Grade 07

Science
Chapter Notes
 Content

S. No. Chapter Page No.

1 Motion and Time 1

2 Electric Current and its Effects 15
3 Acids, Bases and Salts 32
4 Nutrition in Plants 50
5 Respiration in Organisms 56
6 Heat 62
7 Light 76
8 Physical and Chemical Changes 90
9 Forests: Our Lifeline 95
10 Wastewater Story 106
11 Nutrition in Animals 115
12 Transportation in Animals and Plants 127
13 Reproduction in Plants 146
 Motion and Time

1 Motion and its Types

1.1 Rectilinear Motion
1.2 Circular Motion
1.3 Rotational Motion
1.4 Periodic Motion

2 Distance and Speed

2.1 Distance
2.2 Speed
- Average Speed
- Instantaneous Speed
2.3 Odometer and Speedometer

3 Uniform and Non-uniform Motion

5.1 Uniform Motion

5.2 Non-uniform Motion

4 Measuring Time
4.1 Time Measuring Devices
4.2 Simple Pendulum
4.3 Units of Time

5 Graphical Representation of Motion

5.1 Types of Graphs

5.2 Distance-Time Graphs
- For Uniform Motion
- For Non-Uniform Motion
1
 1. Motion and its Types

An object is said to be in motion when it changes

its position with time with respect to its
surroundings. Motion can be of different types:

1.1 Rectilinear Motion

If an object is moving
along a straight path, the
motion of the object is
called rectilinear motion.
Example: A car moving on
a straight path, marching
soldiers, etc.

1.2 Circular Motion

If an object is moving
along a circular path, the
motion of the object is
called circular motion.
Examples: A car moving
on a circular track, an
artificial satellite orbiting
Earth, etc.

2
 1. Motion and its Types

1.3 Rotational Motion

Rotational motion is
defined as the motion of
a body about a fixed
axis. Examples: Motion
of Earth about its axis, a
spinning top, etc.

1.4 Periodic Motion

If an object repeats its

motion after fixed
intervals of time, its
motion is called periodic
motion. Examples: An
oscillating pendulum, the
motion of Earth around
the Sun, etc.

3
 2. Distance and Speed

2.1 Distance

The length of the path covered by an object is

called distance. It is measured in units such as
metre (m), kilometre (km), etc.

2.2 Speed

Speed refers to how fast

or slow an object is
moving.

It is defined as distance
covered per unit of time.

Units of speed include

m/s and km/hr.

Distance
Speed =
Time

4
 2. Distance and Speed

Average Speed

Average speed basically denotes the overall speed

for a given time interval. It is given by total distance
travelled divided by total time taken.

Total Distance
Average Speed =
Total Time

Note:
We use the terms 'speed' and 'average speed’
interchangeably, unless stated otherwise.

5
 2. Distance and Speed

Instantaneous Speed

Instantaneous speed represents the speed at a

particular instant of time.​ There can be only one
instantaneous speed at a moment.

Note:
If a body moves at a constant speed during a
specific time interval, the average speed during that
period is equal to the instantaneous speed at any
moment in that time interval.

6
 2. Distance and Speed

2.3 Odometer and Speedometer

Distance is measured using a device called an

odometer. It measures the total distance travelled
by any vehicle.

Speed measuring device is called a speedometer. It

measures the instantaneous speed of a vehicle.

7
 3. Uniform and Non-Uniform Motion

3.1 Uniform Motion

An object moving along a straight line with a

constant speed is said to be in uniform motion.

3.2 Non-Uniform Motion

An object moving along a straight line with varying

speed is said to be in non-uniform motion.

8
 4. Measuring Time

4.1 Time Measuring Devices

Time can be measured using any periodic event.

Before the modern clocks became popular, people
used to measure time using devices like sundial,
sand clock or water clock. A sundial measures time
by the position of the shadow cast by the Sun.

With the advancement of science, now we have

clocks and watches, both digital and analog to
measure time. These have complex mechanisms
but make use of some period motion.

Analog Clock Digital Clock

9
 4. Measuring Time

4.2 Simple Pendulum

A simple pendulum consists of a bob suspended

from a rigid support using a string. The bob is free
to swing back and forth.

The pendulum is said to complete an oscillation

when it starts from one extreme position A,
moves to the other extreme B and then back to A.

As the oscillations of the pendulum are periodic, it

can be used for measuring time.

The time taken by the pendulum to complete one

oscillation is known as its time period.

One complete oscillation

A-O-B-O-A

Time period of the pendulum

=t+t+t+t
= 4t

10
 4. Measuring Time

4.3 Units of Time

There are various units of time such as second, minute,

hour, day, etc.

The SI unit of time is second (s).

To measure smaller intervals, we have units such as

millisecond, microsecond or nanosecond.

1 second = 103 milliseconds

1 second = 106 microseconds

1 second = 109 nanoseconds

11
 5. Graphical Representation of Motion

5.1 Types of Graphs

Data can be represented graphically. Some of the

types of graphs are: Bar Graph, Pie Chart and Line
Graph.

Bar Graph

Pie Chart Line Graph

12
 5. Graphical Representation of Motion

5.2 Distance-Time Graph

The distance-time graph is a line graph that shows

the distance covered by a body at different
moments of time.

We can find the speed of the moving body with the

help of this graph.

• In distance-time graph, distance is marked along

the Y-axis and time along the X-axis.
• The point where the two mutually perpendicular
axes intersect is called the origin.

13
 5. Graphical Representation of Motion

Distance-Time Graph for Uniform Motion

For an object in uniform motion, the distance-time

graph is a straight line.

Distance-Time Graph for Non-Uniform Motion

For an object in non-uniform motion, the distance-

time graph is not a straight line.

14
 Electric Current and its
Effects

1 Electric Components
1.1 Symbols of electric components
1.2 Electric cell and battery

2 Electric Circuits
2.1 Open and closed circuits
2.2 Circuit diagram

3 Heating Effect of Electric

Current
3.1 Factors affecting heat generation
3.2 CFLs and ISI mark
3.3 Electric fuses and MCBs

15
4 Magnetic Effect of
Electric Current
4.1 Oersted's experiment

5 Electromagnets
5.1 Strength of an electromagnet
5.2 Uses of electromagnets
5.3 Electric bell

16
 1. Electric Components

An electric circuit consists of various components such

as cell, switch, bulb, etc.

1.1 Symbols of electric components

• Symbols ease the representation of an electric

component.

• It makes the circuit drawing easier and more compact.

• Symbols of different components are given below:

Electric bulb

Switch on

Switch off

Wire

Electric Cell

Battery

17
 1. Electric Components

1.2 Electric cell and battery

• An electric cell is a common

source of electricity,
which converts chemical energy
stored in it to electrical energy.

• It has a positive and a negative Electric cell

terminal.

• A battery is defined as a combination of two or more

cells. In a battery, the negative terminal of one cell is
connected to the positive terminal of the next cell and
so on.

+ _ + _ _ _
+ +

Battery of four cells

• Batteries are used in several devices such as toys,

remote control, torches, etc.
18
 2. Electric Circuits

An electric circuit provides a complete path for the

flow of electric current. A simple circuit consists of an
electric cell, a bulb, a switch, and connecting wires.

2.1 Open and closed circuits

• If any part of a circuit is Bulb

broken, electric current
does not flow through it Switch
and such a circuit is Wire
called an open circuit.
Cell

• If there are no breaks Bulb

in a circuit, it provides a
closed path for the flow
of electric current and Switch Electric
such a circuit is called a Current
closed circuit.
Cell

• Electric current can flow only through a closed

circuit.

• In a closed circuit, electric current flows from the

positive terminal of the battery to its negative
terminal. 19
 2. Electric Circuits

2.2 Circuit diagram

• An electric circuit can be drawn on a paper with the

help of the symbols that are used for representing the
electric components. Such a representation of an
electric circuit using its symbols is called an electric
circuit diagram.

Bulb

Switch Wire

Cell

Bulb

Current
Switch
Wire

Cell

An electric circuit and its circuit diagram

20
3. Heating Effect of Electric Current

When an electric current flows through a conductor,

the conductor gets heated up. This is known as
the heating effect of electric current.

• Electric irons, room heaters, incandescent bulbs,

geysers are some of the electric appliances which work
on heating effect of electric current.

