H6-1

H6. Hall Effect

I. OBJECTIVE OF THE EXPERIMENT
We shall observe the Hall Effect, and measure the Hall constant of a few semi-conductors and metals
II BASES THORIQUES
When a current density j I S goes through a sample (metal or semiconductor) that is immersed in
a magnetic B field, perpendicular to the sample (Fig. 1), A Hall voltage

VH jx Bz b is generated

and can be measured along the sides of the sample. VH RH j x Bzb where R H is a proportionality
constant. This phenomenon is called the Hall Effect and R H is the Hall constant.

z
y

x
b

VH
Fig. 1

Electric conductor with cross-section S a b in a magnetic field B .

The kinetic phenomena that occur in a sample due to the simultaneous effect of an electric field E and
a magnetic field B are called galvanomagnetic. The Hall Effect is one of the best known
galvanomagnetic phenomena.
Ohms law. The vector equation of motion for a particle of charge q and mass m in a solid,
undergoing an external force

Fe and a friction f kv , is given by:

d
m
v Fe v
dt

(1)

The friction force describes the braking of the particle due to its interactions (collisions) with the ions of
the crystal lattice and with the other charge carriers. Here, we suppose that if the external forces go
back to zero, the state returns to its equilibrium position exponentially with a relaxation time .

H6-2

dv
1
dt
v

v voet

(2)

If the external forces remain constant, the system goes to a stationary state, i.e. dv d t 0 .
Supposing that the external force is due to a homogeneous electric field E , the new stationary
velocity, or drift velocity vd of the charge carrier becomes:

0 qE

vd

vd

q
E E
m

(3)

The algebraic quantity = q/m represents the speed per unit electric field, and is defined as the
mobility of the charge carriers. For a solid containing N charge carriers per unit volume, under the
action of an electric field E and a permanent regime, then the charge carriers move with an average
drift velocity in the same direction as the electric field. In this case, a constant electric current appears,
given by:

j qNv d
where

qN

q2 N
E qNE E
m

(4)

is the electric conductivity. The equation j E is known as Ohms law.

Current density j in the presence of an electromagnetic field. Assume a random E and

B Bzez along the Oz axis. By defining the cyclotron frequency (q m)Bz and the electric
conductivity qN defined for B = 0, show that in a stationary regime, the average drift velocity of
the particle is given by:

vd

q
q Bz
E
(v e )
m
m d z
j qNvd on the x, y and z axes yields

and that the projection of the current density

jx

Ex E y

2 2

jy

(5)

Ey Ex

2 2

jz Ez

(6)

In the presence of a magnetic field, the current density j is generally not parallel to the electric field

E . However for metals, even under a large magnetic field B, the corresponding anisotropy is very
small, in such a way that j E , i.e. Ohms law remains valid. The consequences of anisotropy are
mostly relevant in semiconductors, and depend on the geometry of the system.
Hall Effect. Equation (6) shows that under a magnetic field B Bzez , the charge carriers are
deflected towards the sides of the sample. On the other side, a lack of charges carriers creates an
effective charge of opposite side. This charge separation continues until the voltage generated this
way, called Hall Voltage, counters the opposes the magnetic force. At the equilibrium state, there is no
longer a drift velocity along the Oy axis. Therefore. the Hall field EH is defined by the condition jy =0
and the equations in (6) allow us to find the Hall relation:

1
j
EH E y x
j B RH j x Bz
qN x z

(7)

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RH

or

1
qN

(8)

R H is therefore an experimental measure of the algebraic quantity describing the mobile charge
carrier density in a conductor, and the sign of the carrier. Also, if is known, than a measure of R H
can be used to determine the mobility RH , as long as there is only one type of carrier.
Different types of charge carriers. In semiconductors, the electric conductivity is often the result of
two charge carriers of charges q1 and q2, of density N1 and N2, respectively. The total conductivity
and the current can thus be written:

1 2 q1N11 q2 N2 2
jt j1 j2 q1N1v1 q2 N2v2

(9)
(10)

At room temperature, the relaxation time is on the order 10-14-10-15 s, so the term is of order
10-3 and the second order terms ( )2 are negligible. Show that equation (6) can in this case be
written as:

jx Ex ( 11 2 2 )Bz Ey

(11)

jy Ey (11 2 2 )Bz Ex
and that the Hall condition jy =0 implies

Ey

Ex ;

j x 1 2 Ex Ex

avec

( 11 2 2 )Bz ,

2 2 q1N11 q2 N2 2
RH 1 1
2
1 2 2
q1 N11 q2 N2 2
2

thus

(12)

Example: two different charge carriers; electrons and holes with

RH N p 2p Ne 2e

qN p p Ne e

2
(13)

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The following table lists a few numerical values of the Hall coefficient R H of a few metals and
semiconductors:

RH

Material
Ag
Au
Bi
Cu
Fe
Zn
Si (doped with As)
typically

[10-10 m3/C]
-0.85
-0.72
-5400.0
-0.540
+0.228
+0.33
At room temperature
6107 6104 (*)

Number of charge carriers

[1029m-3]
0.75
0.87
1.2 10-4
1.1
0.06
1.9
10-8 10-5

Atomic density [1029m3]

0.59
0.48
0.28
0.85
0.84
0.64
0.50

In metals, the sign of R H indicates whether the electric current is due to the motion of electrons ( R H
< 0), or holes ( R H > 0). Holes are apparent positive charges, and could only be explained using wave
mechanics. (*)In semiconductors, the value and sign of R H is strongly dependent on the dopant
density ("impurities"), R H can even be zero if

Np 2p Ne2e .

