
multiplied and became hereditary and each family became the repository of
certain formulas or hymns and gradually the priests formed a definite caste
by themselves as is proved by the evidence of the Brahmanas and the
Upanisads.

Among the ksatriyas, who asserted their predominance over the common
people and became the ruling and fighting caste, the tribe remained the
basis of division. In the case of the mass of the people originally known as
the Visah, and later on identified with the Vaisyas e.g., agriculturists and
traders—they were delegated to a lower social position. They too show a
tendency to subdivide. In course of time the hereditary following of
occupations became the cause of the rise of sub-sections among them and
these became distinguished by the importance of their occupation.

The Vaisyas though they became subordinate to the other two castes
(anyasya valikrt—anyasyadya—etc.) were even then regarded as vitally
important to the community, and this would appear from the following
passage of the Aitareya Brahmana (1. 9)- “They say the gods should be
provided with Vaisyas (Visas). For if the gods are provided with them men
will subsequently obtain them also. If all Vaisyas are in readiness then the
sacrifice is prepared.”

With the ever-increasing influence of the caste theory, certain gods too
came to be regarded as Vaisyas and according to the Vajasaneyi theory of
creation, Ganesa, the Vasus, the Rudras the Adityas, the Visvedevah, and
the Maruts, were regarded as belonging to this caste.

So much for the early history of the caste system. Its earliest elaboration is,
in the Purusa-Sukta, where apparently the composer Narayana seems to
describe a state of affairs already existing. As time went on this theory of
caste became general and was accepted on all hands and we find it
obtaining a place in almost all the Samhitas. It is elaborated in the Atharva
Veda, and it occurs in the Purusavidhan Brahmana.

Henceforth references to the four divisions are common. In the Atharva

Veda we find reference to the four division of Rajanya, Vaisya, Sudra, and
Arya (Paippalada III. 5. 7). The Vajasaneyi Samhita too speaks of the
divisions into Brahmana Vaisya and Sudra (Vaj. San. XXI. II). In one place
we find the four enumerated as Priest, Warrior, Sudra and Arya (XXVI. 2)
though elsewhere Arya is contrasted with Dasa.

In other places we have accounts of the creation of Arya, Rajanya and

Sudra. Many such theories originated and we find them in the Samhitas
and Brahmanas. Thus in the Satap Br. we find an account of the creation of
the castes with the formulae Bhuh Bhubah and Svah—The Taitt Br. gives a
similar story of the origin of the three castes.

Side by side arose theories which aimed at the definition of the respective
duties of the caste. We find, moreover, peculiar formulae of invocation of
the members of the various castes with their special duties, rights and
special occupations. These we find fully elaborated in the Dharmasutras.
Caste thus brought on a change in socio-economic life. It divided society on
the basis of division of duties.

As we proceed onwards its influence is more and more felt, though the
castes were not as yet socially exclusive endogamous groups. Hypergamy
continued to exist and the status of the father determined that of the son.
Gradually, however, the mutual exclusiveness of castes increased, and
towards the close of the Hindu period mixed marriages ceased altogether.

The influence of heredity on the selection of occupation however worked

strongly upon the social structure and tended towards the formation of sub-
castes and guilds.

The principle of division of labour continued to introduce more

subdivisions among the mass of the agriculturist and working population.
Thus with the advancement of the knowledge of certain crafts, the men
engaged in these were separated from the mass of the population.

Of these crafts people, the rathakara, the sata, and the taksan, were the first
to stand apart from the mass of the people. In the Rigveda (X97. 23) we
have a reference to a class of people who are called upasta (adhah-say—
Savana—com). The meaning of this word as well of the word is not clear.

The Atharva Vedic evidence however shows that the upa-stis included the
rathakara, the taksan, and the suta, in addition to the gramani (A.V. III. 5-6
and 7). The upa-stis have been taken to be “royal dependents” by some
scholars, but Macdonell and Keith pointing out the difficulty in finding out
the real meaning sum up by saying that “it is therefore reasonable to
assume that they were the clients proper of the king, not servile, but
attached in a special relation to him, as opposed to the ordinary
population” (Ved. Ind. 1. 96).