Electric iron Room heater Incandescent bulb

• All these heating devices have a coil of wire called an

element. When the appliance is switched on, the
element becomes hot and gives out heat.

Heating element
Electric iron
21
3. Heating Effect of Electric Current

3.1 Factors affecting heat generation

The heat that is produced in the wire depends upon

the following factors (Provided that the current
flowing through the wires is the same):
• The material of the wire
• The length of the wire
• The thickness of the wire

Material of the wire Length of the wire Thickness of the wire

3.2 CFLs and ISI mark

• CFLs and LEDs are preferred over

bulbs because they consume less
energy due to less wastage in the
form of heat.

• If any appliance holds an ISI mark,

it means that it is safe to use, and it
will lead to minimum wastage of
electricity.
22
3. Heating Effect of Electric Current

3.3 Electric fuses and MCBs

A fuse or an electric fuse is a safety device which is

used to protect the electric circuit and devices in the
circuit from excess current passing through them.

Household fuse Appliance fuse

• Electric fuse works on the principle of the heating

effect of electric current. It is made up of an alloy of
tin and lead and has a low melting point.

• When current in a circuit exceeds the safe limit, the

fuse wire gets heated and melts. This breaks the
circuit, thus saving appliances connected in the
circuit.

• Excessive current can flow in the circuit due

to overloading or short circuit.

23
3. Heating Effect of Electric Current

3.3 Electric fuses and MCBs

• A miniature circuit breaker or MCB is generally

preferred over a fuse.

MCB

• MCB is preferred over an electric fuse because in

electric fuse, the fuse wire melts and needs to be
replaced when excess current flows through it.

• MCB is a switch which

automatically turns OFF when ON
current in a circuit exceeds
the safe limit. It can be turned
ON to make the circuit OFF
complete again.

24
4. Magnetic Effect of Electric Current

When electric current passes through a wire, it

behaves like a magnet. This is called the magnetic
effect of electric current.

4.1 Oersted's experiment

• Hans Christian Oersted, a scientist, discovered that

the needle of a compass deflects when an electric
current is passed through a wire placed near the
compass.

Current

OFF ON

Deflection in compass needle due to electric current

25
 5. Electromagnets

• An electromagnet is a device that acts as a magnet

when electric current flows through its coil.

Iron nail

Coil wire

Iron pins

• It consists of a magnetic material such as a soft iron

piece and a coil of insulated copper wire tightly
wound around it.

• The material on which the insulated wire is wound is

called its core.

• It is a temporary magnet that loses its magnetism

when the current through the circuit is stopped.

26
 5. Electromagnets

5.1 Strength of an electromagnet

The strength of an electromagnet can be increased by

increasing:

• the amount of current flowing through the coil.

Less current More current

• the number of turns of coil.

Less number of turns More number of turns

27
 5. Electromagnets

5.2 Uses of electromagnets

• Electromagnets are used in toys.

• They are used in cranes to separate magnetic

materials from junk and to lift heavy objects such as
cars.

Scrap metal collector

• They are used by doctors to remove any magnetic

materials that have fallen in the eyes.

• Electromagnets are used in domestic appliances such

as electric bells, speakers, etc.

28
 5. Electromagnets

5.3 Electric bell

Components of an electric bell:

• A coil of wire wound over an iron piece that forms the

electromagnet
• An iron strip with a hammer at one end
• A contact screw attached to the iron strip
• A battery
• A switch
• A gong which when struck by the hammer
produces sound.

Gong
Hammer

Contact screw Electromagnet

Iron strip

Battery Switch
29
 5. Electromagnets

5.3 Electric bell

Working of an electric bell:

• When the switch of the bell is ON, an electric current

flows through the coil which makes the iron piece
attached to it act as an electromagnet.

• As a result, the iron piece attracts the hammer towards

itself. The hammer thus hits the gong and produces
sound.

• As the hammer moves towards the iron piece, it moves

away from the contact screw and breaks the circuit.

Contact
breaks

30
 5. Electromagnets

5.3 Electric bell

Working of an electric bell:

• As the circuit breaks, no current flows through the coil

which makes the electromagnet lose its magnetism. As
a result, the hammer returns to its original position.

• The hammer then makes a contact with the contact

screw and thus completes the circuit.

• This again turns the iron piece into an electromagnet

and the whole process continues until the bell is
switched OFF. This results in the continuous ringing of
the bell.

31
 Acids, Bases and Salts

1. Acids and Bases

2. Indicators

3. Neutralisation

32
 1. Acids and Bases

1.1 Acids

• Acids are the substances which are sour in

taste.
• Curd, lemon juice, orange juice and vinegar
taste sour as they contain acids.
• Acids present in such substances are called
natural acids.

Vinegar
Spinach

Curd
Orange

Apple
Gooseberry
Grapes Tamarind
Lemon

Acidic substances

The word acid comes from the Latin

word ‘acere’ which means sour.

33
 1. Acids and Bases

Examples of naturally occurring acids:

Tartaric acid Ascorbic acid

Oxalic acid Citric acid

Acetic acid Lactic acid

Acid Rain
• The rain containing excess of acids is called acid
rain. This is caused as the carbon dioxide, sulphur
dioxide and nitrogen dioxide (which are released
into the air as pollutants) dissolve in rain drops to
form carbonic acid, sulphuric acid and nitric acid
respectively.
• Acid rain can cause damage to buildings,
historical monuments, plants and animals.
34
 1. Acids and Bases

1.2 Bases

• Bases are the substances which are bitter in

taste and soapy to touch.
• Certain substances like baking soda, soap,
toothpaste, etc. contain bases.

Toothpaste Window
cleaner Antacid

Baking soda
Liquid soap Washing powder

Basic substances

Bases that are soluble in water are

called as alkalis.

35
 1. Acids and Bases

Examples of bases present in certain substances:

Ammonium Sodium
Sodium hydroxide/
hydroxide/
Ammonium
hydroxide potassium
potassium hydroxide
hydroxide
hydroxide

Sodium bicarbonate Magnesium hydroxide

We cannot taste every substance

to find its nature. Hence, special
type of substances called
indicators are used.

36
 2. Indicators

• The substances used to test whether a

substance is acidic or basic are indicators.
• They change their colours distinctly when
added to a solution containing an acidic or a
basic substance.

Examples of some indicators:

Turmeric Litmus paper

China rose Phenolphthalein

Red cabbage Methyl orange

37
 2. Indicators

2.1 Types of indicators

Natural indicators Synthetic indicators

These are of natural These are prepared

origin. artificially using
chemicals.
Examples:
• Turmeric Examples:
• China rose • Phenolphthalein
• Red cabbage • Methyl orange
• Litmus

38
 2. Indicators

2.1.1 Litmus as an indicator

The most commonly used natural indicator is

litmus. It is extracted from lichens. It has a
mauve (purple) colour in distilled water.
• When added to an acidic solution, it turns
red and when added to a basic solution, it
turns blue.
It is available in the form of a solution, or in the
form of strips of paper, known as litmus paper.
Generally, it is available as red and blue litmus
paper.

Acids Bases

Litmus solution Red Blue

Acids Bases

Remains Turns red to

Red litmus paper unchanged blue
39
 2. Indicators

Acids Bases

Blue litmus paper Remains

Turns blue to
red unchanged

• There is no color change when solid

substances (acidic or basic) are
added directly onto litmus paper.

• Only solutions or pastes of acidic or

basic substances change the
colours of litmus paper.

• The substances whose solutions or

pastes do not change the colour of
both red and blue
litmus are neutral in nature.
These substances are neither
acidic nor basic.

40
 2. Indicators

2.1.2 Turmeric as an indicator

Turmeric is used as a natural indicator.

Generally, it is yellow in colour.
• In basic solutions, it turns into red and in the
presence of acids , the yellow colour remains
unchanged.

Acids

Yellow remains
unchanged

Turmeric

Yellow → Red
Bases

41
 2. Indicators

2.1.3 China rose as an indicator

China rose indicator is reddish coloured.

• It turns dark pink (magenta) in acidic
solutions and green in basic solutions.
It is a natural indicator.

Acids

Red → Dark pink/

Magenta

China rose

Red → Green
Bases

42
 2. Indicators

2.1.4 Phenolphthalein as an indicator

Phenolphthalein is a synthetic indicator. It is

generally colourless in appearance.
• It remains colourless in acidic solutions and
turns pink in basic solutions.