III EXPERIMENTAL SETUP

Electromagnet power supply:
The work station is equipped with an electromagnet and a power supply according to the diagram in
Fig. 2. The magnetic field B in the gap of the electromagnet can be measured using a teslameter for
calibration
Ferromagnetism (reminder). When a current I goes through a coil of length L, with N turns, a
homogenous magnetic field appears in the coil of magnitude H = (N.I)/L corresponding to the B-field
B= H. If we put an iron core in the coil, the magnetic B-field increases greatly. An additional
magnetic field H' is added to the H field, due to the magnetization of iron.
Magnetic induction is thus given by B = (H+H'). If we suppose a proportionality relation between H
and H', we can rewrite B = (H+H) = (1+)H = H = B with =(1+) where is the relative
magnetic permeability of the given material, and the magnetic susceptibility of the material.
Ferromagnetic materials have a very high value for (up to 104) but the H' field is no longer
proportional to H. For large values of H, H' reaches an upper limit (saturation). On the other hand, is
the magnitude of the H field is reduced to zero, there is a remaining field H'0 (remnant). It is therefore
necessary to apply an H field of opposite direction (coercive field) to get rid of the remnant field
(hysteresis phenomenon).
Hall voltage measurement
The Hall voltage VH EH b ( b = width of the sample) should be measured using a counter-voltage
method. However, for simplicity, we will use a microvoltmeter of very high resistance, that leads to
very satisfying results (extra error generated is less than 0.1%). The diagram in figure 3 shows the
setup of the used appliances.

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Sample

Coil
10 A source

IB

Fig. 2

Experimental setup

a)

A I >

voltmeter

sample

VHall

V Hall
1

Fig. 3

b)

V
I

<

Diagram of the electric setup: a) semiconductor sample,

b) metal sample

Fig. 4 : Experimental setup

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IV SUGGESTED EXPERIMENTS
Calibration of the B-field.
Adjust the width of the gap of the electromagnet, while keeping in mind the width of the sample
holders. Using a Hall probe (teslameter) measure B=f(IB) for values of 0 IB 6 A. Talk about
the effects of saturation and remnant field (hysteresis). Deduce the useful range of B.
Using the Teslameter. The teslameter is in a black box next to the setup. It must be zeroed before
use. To do so, the probe should be isolated from any external magnetic field. To achieve this, place
the tip of the probe in the metal cylinder. Then, set the button to Zero, and hold the button Hold Reset
until the display shows 0. Then, put the button back on to Measure. While measuring a field, make
sure the field is orthogonal to the probe. Please use the teslameter with caution. Its a fragile
measuring device.
Semiconductors.
For these measures, we will use strongly doped InP samples. The samples are prepared as
thin layers (1-2 microns) and have a Hall cross, ideal for these types of measures (Fig. 3b). The
symmetric configuration of the sample allows us to make 4 different measurements of VH , for a fixed
field B+, by a simple cyclic permutation of the contacts 1234. If we invert the B field (to get B-), we can
take 4 more measurements. An image of the setup is shown in figure 4

1)

Measure the Hall voltage of Si doped InP (n-type). Setup the experiment like in fig. 3a, for
instance with I going from 1 to 3 and the Hall voltage from 2 to 4 (I13V24 configuration), and set
the current to 1mA.
a) For B=0, measure the offset voltages Vij for the 4 possible configurations..
b) Apply a field B0 and measure VH for the 8 possible configurations. Calculate R H as well
as the carrier density N of the dominating charge carrier.
c) For a given configuration, measure the Hall voltage VH as a function of B+.
d) Invert the field repeat the measurements of V as a function of B-.
H

Plot VH versus de B and determine R H .

Discuss the results.
2)

Measure the Hall voltage of Be doped InP (p-type). Repeat the same steps as in 1 a) and b).

Metals.
3)

Bismuth sample (thickness 3mm). Setup the experiment like in fig. 3b. Turn off the magnetic
field, and adjust the 10 potentiometer to get rid of the residual electric field.
a) Set the current flowing through the sample to 3 A and do the 4 measurements corresponding
to VH corresponding to the different directions of I and B, and talk about the results.
b) For a fixed configuration (e.g. I+ B+) measure V a function of B, and plot the results.
Determine R H and N.

Bibliography: Cours d'lectricit et Magntisme.