As we pass on to discuss the distribution of the people, we find that the

village was the smallest social and political unit and the social life of those
days was based on it.

Early Vedic Age : Origin, Social

 Life, Economic Life, Culture and
Religion
Early Vedic Age : Origin, Social Life, Economic Life, Culture and Religion!
After the decline of the Indus Valley Civilization, another glorious
civilization flourished in India. The people who were responsible for the
evolution of this civilization called themselves Aryas or Aryarns.

Arya’ literally means the man of ‘noble character’, and the “free-born”. They
belonged to the group of people known as Indo-Europeans. They entered
into India from the north-west.

Although the Rig Veda deals with devotional work of religious nature, yet
it gives a vivid picture of the early Vedic civilization. The Vedic
Civilization is best understood from the social life, political organisation,
economic life and religious beliefs.

They spoke the Indo-European languages from which modern languages

like Sanskrit, Persian, Latin, Greek, Celtie, Gothic have developed.
Originally, the Aryans seem to have lived somewhere in the area east of the
Alps, known as Eurasia.

European Origin:
The early Aryans were familiar with certain animals such as goats, dogs,
pigs, cows, horses etc. and also with the trees like pine, maple, oak, willow,
birch etc. which are found in Europe. This led to Prof. Giles to suggest the
European origin of the Aryans. It is generally believed that they migrated to
India and other parts of Asia from Europe.

It is difficult to locate the exact part of Europe where the Aryans originally
lived before they migrated elsewhere. According to Giles, Balkan countries
were the original home of the Aryans. The flora and fauna and the animals
with which the early Aryans were familiar could be found in the Balkan
countries at that time.

Prof. Hist believes that the Aryans migrated from Lithuania Europe into
Caucasus and from there they entered into Iran. Again from Iran they
entered into Punjab. This view is proved by the discovery of Boghaz Koi
inscription and the Tel-El- Amarna Letters in Western Asia.

Migration from Southern Russia:

Some historians held the view that the Aryans entered into India from the
region of South Russia. Brandenstain has suggested that the Aryans
migrated to India from Kirghitz stepps in Russia. The great Philologist,
Schrader accepts South Russia as the original home of Russians from where
they migrated to different areas.

Indian Origin:
Some historians held the view that Aryans belonged to India. The Rig Veda
refers to ‘Sapta Sindhu’ land (of seven rivers) which was the name of
Punjab. Subsequently it was called “Panchanada” (land of five rivers). The
flora and fauna with which the Aryans were familiar are not found in
Punjab. Again the fertility of Punjab must have attracted immigration.
From the linguistic view point Greek and Latin belong to Aryan group of
Languages. These considerations led the historians to believe that Aryans
do not originally belong to India.
From linguistic study it is proved that the Aryans migrated from Europe or
Asia to India. For example ‘Pider’ and ‘Mader’ in Parsi, ‘Pater’ and ‘Mater’
of Latin, “Father’ and ‘Mother’ of English resemble with ‘Pitru’ and ‘Matru’
of Sanskrit. So the historians generally accepted the view that Aryans
migrated from Europe or Asia to India.

The Aryans first appeared in Iran on their way to India, where the Indo-
Iranians lived for a long time. From Rig Veda, which is the earliest
specimen of Indo-European language we know about the Aryans. The Rig
Veda consists of ten mandalas or books. It is a collection of prayers offered
to Agni, Indra, Mitra, Varuna and other gods by various families of poets or
sages.

Rig Veda has many things in common with ‘Avesta’ of Iran. The ‘Rig Veda’
and ‘Avesta’ use the same names for several gods and even for several
classes. Some Aryan names engraved in the Kassite inscriptions of 1600
B.C. and the Mittani inscriptions of the fourteenth century B.C. found in
Iraq proves that from Iran a branch of the Aryans moved towards the west.