Acids

Remains
colourless

Phenolphthalein

Colourless →
Bases pink

43
 2. Indicators

2.1.5 Methyl orange as an indicator

Methyl orange is a synthetic indicator. It is

generally orange in colour.
• In the presence of acids, it turns red and in
the presence of bases, it turns yellow.

Acids

Orange → Red

Methyl orange

Orange → yellow
Bases

Great care should be taken while

handling laboratory acids and bases
because these are corrosive in nature,
irritating and harmful to the skin.
44
 3. Neutralisation

• The reaction between an acid and a base is

known as neutralisation.
• Salt and water are produced in this process
with the evolution of heat.
• The general equation for such reaction is,
Acid + Base → Salt + Water + Heat

Example:
Hydrochloric Sodium Sodium Water
acid hydroxide chloride
+ → +
(Acid) (Base) (Salt)

3.1 Salts

A salt is a solid substance produced by the

reaction of an acid and a base.

Ammonium chloride salt formation:

Ammonium + Hydrochloric Ammonium + Water

hydroxide acid chloride

(Base) (Acid) (Salt)

45
 3. Neutralisation

3.2 Neutralisation in Everyday Life

Examples of some neutralisation reactions in our

everyday life:

Indigestion treatment Treatment of Ant bite

Treatment of Factory wastes Soil treatment

46
 3. Neutralisation

3.2.1 Indigestion treatment

• Our stomach contains hydrochloric acid. It

helps us to digest food. But too much of acid
in the stomach causes indigestion.
• To relieve indigestion, we can consume
antacids such as milk of magnesia.

Antacids are edible bases

used to neutralise excess
acid in the stomach.

Common antacid:

Magnesium Hydroxide

Magnesium
+ Hydrochloric → Magnesium + Water
hydroxide acid chloride
(Base) (Acid) (Salt)

47
 3. Neutralisation

3.2.2 Treatment of ant bite

• When an ant bites, it

injects formic acid into
the skin.
• The effect of the acid can
be neutralised by rubbing
basic substances like
moist baking soda
(sodium bicarbonate) or
calamine solution (zinc
carbonate).

3.2.3 Treatment of Factory wastes

• The wastes of many

factories contain
acids. When they
enter the water
bodies, the acids
may harm the fishes
and other organisms.
• The factory wastes
are, therefore,
neutralised by
adding basic
substances.
48
 3. Neutralisation

3.2.4 Soil treatment

Plants do not grow well when the soil is either

too acidic or too basic.
• When the soil is too acidic, it is treated with
bases like quick lime (calcium oxide) or
slaked lime (calcium hydroxide).
• If the soil is basic, organic matter (compost)
is added to it. Organic matter releases acids
which neutralise the basic nature of the soil.

Highly acidic soil Highly basic soil

Neutralise Neutralise
with basic with acidic
substances substances

Quicklime Compost
49
Nutrition in Plants

Modes of Nutrition
1.1 Autotrophic
1.2 Heterotrophic

Autotrophic Nutrition
2.1 Photosynthesis
2.2 Requirements
2.3 Equation

Heterotrophic Nutrition
3.1 Parasitic
3.2 Insectivorous
3.3 Saprotrophic

Symbiosis
4.1 Lichen
4.2 Rhizobium and
leguminous plants

50
 1. Modes of Nutrition

• Nutrition is the mode of taking food by an organism

and its utilisation by the body.

• There are two types of Nutrition.

1.1 Autotrophs 1.2 Heterotrophs

• Heterotrophs are
• Autotrophs are organisms that depend
organisms that on other organisms for
synthesise their own food.
food.
• Example: Plants. • Example: Deer.

51
 2. Autotrophic Nutrition

2.1 Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis is the process in which solar energy is
trapped by chlorophyll to convert the carbon dioxide
and water to produce food in the form of glucose.

2.2 Requirements

Water and Minerals: Carbon Dioxide: Taken

Absorbed by the roots from air through the
and transported to the stomata present on
leaves. leaves.

Chlorophyll: The green Sunlight: Solar energy

pigment present in is captured by the
leaves which traps leaves to synthesise
sunlight. food.

2.3 Equation

Sunlight

Chlorophyll Oxygen (O2)

(Pigment
present Stomata
in leaves) Carbon
dioxide
Water (CO2)
(H2O)

Sunlight
CO2 + H2O C6H12O6 + O2 52
Chlorophyll
 3. Heterotrophic Nutrition

• Organisms like fungi and some plants do not have

chlorophyll and hence cannot synthesise their own
food.

• Like animals, they depend on other organisms for their

food.

• They use heterotrophic mode of nutrition.

3.1 Parasitic

• Cuscuta is a plant that does not have chlorophyll.

• It derives its nutrition from the host plant.

• Since it deprives the host of valuable nutrients,

Cuscuta is a parasite.

53
3.2 Insectivorous

• Pitcher-plant is an insectivorous
plant.

• A part of its leaf is modified into a

pitcher-shaped structure, and the
apex forms a lid.

• When an insect lands in the pitcher,

the lid closes, and the trapped insect
gets entangled into the hair.

• The insect is then digested with the

help of the digestive juices secreted
in the pitcher and the plant derives its
nutrients from it.

3.3 Saprotrophic

• The mode of nutrition in which

organisms take in their nutrients
from dead and decaying matter.

• Such organisms are called

saprotrophs.

• Fungi are saprotrophs. Example:

Mushrooms

54
 4. Symbiosis

4.1 Lichens
• Some organisms live together and
share both shelter and nutrients.
This relationship is called
symbiosis.

• In lichens, algae and fungi live

together.

• The fungi provide shelter, water

and minerals to the algae and the
algae prepare and provide food to
the fungi.

4.2 Rhizobium and Leguminous Plants

• Plants cannot utilise atmospheric
nitrogen and require it in soluble
form.

• This nitrogen requirement is

fulfilled by Rhizobium which lives
N2 in the root nodules of gram, peas,
moong, beans and other
N2 N
N2 legumes.

• Rhizobium can convert

atmospheric nitrogen into its
soluble form which plants can
utilise. In turn, these plants
provide food and shelter to the
bacteria. 55
Respiration in
Organisms

Respiration
1.1 Aerobic Respiration
1.2 Anaerobic Respiration

Breathing
2.2 Respiratory Tract
2.3 Inhalation vs Exhalation

Breathing in Other Animals

3.1 Cockroach
3.2 Earthworm
3.3 Fish
3.4 Frog

Respiration in Plants

56
 1. Respiration

• The cells require energy to perform various functions,

and it is provided by the process known as respiration.
• The food we consume has stored energy, which is
released during respiration.
• This process of breakdown of food in the cell with the
release of energy is known as cellular respiration.
Cellular Respiration

Digested
Oxygen
food

Blood Blood

Energy + Water + CO2

1.1 Aerobic Respiration 1.2 Anaerobic Respiration

Anaerobic respiration occurs
in the absence of oxygen.
a) In anaerobes like Yeast,
food is broken down into
In aerobic respiration, food alcohol and carbon
is broken down in the dioxide.
presence of oxygen. Glucose → Energy + Alcohol
+ CO2
Glucose + O2 → Energy +
H2O + CO2 b) In our muscle cells, during
heavy exercise, anaerobic
respiration yields Lactic acid
and energy.
Glucose → Energy + Lactic
Acid 57
 2. Breathing

Breathing involves taking in oxygen-rich

air (inhalation) and giving out carbon dioxide-rich air
(exhalation) with the help of respiratory organs.

2.1 Respiratory Tract

• Path taken by air in the respiratory tract:

Nostrils → Nasal Cavity → Pharynx → Trachea → Lungs

• Lungs are present in the chest cavity, which is

surrounded by ribs. The diaphragm forms the floor of
the cavity.

Nostril Nasal cavity

Pharynx
Trachea

Ribs Lungs

Diaphragm

Fun Fact
• The number of times a person breathes in a minute
is termed as breathing rate.
• It is normally 15-18 times a minute and increases to
25 times during heavy exercise.

58
2.2 Inhalation vs Exhalation

Inhalation Exhalation
The ribs move up and The ribs move down
outwards and inwards

Diaphragm moves down Diaphragm moves up

Space in the chest cavity Space in the chest cavity

increases and air rushes decreases and air is
into the lungs. pushed out of the lungs.