Home of the Aryans in India:

The Aryans appeared in India a little earlier than 1500 B.C. The earliest
Aryans settled down in eastern Afghanistan, Punjab, and fringes of Uttar
Pradesh. The Rig-Veda mentioned the names of some rivers of Afghanistan
such as the river Kubha, and the river Indus and its five branches. The
earliest settlements of Aryans were confined to the valleys of the river Sindh
and its tributaries and of the Saraswati and the Drishadvati.

Though they were confined mainly in Punjab, yet their outer settlements
reached to the banks of the Ganga and the Yamuna. They named that
region Madhya Desa. Gradually they occupied the whole of Uttarapatha, the
loan between Himalayas and the Vindhyas and from the western seas to the
east were called as Aryavarta.

The Vedas:
The Vedas form the oldest literary works of the Aryans and occupy a very
distinguished place in the history of the world literature. Vedas have been
looked upon as the revealed words of God by millions of Hindus. In course
of many centuries Vedas had grown up and was orally handed down from
generation to generation. The Vedas were probably authored during 1800
BC and 600 BC. It consists of three successive classes of literary
production.

These three classes are:

(i) The Samhitas or Mantras—these are collections of hymns, prayers,
charms, litanies, sacrificial formulas.

(ii) The Brahmanas—a kind of Primitive theology and philosophy of

Brahmanas.

(iii) The Aranyakas and Upanishads—they are partly included in the

Brahmanas or attached thereto and partly exist as separate work. They
contain philosophical meditations of the hermits and ascetics on soul, God,
world & man.

There are four Samhitas which are different from one another.

These are:
(i) The Rigveda Samhita:
A collection of hymns. It has ten mandalas with a total of 1028 ‘Suktas’ or
‘stutis” for the worship of gods like Indra, Surya, Agni, Yama, Varuna
Ashwini, Usha etc.

(ii) Samaveda Samhita:

A collection of songs mostly taken from Rig Veda. It contained 1549 stutis.
A special class of priests known as “Udgator” were to recite its hymns.

(iii) Yajur Veda Samhita:

A collection of sacrificial formula. It has 40 mandals. There are two distinct
forms of Yajur Veda namely. “Sukla Yajur Veda” and “Krishna Yajur Veda”.
The “Sukla Yajur Veda” contains the genesis while the “Krishna Yajur Veda”
describes the “Vasya” or the philosophy.

(iv) Atharva Veda Samhita:

A collection of songs and spells. It has twenty mandalas with 731 ‘stutis’. It
deals with magic, hypnotism, enslavement through mantra. It is regarded
on a lower level than the other three Vedas. These four samhitas formed the
basis of four Vedas.

Every work belonging to the second and third classes of Vedic literature viz,
the Brahmanas, the Arayakas and the Upanishads, is attached to one or
another of these samhitas and is said to belong to that particular Veda.

The Authorship of the Vedic Literature:

The Hindus have a belief that the hymns were merely revealed to the sages
and not composed by them. .For this Vedas are called “apaurusheya’ (not
made by man) and ‘ritya” (existing in all eternity). The ‘Rishis’ to whom
they are ascribed are known as Mantradrasta’. (Who received the mantra by
sight directly from the Supreme Creator).

Vedangas:
Besides the Vedas, there is another class of works whose authorship is
ascribed to human beings. They are known as Sutras or Vedangs. There are
six vedangas. They are six subjects. These are siksha (pronounciation),
chhandas (metre) Jyotisha (astronomy), Kalpa (ritual), Vyakarana
(grammar), Ninukta (explanation of words).

Indian Culture in the Rig Vedic Age:

Although the Rig Veda deals with devotional work of religious nature, yet it
gives a vivid picture of the early Vedic civilization. The Vedic Civilization is
best understood from the social life, political organisation, economic life
and religious beliefs.

1. Political Organisation
2. Administrative Divisions:
The lowest unit of the Rig-Vedic society was the patriarchal family. A
number of families bound together by ties of blood formed a clan, several
class formed a district, and a number of districts composed a tribe, the
highest political unit. From the Rig Veda we come to know about some
administrative units termed as ‘grama’, ‘vis’, and the ‘jana’.
The ‘grama’ consisted of several families. It was under a headman known as
‘gramani’. During war or battle he used to lead the soldiers from his village.
He attended the meetings of the ‘Sabha’ and ‘Samiti’. Several villager
formed a ‘vis’. It was placed under a ‘visapati’. He was a military leader.

A group of ‘vishes’ formed a ‘jana'(tribe) whose members were bound

together by real or supposed ties of kinship. ‘Gopa’ was the head of one
‘jana’. Rig Veda mentions about various tribes such as Bharatas, Matsyas,
Krivis, Tritsus. But the tribes which acquired great importance are the
Purus, Trigvasas, Yadus, Aus and Drahyus. Several janas formed a
‘janapada’ or ‘kingdom’. The ‘Rajan’ or the king was the head of the
Janapada.

3. Form of Government:
Monarchy was the normal form of Government. Kingship was hereditary.
But there was a sort of hierarchy in some states, several members of the
royal family exercising the power in common. There were references of
democratic form of government and their chiefs were elected by the
assembled people.

4. The King:
The kingdom was small in extent. The king enjoyed a position of pre-
eminence in the tribe. Kingship was hereditary. He was anointed by the
priest as king in the ‘Abhishka’ Ceremony. He wore gorgeous robes and
lived in a splendid palace, gaily decorated than a common building. The
king had the duty to protect the life and property of his people. He was
required to be ‘Indra’ in valour, ‘Mitra’ in kindness and ‘varuna’ in virtues.

The sacred duty of the king was the protection of the tribes and the territory
and maintenance of priests for the performance of sacrifices. Maintenance
of law and order was his principal duty. He maintained justice with the help
of Purohitas. He collected tributes known as “Bali” in kind from his
subjects.

5. Officials:
In the work of administration the king was assisted by a number of
functionaries like the Purohita (priest), the senani (general) the Gramani
(village headman) and the spsa (spies). Purohita was the most important
officer of the state.

6. The Army:
The army was mainly consisting of Patti (infantry) and Rathins (chariots).
The weapons used by the soldiers were bows, arrows, swords, axes and
spears. These weapons were made up of irons. The soldiers were organised
into units known as Sardha, Vrata and gana.

7. Popular Assemblies:
The Rig Veda mentions the names of two popular assemblies known as
Sabha and Samiti. Though the king enjoyed substantial power yet he was
not an autocrat. In the work of administration he consulted these two
bodies and act according to their decision. Sabha was a select body of
elders. The head of the sabha was known as ‘Sabhapati’.

The Sabha advised the king on administration. It also functioned as a court

of law and tried the cases of criminals and punished them. The Samiti was
the most popular assembly and included common people. The head of
Samiti was known as ‘Pati’ The Samiti mainly dealt with the political
business of the state. It also used to elect the king. In the early Vedic Age
the Sabha and Samiti had a commendable role to play as the political
organisation of the aryans.

8. Social Life:
Family:
The family was regarded as the social and political unit. It was the nucleus
of the social life of the early Aryans. The father was the head of the family
and he was known as “grihapati”. The Aryans had joint families. The father
had great authority over the children. Though the father was kind and
affectionate yet at times he became cruel towards his children. From Rig-
Veda we come to know about a father who blinded his son for his
extravagance.

9. Position of Women:
In the early Vedic age women enjoyed an honored place in the society. The
wife was the mistress of the household and authority over the slaves. In all
religious ceremonies she participated with her husband. Prada system was
not prevalent in the society. Sati system was also not prevalent in the Vedic
society.

The education of girls was not neglected. The Rig-Veda mentions the names
of some learned ladies like Viswavara, Apala and Ghosa who composed
mantras and attained the rank of Rishis. The girls were married after
attaining puberty. The practice of ‘Swayamvara’ was also prevalent in the
society. Monogamy was the general Practice.

Polygamy was, of course, practiced and it was confined only to Rings and
chiefs. Remarriage of widows was permitted. The women were not
independent persons in the eye of the law. They had to remain under the
protecting care of their male relations.