Air Moves in Air Moves out

Ribs move Ribs move

outwards inwards

Diaphragm Diaphragm
moves down moves up

Activity
• When a person breathes
through a straw placed in a
container with freshly
prepared lime water, the
lime water turns milky.
Lime water • The cause of this is the CO2
experiment present in the exhaled air.
59
 3. Breathing in Other Animals

3.1 Cockroach

• Cockroaches have small openings on the sides of

their bodies called spiracles. They also possess a
network of tubes called the trachea.
• Oxygen enters through the spiracles into the tracheal
tubes and diffuses into the body tissues. Similarly,
carbon dioxide from the cells move out through the
spiracles.

Tracheae
Spiracles

3.2 Earthworm

• Earthworms breathe through their moist skin.

• The moist skin of earthworms helps the gases easily
pass through them.

O2 CO2

60
3.3 Fish
• Gills in fish help them to
use oxygen dissolved in
the water. Gills are
projections of the skin.

Gills
• They are supplied with
blood vessels for
exchange of gases.

3.4 Frog

• Frogs have a pair of

lungs like human
beings.

• They can also breathe

Skin
through their moist skin
underwater.

4. Respiration in Plants

CO2 • Plants also take in oxygen

from the air to break down
O2
glucose to CO2 and H2O.
CO2
O2
• In leaves, tiny pores called
stomata allow this
exchange of gases.
Open • In roots, the air is taken up
stomata from air spaces present
between the soil particles. 61
 Heat

1 Heat and Temperature

1.1 Hotness and Coldness
1.2 Temperature
1.3 Heat

2 Thermometer
3.1 Clinical Thermometer
3.2 Laboratory Thermometer
3.3 Precautions

3 Modes of Heat Transfer

3.1 Conduction
- Conductors and Insulators
3.2 Convection
- Land Breeze and Sea Breeze
3.3 Radiation

4 Heat and Fashion

62
 1. Heat and Temperature

1.1 Hotness and Coldness

In our day-to-day life,

some objects feel hot
(e.g. boiling water) while
others feel cold (e.g. ice).
Often while deciding this,
we rely on our sense of
touch which is not a
reliable method.

1.2 Temperature
Temperature is a measure of the degree of hotness or
coldness of a body.

The temperature of a body is generally measured in

degree Celsius (oC) using a device called a
thermometer.

63
 1. Heat and Temperature

1.3 Heat
Heat is a form of energy that flows from a higher
temperature body to a lower temperature body when
they are brought in contact.

Heat flow
1 2 1 2
Hot Cold Hot Cold

Heat flows till both the bodies attain the same temperature.

Difference between Heat and Temperature

Heat Temperature
Heat is a form of energy Temperature is a
that flows when there measure of the degree
is temperature difference of hotness and coldness
between two bodies in of a body.
contact.

Heat can be measured in Temperature can

joule (J) or calorie (cal). be measured in degree
Celsius (oC) or degree
Fahrenheit (oF).

64
 2. Thermometer

A thermometer is an instrument used to measure the

temperature of a body.

2.1 Clinical Thermometer

A clinical thermometer is meant for clinical purposes -

for measuring human body temperature.

Mercury Glass
Kink Scale
Column Tube

Bulb Stem

A clinical thermometer has a kink to prevent the

mercury
. from dropping back to the bulb when the
reading is being taken

The temperature range of a clinical thermometer is

35°C to 42°C as the human body temperature generally
varies in this range. The average normal human body
temperature is 37°C.

65
 2. Thermometer

2.2 Laboratory Thermometer

A laboratory thermometer is used for measuring the

temperature of an object in the laboratory.

Freezing point Boiling point of

of water (0℃) water (100 ℃)

Unlike a clinical thermometer, the laboratory

thermometer doesn’t have a kink as reading is taken
while the thermometer is in contact with the object.

The temperature range of a laboratory thermometer is

-10°C to 110°C.

Did you know?

As mercury is highly toxic and its disposal is a concern

in case the thermometer breaks, these days digital
thermometers which do not use mercury are preferred

66
 2. Thermometer
Following precautions must be taken while using a
thermometer:

2.3 Precautions for Clinical Thermometer

Do not hold it Wash it before

by the bulb. and after use.

Level of mercury should be Initial mercury level

along the line of sight. should be below 35°C.

Handle with care

Additional Precautions for Laboratory Thermometer

It should be upright.

The bulb should not touch

the walls of the container.
67
 3. Modes of Heat Transfer
There are three modes of heat transfer: conduction,
convection, and radiation.

3.1 Conduction

In conduction, the particles of the medium vibrate

about their mean positions during the transfer of
heat. Conduction requires a material medium and
is the prominent mode of heat transfer in solids.

Heat transfer

Heat transfer by conduction is possible between

two objects only when:
• There is direct contact between the two
objects
• There is a temperature difference between the
two objects in contact.
68
 3. Modes of Heat Transfer
Materials are classified as conductors and insulators based on
their ability to conduct heat.

Conductors
Materials that allow heat to pass through them easily
are called conductors of heat.

Steel Iron

Silver Copper

Stainless steel pans are usually

provided with copper base
because copper is a better
conductor of heat than stainless
steel. This ensures faster
cooking.

69
 3. Modes of Heat Transfer

Insulators

Materials which do not allow heat to pass through them

easily are called insulators or poor conductors of heat.

Wool Glass

Plastic Wood

Handles of cooking utensils are

made of plastic or wood as they
are poor conductors of heat and
do not get heated up easily.

70
 3. Modes of Heat Transfer

3.2 Convection

In convection, the transfer of heat takes place by

the actual movement of medium particles. Fluids
(liquids and gases) are predominantly heated by
convection.

The fluid near the heat source gets hot and rises
up. The fluid from the sides comes in to take its
place. This process continues to heat the entire
fluid.

Sea breeze and land breeze are examples of convection

current and happen due to uneven heating of land and
water in coastal areas.

71
 3. Modes of Heat Transfer
Sea Breeze
During the day, the land gets heated faster than the
water. Air above the land gets heated and rises
up. Cooler air from the sea moves towards the land.
Warm air from the land moves towards the sea to
complete the cycle. This breeze from the sea to land
is called sea breeze.

Sea Breeze

During the night, the air above sea gets cooled

slowly. As a result, cool air from the land moves
towards the sea. This is called land breeze.

Land Breeze

72
 3. Modes of Heat Transfer
3.3 Radiation

Radiation is a mode of heat transfer that does not

need a medium. All bodies radiate heat. When this
heat falls on an object:
● some part of the heat is reflected
● some part is absorbed (which increases
temperature of the object)
● some part may be transmitted through the
medium.

Reflected

Surface
Absorbed
Transmitted

73
 6. Heat and Fashion

Light-coloured objects reflect more heat as

compared to dark-coloured ones. Therefore, we
feel more comfortable wearing light-coloured
clothes in summers and dark-coloured clothes in
winters.

In hot climate areas, outer

walls of the houses are painted
with light colours as they absorb
less heat, thereby keeping the
house cool.

74
 6. Heat and Fashion

In winters, woolen
clothes are preferred as
they are poor conductors
of heat. Moreover, air
trapped in between wool
fibres prevents flow of
heat from our body to
the cold surrounding.

In cold weathers, it is better to cover ourselves with

two thin blankets rather than one thick blanket. The
air trapped in between the two blankets ensures
less heat loss from the body to the surrounding.

1st blanket

Trapped air

2nd blanket

One thick blanket Two thin blankets

75
 Light

1 Rectilinear Propagation of Light

2 Reflection of Light
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Laws of Reflection

3 Images
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Real and virtual images

4 Plane Mirror
4.1 Image formation by a plane mirror

76
5 Spherical Mirrors
5.1 Concave mirror
5.2 Convex mirror
5.3 Image formation by a concave mirror
5.4 Image formation by a convex mirror
5.5 Applications of spherical mirrors

6 Lenses
6.1 Convex lens
6.2 Concave lens
6.3 Image formation by a convex lens
6.4 Image formation by a concave lens
6.5 Applications of lenses

7 Dispersion of Light
7.1 Dispersion through a prism
7.2 Newton’s disc

77
 1. Rectilinear Propagation of Light

• Light travels in a straight line in a medium. This is

called rectilinear propagation of light.

• If you look at the flame of a candle with a straight

pipe, you can easily see the candle. However, if you
bend the pipe, you cannot see the candle because
the light coming through cannot bend.

Straight pipe

Bent pipe

78
 2. Reflection of Light

2.1 Introduction

• The phenomenon of bouncing back of light from a

surface is called reflection of light.

Light ray

Surface

• Most of the objects around us do not emit light of their

own. They reflect the light from a source and that’s how
we can see them..
For example, light from the sun gets reflected from
the flower and reaches our eyes. Thus, we see the
flower.

79
 2. Reflection of Light

• The light ray that falls on the reflecting surface is called

incident ray while the light ray that bounces off
the surface is called reflected ray.

• Normal is an imaginary line that is perpendicular to the

reflecting plane at the point of incidence.

2.2 Laws of reflection

• The incident ray, the reflected ray, and the normal at

the point of incidence all lie in the same plane.

• Angle of incidence is equal to angle of reflection

Angle of Normal
Angle of
incidence reflection

i r

P
Point of
incidence
80
 3. Images

3.1 Introduction

Image Object

• Image is the reflection of

an object.

3.2 Real and virtual images

Real image Virtual image

It can be obtained on a It cannot be obtained on a

screen. screen.

It is always inverted. It is always erect.

81
 4. Plane Mirror
4.1 Image formation by a plane mirror

Image formed by a plane mirror is:

• virtual and erect
• of the same size as the object
• at the same distance behind the mirror as the object
is in front of it
• laterally inverted
Object Image
Mirror

Lateral inversion:

Left side of the object

appears as the right side in
the image, and right side of
the object appears as the left
side in the image

82
 5. Spherical Mirrors

• A spherical mirror has a reflecting surface which is a

part of a sphere.
• There are two types of spherical mirrors:
1. Concave mirror
2. Convex mirror

5.1 Concave mirror

• It is a spherical mirror
whose reflecting surface is
curved inwards.

• It is also known as a
converging mirror. A
parallel beam of light
converges at a point after
reflection.

5.2 Convex mirror

• It is a spherical mirror
whose reflecting surface is
curved outwards.

• It is also known as a
diverging mirror. A parallel
beam of light appears to
diverge from a point after
reflection. 83
 5. Spherical Mirrors

5.3 Image formation by a concave mirror

Image properties when object is

very close to the mirror:
• Virtual
• Erect
• Enlarged

Image properties for any other

position of the object:
• Real
• Inverted
• Smaller, larger or same
size as the object

5.4 Image formation by a convex mirror

Image properties (irrespective of

position of the object):
• Virtual
• Erect
• Diminished

84
 5. Spherical Mirrors

5.5 Applications of spherical mirrors

Concave mirrors are used as:

• dentist’s mirror to see teeth and other areas in the
mouth.
• shaving mirrors to see enlarged image of face.
• reflectors in torches, headlights of automobiles,
etc., to obtain a parallel beam of light.

Dentist’s mirror Reflector of torch

Convex mirrors are used as:

• rear-view mirrors of automobiles as they provide a
wide view of the road behind.
• traffic mirror at the blind turns of roads to avoid
accidents.

Rear view mirror Traffic mirror

85
 6. Lenses

A lens is a piece of transparent glass which converges or

diverges light rays passing through it.

6.1 Convex lens

• It is a spherical lens
having its surfaces
curved outwards. It is
thicker in the middle and
thinner at the edges.

• It converges light rays

falling on it and is called
a converging lens.

6.2 Concave lens

• A concave lens is a
spherical lens having its
surfaces curved inwards.
It is thinner in the middle
and thicker at the edges.

• It diverges light rays

falling on it and is called
a diverging lens.
86
 6. Lenses

6.3 Image formation by a convex lens

Image properties when object

is very close to the lens:
• Virtual
• Erect
• Enlarged

Image properties for any other

position of the object:
• Real
• Inverted
• Smaller, larger or same
size as the object

6.4 Image formation by a concave lens

Image properties (irrespective

of position of the object):
• Virtual
• Erect
• Diminished

87
 6. Lenses

6.5 Applications of lenses

Convex lenses are used in:

• cameras as camera lenses to focus light
• microscopes and magnifying glasses to get
enlarged image

Camera Microscope

Concave lenses are used in:

• flashlights to get a beam of light
• peepholes of house doors to see people or
objects present outside

Flashlight Peephole 88
 7. Dispersion of Light

The phenomenon of splitting of white light into its

constituent colours is called dispersion.

7.1 Dispersion through a prism

• When white light

passes through a prism, it is Light
separated into its
constituent colours – violet,
indigo, blue, green, yellow,
Prism
orange, and red (VIBGYOR).

• Rainbow is a natural phenomenon caused due to

dispersion of sunlight by water droplets present in the
atmosphere.

7.2 Newton’s disc

• Newton’s disc is a rotating disc

consisting of 7 segments –
coloured with the constituent
colours of white light,
i.e., VIBGYOR.

• When the disc is rotated fast, all

the colours tend to combine and
the disc appears white.
89
 Physical and Chemical
Changes

1. Physical Change
and Its
Characteristics

2. Chemical Change
and Its
Characterstics

2.1 Chemical change

2.2 Chemical reaction
2.3 Effects involved in
chemical change

3. Rusting and Its

Prevention

3.1 Rusting: A chemical

change
3.2 Prevention of rusting

90
 1. Physical Change and Its
Characteristics

1.1 Physical Change

• A process that alters the physical properties of a

substance
• Does not involve the formation of any new substances

Tearing of paper Melting of ice

1.2 Characteristics of Physical Change

State Change in Size

physical
properties

Colour Shape
91
 2. Chemical Change and Its
Characteristics

2.1 Chemical Change

• Causes a change in the composition of the

substances
• Results in the formation of one or more
new substances
• Is mostly irreversible in nature

Original substance New substance

Flour, sugar, egg, etc. Cake

2.2 Chemical Reaction

• A process that leads to a chemical change by the

transformation of one or more substances into new
substances
• Chemical reaction is represented by a chemical
equation as follows:
Carbon + Oxygen ⟶ Carbon dioxide + Ash

Oxygen Carbon
dioxide

Wood 92
 2. Chemical change and Its
Characteristics

2.3 Effects Involved in

Chemical Change

Change in colour

Baking of cookies Iron nail in copper

sulphate solution

Energy transfer

Burning of crackers: Photosynthesis: Burning of wood:

Release of sound, Absorption of Release of heat
light, and heat light energy and
energy light energy

Change in smell Evolution of gas

Spoilage of Mixing of vinegar with

food baking soda releases
carbon dioxide gas
93
 3. Rusting and Its
Prevention

3.1 Rusting-A Chemical Change

• On exposure to air and moisture, iron objects undergo

a chemical change and develop a reddish-brown
flaky coating.
• This coating is of a new substance, iron oxide,
commonly known as rust.

Rusting

Hydrated iron oxide

Iron + Oxygen
(Reddish-brown flaky
+ Water
layer)

3.2 Prevention of Rusting

Painting Oiling and Galvanisation

greasing

Galvanised iron

▪ A layer of oil or
Applying a
A coating of paint grease applied onto
applied on the protective coating
the metal surface
surface of zinc on the iron
▪ Also acts as a surface
lubricant
94
 Forests: Our Lifeline

1. Forest as a
Natural Habitat

2. Types of Plants in
Forests

3. Layers of Forest

4. Food Chain

5. Importance of
Forests

6. Deforestation:
Causes
and Consequences

7. Conservation of
Forests
95
 1. Forest as a Natural Habitat

• A natural habitat for a large biodiversity

consisting of different animals (fauna), plants
(flora), and other living organisms, stretching
over several kilometres of land

• Consists of land covered with trees and

undergrowth growing without any human
intervention

Not a forest Not a forest Forest

96
 1. Forest as a Natural Habitat

1.1 Flora

Neem Sheesham Bamboo

Babool Teak Seemal

1.2 Fauna

Lion Elephant Boar

Monkey Rhinoceros Bison 97

 2. Types of Plants in Forests

Herbs
• Usually not taller than 3 ft
• Have a thin green stem
• Examples: Tomato, cherry, etc.
Herbs
Shrubs
• Usually 3-20 ft tall
• Have woody and brown stem
• Have more branches than
herbs
• Examples: Lemon, tulsi, rose etc. Shrubs

Trees
• Very tall, greater than 20 ft
• Have thick wooden
trunks covered with bark
• Have wide, large branches
• Examples: Mango, neem,
coconut, etc..