Dress and Ornaments:

The Aryans wore dresses made from cotton, wool and deer skin. The
garments consisted of three parts—an undergarment called ‘nivi’, a garment
called ‘Vasa’ or ‘Paridhan’ and a mantle known as ‘adhivasa’, ‘atka’ ‘dropi’.
The garments were also embroidered with gold. Both men and women wore
gold ornaments.

The women used ear-rings, neck-lace, bangles, anklets. These ornaments

were sometimes studded with precious stones. Both men and women oiled
and combed their hair which war plaited or braided. The men kept beard
and moustache but sometimes also shaved them.

Food and Drink:

The Aryans ate both vegetable and animal foods. Rice, barley, bean and
sesamum formed the staple food. They also ate bread, cake, milk, ghee,
butter, and curd together with fruits. Fish, birds, goats, rams, bulls and
horses were slaughtered for their food. Slaughter of cow was prohibited.
They also drank intoxicating liquor, known as sura, a brandy made from
corn and barley and the juice of soma plant.

Amusements:
Rig Vedic people spent their leisure time in various amusements like
gambling, war—dancing, chariot racing, hunting, boxing, dancing and
music. Women displayed their skill in dancing and music. Three types of
musical instruments like percussion, string and wind were used by the
singers.

Morality:
The morals of women were of high standard. But the standard of morality
of men was not very praiseworthy. Polygamy was practiced by men. Great
respect and affection was shown to guests. The people hated seduction and
adultery. There was a class of women known as hetairai and dancing girls
whose morality was probably not above reproach.

Education:
In the Rig-Vedic age great importance was given to education. There were
Gurukulas which imparted education to the disciples after their sacred-
thread ceremony. Entire instruction was given orally. The Vedic education
aimed at proper development of mind and body. The disciples were taught
about ethics, art of warfare, art of metal and concept of Brahma and
philosophy, and basic sciences like agriculture, animal husbandry, and
handicrafts.

Caste System:
In the early Vedic age there was no caste system. Member of same family
took to different arts, crafts and trades. People could change their
occupation according to their needs or talents. There was hardly any
restriction in intermarriage, change of occupation. There, was no restriction
on taking of food cooked by the sudras. A late hyman of the Rig-Veda
known as Purushasukta refers to four castes. But many scholars reject the
theory that caste system existed in Rig Vedic age. According to them
Purushasukta is a late hymen and caste system was never rigid and
hereditary.

10. Economic Life:

The Village:
In the Rig Vedic Age people lived in villages. The houses were made of
wood and bamboo. They had thatched roof and clay floors. The hymns of
Rig-Veda refer to Pura. It seems that Puras were fortified places and served
as places of refuge during danger of invasion.

There was absence of word nagara (city) in the hymns of Rig-Veda.

Gramani was the chief of the village. He looked after the affairs of the
village, both civil and military. There was another officer known as
Vrajapati who led Kulapas or heads of families to battle.

Agriculture:
Reference in Rig-Veda shows, that agriculture was the principal occupation
of the people. They ploughed the field by means of a pair of oxen. Rig-Veda
even mentions that twenty four oxen were attached to a plough share at the
same time to plough the land. The ploughed land was known as Urvara or
Kshetra. Water was supplied into the fields by means of irrigation canal.
Use of manure was known to them. Barley and wheat were mainly
cultivated. Cotton and oil seeds were also grown. Rice was perhaps not
extensively cultivated. Agriculture was their main source of income.

11. Domestication of animals:

Besides agriculture, cattle breeding were another means of living. There are
prayers in the Vedas for Gosu (cattle). Cows were held in great respect.
Cows were symbols of wealth and prosperity of the Aryans. Sometimes cow
was the medium of exchange. The Aryans had also domesticated animals
like horse, draught OX, dog, goat, sheep, buffalo and donkey.

Occupation:
Apart from agriculture and animal husbandry Aryans had also other
occupation. Weaving was the most important occupation. We learnt about
weavers of wool and cotton together with the workers in the subsidiary
industries of dying and embroidery. The carpenters built houses, chariots,
wagons and supplied household utensils and furniture.