Trees
Climbers &
Creepers
• Slender green plants with leaves
with thin weak stems.
• Take the support of either the
ground (creeper) or some
• external structure to climb
Climbers & (climber)
Creepers • Examples: Grapes, pumpkin, etc.
98
 3. Layers of Forest

Herbs
• Topmost layer formed by very long trees is the
emergent layer

• Layer below the emergent layer formed by

long trees is called as canopy

• Middle layer formed by shrubs and small trees

is the understorey

• The bottom-most layer formed by herbs like

grasses, fungi, etc. is the forest floor

Emergent
Layer

Canopy
Layer

Understorey
Layer

Forest
Floor

99
 3.1 The Crown of a Tree

Crown: Branchy part of a tree above the trunk (stem)

Leaves

Crown

Branches Twig
Trunk

Roots

Trees have crowns of different shapes and sizes.

Spreading Vase Fountain Weeping

Full-Crowned Pyramidal Columnar Layered

100
 4. Food Chain

• A sequence of living organisms in a community in

which one organism consumes another organism
to transfer energy.
• Plants are also referred to as producers because
they produce their own food.
• Animals can not prepare their own food and are
directly or indirectly dependent on plants. So, they
all are referred to as consumers.
• Decomposers are organisms that feed on the
remains of dead and decaying matter and derive
nutrients from them

101
 5. Importance of Forests

5.1 Green Lungs of the

Earth

Forests across the globe host billions of trees that contribute to

huge amount of oxygen in the atmosphere.

Energy Oxygen
(From the sun) (Released into air)

Glucose
(Used by plant)
Carbon dioxide
(Absorbed
from air)

Water
(Absorbed from soil)

Control Floods Control Soil

Erosion 102
 5.2 Products Obtained
From Forests

5.2.1 Plant-based products

Medicinal
Fruits Spices
herbs

Timber Flowers Gum

5.2.3 Animal-based products

Honey Bee Wax

103
 6. Deforestation: Causes
and Consequences

• Deforestation is the removal of trees and loss

of forest cover due to many reasons.

• Wood is used for many things like for making

furniture, for construction of houses, as a fuel,
in the manufacturing of paper etc. Increase
in demand for all these things lead to an
increase in the demand of wood, thus
leading to deforestation.

• Construction of roads, buildings and

industries demand clearing of forests.

• Forest fire is any uncontrolled burning of

plants in a forest that destroys the plants and
leads to forest cover.

Construction of
Increasing
roads and Forest fires
demand of wood
buildings

104
 7. Conservation of Forests

• Reforestation: Replanting trees over areas,

where trees have been damaged or
destroyed

• Afforestation: Planting trees on barren land

without forest cover to create a forest

• Controlling forest fires: Control forest fires by

regular monitoring & controlling movement of
people

• Sustainable forest management: Use forest

products judiciously, maintain biodiversity,
productivity, and vitality of forests

Controlling forest
Afforestation Reforestation
fires:

105
 Wastewater Story

1. Wastewater and
Its Sources

2. Sewer and
Sewerage

3. Composition of
Sewage
3.1 Impurities Present
in Sewage
3.2 Water Borne Diseases
4. Wastewater
Management
4.1 Wastewater
treatment plant

4.2 Alternative
Arrangements for
Sewage Disposal

4.3 Water Conservation

and Better House
Keeping Practices 106
 1. Wastewater and Its Sources

1.1 Wastewater

Wastewater
Used and dirty water that is:
• Rich in foam
• Mixed with oil or other
substances
• Black-brown or dark grey in
colour

1.2 Sources of Wastewater

Houses Industries Hospitals

Agricultural Surface
Offices
run-off run-off 107
 2. Sewer and Sewerage

Sewage:

• The wastewater released

from homes, offices,
industries, hospitals and
other sources, such as
surface run-off, is
collectively called sewage.

Sewer and Sewerage

• Sewer is a network of big and small pipes that form
the sewerage.
• A sewerage functions as a transport system by
carrying sewage from the point of production to the
point of disposal.
• A manhole is a small covered opening in the
sewerage system, located every 50 m to 60 m, at the
junction of two or more sewers and at points where
the sewerage system is changing directions.

Manhole
Sewer

108
 3. Composition of Sewage

Suspended impurities
• Impurities that do not dissolve in water and remain
visible or suspended in sewage
• Examples: Wood, plastic, rubber, soil or gravel
particles

Dissolved impurities
• Impurities that dissolve in water and are not visible
in the water
• Examples: Chemicals, dyes, metallic salts, organic
and inorganic compounds

Suspended impurities Dissolved impurities

109
 3. Composition of Sewage

3.1 Impurities Present in Sewage

Organic Inorganic
impurities impurities

• Human faeces • Nitrates

• Animal waste • Phosphates
• Fruits and • Metals
vegetable waste
• Oil
• Pesticides
• Herbicides

Nutrients Biological
impurities

• Phosphorous • Bacteria such as

• Nitrogen Vibrio cholerae
and Salmonella
paratyphi
• Protozoa
• Viruses

110
 3. Composition of Sewage

3.2 Water Borne Diseases

Typhoid Dysentery

Polio
Cholera

Meningitis Hepatitis

Waterborne diseases are diseases caused by

the consumption or usage of contaminated
water.

111
 4. Wastewater Management

4.1 Wastewater treatment plant

Processes involved in wastewater treatment plant:

Stage I
1. Screening (Removal of rags, sticks, cans, plastic packets, etc.)
2. Grit removal (Removal of sand, grit, and pebbles)
Stage II
1. Primary treatment (Impurities like oil, grease, and solid
organic waste such as faeces are removed )
Stage III
1. Aeration (Support the growth of aerobic bacteria for carrying
out waste decomposition.)
2. Secondary treatment (Facilitates settling of suspended
microbes as ‘activated sludge’)
Stage IV
1. Disinfection (Chemicals such as chlorine and ozone are
added)

Screening and grit Primary

removal sedimentation

STAGE II Aeration and

STAGE I
secondary
STAGE III sedimentation

STAGE IV
Disinfection
112
 4. Wastewater Management

4.2 Alternative Arrangements for

Sewage Disposal

Vermi-processing Bio-digester
Septic tank
toilet toilet

Vermi-processing toilet
• Human excreta is completely converted into vermi cakes by
earthworms.

Septic tank
• Human excreta settles at the bottom through sedimentation,
while the remaining liquid is either allowed to diffuse
underground or sent for additional treatment.

Bio-digester toilet
• Human excreta is decomposed by sheets of bacteria that
produce methane gas from these organic wastes.
113
 4. Wastewater Management

4.3 Water Conservation and

Better House Keeping Practices

Use water efficient Find and Use bucket instead

flush toilet repair leaks of shower for bathing

Water plants during Turn off the

Organise awareness
the coolest part of running tap when
camps to save water
the day not in use

Stop throwing solid Stop throwing cooking oil and fats, chemicals,
wastes into drains. and used solid items into drains.

Follow proper
Stop littering. Segregate wastes into
sanitation rules for
separate categories.114
defecation.
 Nutrition in
Animals

Nutrition in Humans

1.1 Parts of the Digestive Tract

1.1.1 Buccal Cavity
1.1.2 Oesophagus
1.1.3 Stomach
1.1.4 Small Intestine
1.1.5 Large Intestine

Digestion in Ruminants

2.1 Process of Rumination

Digestion in Amoeba

3.1 Process of Feeding and Digestion

115
 Nutrition
1
in Humans

• The breakdown of complex components of food

into simpler substances is called digestion.
• The digestive tract and the associated glands
together constitute the digestive system.

1.1 Parts of the Digestive Tract

Buccal Cavity

Oesophagus

Stomach

Small Intestine

Large Intestine

116
 1.1.1
Buccal
Cavity

• Buccal cavity comprises of the teeth, salivary

glands and a muscular tongue.
• It is also known as the mouth.

Parts of the Buccal Cavity

Teeth

Salivary Glands

Tongue

A. Types of Teeth

Permanent
Milk Teeth
Teeth
117
 Types of Permanent Teeth

Incisors (8) – Cutting and

Biting

Canines (4) – Piercing and

Tearing

Premolar (8) – Chewing and

Grinding

Molar (12) – Chewing and

Grinding

The dental formula for the adult human being

is 2123/2123

Fun Fact
Tooth decay occurs when bacteria produce
acid by acting on leftover food in teeth

Tooth Decay Cavity

118
 B. Salivary Gland

• Produces saliva while chewing.