Then there were blacksmiths who supplied various necessaries of life, from
fine needles and razors to the sickles, ploughshares, spears and swords. The
gold smiths made ornaments like ear-rings, bangles, necklaces, bands etc.
The leather-workers made bow-strings and casks for holding liquor. The
physicians cured diseases. The priests performed sacrifices and composed
hymns and taught them to the disciples.

Trade and Commerce:

There were trade and maritime activity. Sometimes traders made journey
to distant lands for larger profits in trade. There was probably commercial
intercourse with Babylon and other countries in Western Asia. The
principal media of trade was barter. Cow was used as unit of value.
Gradually pieces of gold called “mishka” were used as means of exchange.
Trade and commerce was regulated and managed by a group of people
called “Pani”.

12. Transport and Communication:

The chief means of transport by land were rathas (Chariots) and wagons
drawn by horses and oxen. Riding on horseback was also in vogue.
Travelling was common though roads were haunted by taskara (highway
men) and forests were infested by wild animals.

Religious Condition:
The religious life of the Aryans was simple and plain. They worshipped
various manifestations of nature such as the sun, the moon, the sky, the
Dawn, the thunder, the wind and the Air. Vedic hymns were composed in
praise of nature. Rigveda mentions that thirty three gods and goddesses
were worshipped by the Aryans.

These divinities were placed under three categories namely:

(1) the terrestrial gods such as Prithvi, Agni, Brihaspati (Prayer), and Soma,

(2) The atmospheric gods, such as, Indra, Rudra (Probably lightning),
Maruts, Vayu (wind) and Parjanya and

(3) celestial gods such as Dyaus (the sky), Varuna (vault of Heaven), Ushas
(dawn), Asvins (probably twilight and morning stars) and Surya, Mitra,
Savitri and Vishnu all associated with the most glorious phenomenon of
nature, viz., the sun.
Among the vedic gods, Indra occupied the chief place, was given the largest
number of hymns—about one fourth of the total number of hymns in the
Rig Veda Samhita. He was also known as Purandara and the destroyer of
forts. He was also the god of rain. Varuna was regarded as the good of truth
and moral order. He was conceived as the omniscient ruler of the cosmic
waters. Maruta was the god of storm. He helped Indra in scattering away
the demons. Usha was the goddess of dawn.

Prithvi was regarded as the goddess of grain and of procreation. Agni was
second in importance only to Indra. He acted as the coordinator among all
deities. He conveyed to the gods the oblations offered by the devotees. He
received special homage by the people as no sacrifice could be performed
without offering to him. Vishnu was worshipped as the god of three worlds.
Surya was regarded as the destroyer of darkness. Apart from these deities,
others like Savitri, Saraswati, Brihaspati and Prajnya were also worshipped.

Mode of Worship:
The mode of worship was simple. The Vedic worship meant primarily only
oblation and prayer. A great value was attached to the hymns. The Aryans
chanted hymns to appease the various divinities. Yajna or sacrifice was
another mode to appease the gods and goddesses. They offered milk, ghee,
grains, wine, fruits etc. as offering into fire.

Animals like horses, buffaloes, rams, bulls, and even cows were also
sometimes sacrificed. The process of sacrifice was simple. Every Aryan
family took part in the offering of prayers and performing of fire-sacrifice.
There was no priestly class for performing these religious sites. No shrine
or temple was built. Image worship was unknown in those days.

The theory of reincarnation or rebirth was not completely formed. The Rig
Vedic hymns had no consistent theory regarding life after death. The Rig
Vedic idea of life after death was very vague. The soul departed to “Land of
fathers”, pitralok was received by Yama and rewarded or punished
according to its deeds. So the conception of rebirth was there.

The doctrine of transmigration of soul was not properly developed. In-spite

of worshipping various deities the Vedic age saw the prevalence of
monotheism. The hymns of Rig-Veda, Mandal x, 82 express the belief that
God is one although. He bears many names. The idea of single supreme
power governing and controlling the universe seems to have emerged. The
spiritual life of Vedic Aryans was simple. They worshipped nature through
prayer and sacrifice which later on formed the basis of Hindu religion.