• Saliva has salivary amylase, which is a digestive
enzyme that converts starch into simple sugars

Iodine Test:
Aim: To determine action of saliva on food.
Procedure: Iodine solution is added to test
tube A (containing boiled rice) and test
tube B (containing chewed rice)
A B Observations: A. Boiled rice contains starch
and shows blue-black color on addition of
iodine.
B. Chewed rice contains no starch (as it is
broken down by salivary amylase) and
hence no change in color is seen.

C. Tongue

Function:
• Helps in tasting and
swallowing food
• Mixes food with saliva
• Helps in talking
• Has taste buds that detect
different tastes of food.

119
 1.1.2 Oesophagus

• Oesophagus transports
the food from the
mouth to the stomach..
• Movement of food in
the oesophagus is
facilitated by wave-like
muscular contractions

Function of Epiglottis

Epiglottis –
Covers the
opening of the
windpipe and
prevents the entry
of food into it.

Windpipe leads to
lungs

120
 1.1.3 Stomach

• Flattened J shaped bag with thick walls

• Widest part of the alimentary canal.

Secretions of the
Stomach

• Hydrochloric acid: Kills

bacteria and maintains the
acidic medium of the
stomach.

• Digestive juices –
Facilitates the breakdown
of protein into simpler
substances.

• Mucous – Protects the

lining of the stomach from
the acid.
Mucous

121
 1.1.4
Small
Intestine

• About 7.5m long,

coiled, tube-like
structure.
• Ensures breakdown of
carbohydrates to
glucose, fats into fatty
acids and glycerol,
proteins into amino
acids.
• Receives secretion
from the liver and
pancreas.

Absorption in the Small Intestine

• Absorption is
facilitated by finger-
like projections called
Villi.
• Villi increase the
surface area for
absorption.
• Assimilation involves
the transport of
absorbed substances
to different parts of the
body for utilisation.

122
Liver and Pancreas

Liver :
• Largest gland in the body.
• Secretes bile juice, which is
stored in the gall bladder.
• Helps in digestion of fats.

Pancreas :
• Secretes pancreatic juice.
• Facilitates the breakdown
of carbohydrates, proteins
and fats into simpler forms.

123
 1.1.5
Large
Intestine

• Terminal part of the

human digestive
system.
• Absorbs water and
some salts from the
undigested food
material.
• Remaining waste
passes into the
rectum.
• This is then removed
from the body through
the anus by the
process of egestion.

Fun Fact

The large intestine is wider

and shorter than small
intestine. It is about 1.5
meter in length.
Large
Intestine

124
 Digestion in
2 Ruminants

• Ruminants are animals that consume grass.

• Grass contains cellulose, and these animals have the
ability to digest cellulose due to the bacteria present
in their rumen.

2.1 Process of Rumination

1. Animal quickly swallows the food and stores

it in a part of the stomach called the rumen.

2. Swallowed food is partially digested in the

rumen and is called the cud.

3. This digestion is brought about by the

bacteria present in the rumen.

4. Cud later returns to the mouth in small

amounts and the animal chews it.

125
 Digestion in
3 Amoeba

• Amoeba is a microscopic single-celled organism.

• It has a cell membrane, a rounded dense nucleus
and many small bubble-like vacuoles in its
cytoplasm.

3.1 Process of Feeding and

Digestion

1. When Amoeba senses food, it pushes out

finger-like projections called pseudopodia
(false feet) to capture it.

2. The food becomes trapped in a food vacuole

where digestive juices are secreted.

3. These juices act on the food and break it

down into simpler substances which are
gradually absorbed.

4. The undigested residue of the food is

expelled outside by the vacuole.

126
 Transportation in
Animals and Plants

Transportation in Organisms

Circulatory System
2.1 Components of circulatory
system
2.1.1 Blood
2.1.2 Blood vessels
2.1.3 Heart
2.2 Double circulation in humans

Excretory System
3.1 Excretion in humans
3.1.1 Components of excretory
system
3.1.2 Formation and
composition of urine
3.1.3 Kidney malfunction
and Dialysis
3.2 Excretion in other organisms

Transportation in Plants
4.1 Vascular bundles
4.2 Transpiration

127
 1. Transportation in Organisms

Definition

Transportation is the movement of things from

one place to another. Transportation occurs in
our body too.

Transportation in Body

Destination
Destination

Blood Blood

Source

• Food, water and nutrients are transported

through a special system to different parts of the
body.
• The food enters our digestive system where it is
further processed.
• The nutrients are now readily available for the
cells to utilise.
• The nutrients then reach the various body parts
through blood. 128
 2. Circulatory System

2.1 Components of Circulatory System

Blood, blood vessels and heart constitute the

circulatory system.

Blood Blood Vessels Heart

2.1.1 Blood

• Red coloured fluid that connects different parts of

the body

Plasma
Fluid component
(55%)

RBCs WBCs
Platelets

Cellular components (45%) 129

 2. Circulatory System

• Contains a red pigment called

haemoglobin that is responsible for
red colour of the blood
• Haemoglobin helps RBCs to transport
Red Blood Cell oxygen.

• Responsible for blood clotting

• Helps to seal the wound
• Prevent blood flow through wounds
after injury
Platelet

• Help to fight germs that enter our

body
• Found along with RBCs
• Relatively less in number as
White Blood Cell compared to RBCs

130
 2. Circulatory System

2.1.2 Blood Vessels

Blood vessels are tube-like structures which carry

blood within it.

• Carry oxygenated blood away

from the heart.
• Have thick walls due to high
internal pressure.
Arteries

• Carry deoxygenated blood

towards the heart.
• Have thin walls with valves to
prevent backflow of blood

Veins flowing at low pressure.

• A network of thin tubes that

emerge from arteries and reunite
in the veins.
• Supply nutrients and collect waste

Capillaries
and CO2 from body parts.
131
 2. Circulatory System

Fun Facts
Arteries
• Pulmonary artery is the only artery that carries
deoxygenated blood from the heart to the
lungs.
• Aorta is the largest artery in our body.

Veins

• Pulmonary vein is the only vein that carries

oxygenated blood from lungs to the heart.
• Vena cavae are the largest veins.

2.1.3 Heart

• Heart is a hollow muscular organ, and the size of

the heart is about the size of a closed human fist.

• It is located in the chest between the lungs with

the tip of the heart slightly inclined towards the
left. And it is protected by the rib cage.

• It has four chambers; the upper chambers are

called atria and lower chambers are called
ventricles.
132
 2. Circulatory System

Structure of the Heart

Right Left
atrium atrium

Left
ventricle

Right
ventricle Septum

• The heart is divided into two portions: the right side

and the left side.

• The atrium and ventricles on the right side of the

heart are called right atrium and right ventricles
respectively.

• Similarly, the atrium and ventricles on the left side

of the heart are called left atrium and left
ventricles.

• Septum separates the right chambers of the

heart from the left chambers.

• Heart is made of special involuntary muscles

called cardiac muscles.
133
 2. Circulatory System

• Heartbeat is the rhythmic contraction and

relaxation of heart muscles.

• Pulse is the rhythmic throbbing that is felt

due to the alternating contraction and
relaxation of the arteries.

Oxygenated and
Deoxygenated Blood
O2 CO2

Lungs

CO2
O2 rich
rich
blood
blood
Heart

Different
body parts

• Blood that is rich in oxygen is called

oxygenated blood while the blood rich in
carbon dioxide is called deoxygenated blood.

• The oxygenated blood from the lungs is sent to

the heart, which pumps it to various body
parts.

• The deoxygenated blood from various body

parts is pushed to the heart, which sends it to
134
the lungs for oxygenation.
 2. Circulatory System

2.2 Double circulation in humans

Pulmonary Pulmonary
artery Lungs vein

Vein Artery
Heart

Different body
parts

The path of blood flow in our body is ‘Lungs → Left

atrium → Left ventricle → Body → Right atrium →
Right ventricle → Lungs’

Oxygenated Blood Deoxygenated Blood

Lungs Different body parts

Pulmonary vein Veins

Heart Heart

Arteries Pulmonary artery

Different body parts Lungs

135
 3. Excretory System

3.1 Excretion in humans

Removal of waste materials that are generated in the

cells after different cellular activities is known as
excretion.

Salts

Urea

Water

Carbon
dioxide

• Salts, urea and water are excreted by

excretory system.
• Carbon dioxide is removed by the
lungs.
136
 3. Excretory System

3.1.1 Components of excretory system

Kidney

Ureter

Urinary bladder
Urethra

• Bean shaped structures are called

kidneys.
• Tube-like structures that come out from
each kidney are called ureters.
• Ureter leads to pouch-like structure
called urinary bladder.
• Urethra is a small tube-like structure
derived from the bladder. 137
 3. Excretory System

3.1.2 Formation and composition of

urine
Blood, blood vessels and heart constitute the
circulatory system.

Blood with
waste

Blood without
waste

Urine

• Blood contains both useful and harmful

substances.
• Kidneys filter the blood by absorbing useful
substances and removing harmful
substances.
138
 3. Excretory System

Composition of Urine

2.5 % Other
2.5 % Urea waste
products

95 %
Water

• An adult human being normally passes about

1-1.8 L of urine in 24 hours.
• The urine consists of 95% water, 2.5% urea and
2.5% other waste products.

139
 3. Excretory System

3.1.3 Kidney Malfunction and Dialysis

When one or both kidneys fail to remove the wastes

from the blood, the condition is called kidney failure.

Kidney Malfunction

Improper filtration

Toxic blood

Kidney failure

• It can be due to infection or injury.

• Accumulated wastes become toxic and
affect different parts of our body.

140
 3. Excretory System

Dialysis

Dialyser:
Artificial Kidney

• The periodic filtration of blood through an

artificial kidney is called dialysis. Dialysis is not a
permanent solution to kidney failure.
• When the kidney does not work properly, the
concentration of toxic harmful components
increases in the blood, the blood is then purified
temporarily using an artificial kidney.
• When the harmful substances again increase in
the blood, the patient needs to go through
dialysis again. 141
 3. Excretory System

3.2 Excretion in other organisms

Different animals have different types of excretory

wastes.

• Excretory waste: Ammonia

(dissolves in water)
• Also found in other aquatic
animals
Fish

• Excretory waste: Uric acid (semi-

solid, white coloured
compound)
• Also found in animals like lizards

Birds and snakes

• Humans excrete in the form of sweat

as well.
• Sweating helps the body to stay cool.
142
 4. Transportation in Plants

Transportation in Plants

Plants have two transport systems.

• Transport water and

minerals absorbed
from the soil.

Unidirectional

• Transport food
prepared in the
leaves by
photosynthesis

Bidirectional 143
 4. Transportation in Plants

4.1 Vascular Bundles

They are a part of the transport system in vascular
plants and is composed of xylem, and phloem.

Types of Vascular Bundles

Xylem Phloem

Xylem Phloem

• Transports water • Transports food

and minerals
• Bidirectional
• Unidirectional transportation
transportation occurs
occurs

144
 4. Transportation in Plants

4.2 Transpiration
Loss of excess water in the form of water vapours
through the stomata

Stomata

• Importance of transpiration:
• Generates a suction pull that helps in the
transportation of water
• Provides cooling effect to plants
• Factors Affecting Transpiration:
• Sunlight: Faster transpiration in bright sunlight
• Surface area of Leaf: More transpiration in broader
leaves
• Wind speed: Faster transpiration with higher wind
speed
• Availability of water: More transpiration in areas with
higher water availability
145
 Reproduction in Plants

1 Reproduction
1.1 Sexual reproduction
1.2 Asexual reproduction

2 Parts of Plant
2.1 Function of Different Parts of Plant

3 Flower
3.1 Reproductive Whorls of a Flower
3.2 Types of Flower

4 Sexual Reproduction in Flowers

4.1 Pollination
4.2 Fertilisation
4.3 Fruit Formation
4.4 Seed Dispersal
4.4.1 Agents of Seed Dispersal
4.5 Germination

146
 Topics to be Covered

5 Asexual Reproduction
5.1 Vegetative Propagation
5.2 Types of Vegetative Propagation
5.3 Advantages of Vegetative Propagation

6 Asexual Reproduction in Other Organisms

6.1 Reproduction through Spores
6.2 Reproduction through budding
6.3 Reproduction through fragmentation

147
1. Reproduction

• The process in which organisms produce young

ones of their own kind is known as reproduction.
• Reproduction ensures continuation of species.

Asexual Reproduction Sexual Reproduction

Father Mother

Yeast Offspring

1.1 Asexual Reproduction 1.2 Sexual Reproduction

• Involves only one • Involves both the

parent. parents.
• Gametes are not • Gametes are
formed. formed.
• Fertilisation doesn’t • Fertilisation occurs.
occur.

148
 2. Parts of Plant

A typical plant consists of roots, stem, leaves,

flowers and fruits.

leaf fruit

stem

flower
root

2.1. Functions of Different Parts of Plant

Root: Absorbs water and minerals from the soil.

Stem: Transports water and nutrients.
Leaf: Prepares food for the plant.
Fruits: Protects the seed and helps in seed dispersal.
Flowers: Reproductive part of the plant.
149
3. Flower

Petals

Stamen Pistil

Sepals

3.1 Reproductive Whorls of a Flower

Stigma
...... Anther

Filament Style
Pollen
grain Ovary
Ovule

Stamen Pistil

Stamen

• A stamen consists of two parts: the anther and the filament.

• Anther consists of pollen sacs that contain pollen grains.

Pistil
• A pistil consists of three basic parts: a stigma, a cylindrical
stalk known as the style, and a swollen ovary.
• Ovary contains ovule and the female gamete is formed inside
150
the ovule.
3.2 Types of Flowers

Flowers can be classified into two types:

• Bisexual flowers
• Unisexual flowers

Bisexual Flower

Stigma Flowers that consists

Anther
Filament of both stamen and
Style
pistil are known as
Ovary
Ovules bisexual flowers.

China Rose

Unisexual Flower

Flowers that consists

Male flower
of either stamen or
pistil are known as
unisexual flowers.
Female flower

Maize Plant
151
4. Sexual Reproduction in Flowers

4.1. Pollination

Self Pollination Cross Pollination

4.2. Fertilisation

The process of fusion of

male and female gamete
is known as fertilisation.

The pollen lands on the stigma and it starts to form a pollen

tube. This tube goes down the style and reaches the ovary.
Once the tip of the pollen tube ruptures in the ovule, two
male gametes are discharged. The male gamete fuses with
the egg to form a zygote. Another male gamete fuses with
the polar nuclei and forms endosperm. 152
4.3. Fruit Formation

Ovary Fruit

Seed
Ovule

After fertilisation, the Based on the fruit wall

ovule is converted into fruits can be fleshy or
seed and ovary into fruit. hard fruit.

4.4. Seed Dispersal

Water Wind Animals

4.5. Germination

Seed germination is the process of growth and

development of the seed that is planted in the soil. 153
5. Asexual Reproduction

5.1. Vegetative Propagation

Vegetative propagation is the

leaf
mode of asexual
reproduction in which new
stem plants grow from the
vegetative parts of the plant.
root

5.2. Types of Vegetative Propagation

Vegetative propagation occurs through leaves, stem

and roots of the plant.

Through Roots & Leaves

Through Root Through Leaves

New plant

Sweet potato Bryophyllum 154

Through Stem

• Place a portion of stem

with nodes in moist soil.
• Stem eventually grows
into a new plant.
Node • New plant is identical to
the parent plant.
Rose plant

5.3. Advantages of Vegetative Propagation

Flowers faster than Plants with identical

normal plants. qualities.

Disease resistant Production of

plants. seedless fruits.
155
6. Asexual Reproduction in other
Organisms
6.1. Reproduction through Spores

Spore formation in fern Spore formation in moss

• Spores are asexual reproductive bodies that can

withstand unfavourable conditions such as high
temperature and low humidity.
• Under favourable conditions, a spore germinates and
develops into a new individual.

Spore formation in bread • Cottony structure called

Rhizopus grows on bread
when it is kept in moist
conditions.
• It has a blob like structure
called sporangia, which
contains spores. 156
6.2. Reproduction through Budding

Parent Cell

Detachment of Outgrowth
buds initiation

Formation of
chain Formation
of bud

6.3. Reproduction through Fragmentation

Parent Spirogyra Breaks up in small New individuals are

pieces formed
157