MIDTERM CE2231 Hydraulics Module

UNIT 5: HYDROSTATIC FORCE ON SUBMERGED CURVED AREAS
Recall the last topic we discussed. Between the two methods discussed, which method
was easier for you? Why?
Unit 5 is about a general solution that may be applied even to plane areas.
Comprehension Assignment
Chapter 3: Fluid Statics (pp. 36-41)
Nakayama, Yasuki. (2018). Introduction to Fluid Mechanics (2nd Edition). Elsevier.
Chapter 3: Hydrostatic Force on Surfaces

Giles, Ranald V., Jack B. Evett, and Cheng Liu. 2014. Schaum's Outline of Fluid
Mechanics and Hydraulics. 4th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill Education.
Another important area of interest is determining the hydrostatic force on acting on

curved surfaces. One approach is by integration but there is an easier solution that
involves resolving 𝑭 into its component forces.
Consider the curved surface AB shown in figure (a) below. We would like to replace the
pressure distribution with a resultant force that passes through the center of pressure.
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If we take the sum of forces for the free body shown in figure (b), we can define the
components of the hydrostatic force 𝑭.
The horizontal component 𝑭𝑯 . The total hydrostatic force on any surface is equal to
the hydrostatic force on the vertical projection of that surface. This may be done by
using either the panel equations or by the pressure prism concept. The same goes
for the location of its CP.
The vertical component 𝑭𝑽 = (𝐹 + 𝑊). The total hydrostatic force on any surface is
equal to the weight of either real or imaginary liquid above it. The term “real” refers
to when there is actual water on the curve and “imaginary” if the water is under the
curve. The action of water under the curve is called buoyant force.
Here, 𝑊 is the weight of the fluid directly acting on the curved surface and 𝐹 is the
additional weight. Since both 𝑊and 𝐹 are weights, they are assumed to be acting
on the centroid of the water prisms they generate.
The line of action for 𝐹 may be found by summing the moments about any
convenient axis.
The resultant hydrostatic force is computed by 𝑭 = 𝑭𝑯 𝟐 + 𝑭𝑽 𝟐 and its direction by

𝑭𝑽
θ = tan relative to the horizontal.
𝑭𝑯
There are three (3) possible cases for curved areas depending on where the water is
situated.
CASE 1. Water on top of the curve

The horizontal component is computed based on the vertical projection of the curve
that is assumed to be a plane area submerged vertically into the water. For the vertical
component, it is equal to the total weight of the (pressure prism of) water directly acting
on the curved surface. This implies “real” weight so it is directed downward and
assumed to be acting at the centroid of the prism. Note that the projection of the prism
is until the water surface.
CASE 2. Water under the curve
The horizontal component is computed in the same manner as case 1. Here, there is
actually no water acting on the curved surface, hence, “imaginary”. The method of
projection is still the same but since it represents buoyant force, it is directed upward as
shown. The magnitude of this buoyant force is equivalent to the weight of water the
curved area displaced.
CASE 3. Water on top and underneath the curve

Case 3 is a combination of Case 1 and 2. The figure shows a structure
retaining water by a Tainter gate. In the figures below, it shows that
half of the curved surface is under Case 1, while the other half is Case
2. Notice how the projections are done. For the horizontal
component, this can be computed considering the projected
vertical area of the whole curved surface. However for the vertical
component, they are analyzed separately.
In this case, if sum of forces along the vertical is taken, 𝑊 (real water) cancels out 𝐹
(imaginary water) since they have equal magnitude but are oppositely acting. This
leaves the vertical component 𝐹 which is equal to 𝑊 .
Illustrative example 1. A concrete culvert that contains water is 2.0 m
in diameter. Determine the hydrostatic force acting AB if the culvert is
filled halfway. Determine also the location of the forces. Culvert length
(into the paper) from joint to joint is 2.5 m.
To start, let us first work on the figure. For the

horizontal component, a vertical projection of
the curve is as shown with a base of 2.5m and a
height of 1m. The pressure diagram is also drawn
to show the pressure variation from the water
surface to the base of the culvert. For the vertical
component, we extend vertical lines starting
from point A to the water surface and then point B to the water surface. The prism
generated represents the total weight of water acting on the curve.
Solving for 𝐹 by pressure prism concept,

𝐹 = volume of pressure prism = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚 × 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡
𝑝 = 𝛾ℎ = 9.81 𝑘𝑁 (1𝑚) = 9.81 𝑘𝑁
𝑚 𝑚
1
𝐹 = 9.81 𝑘𝑁 (1 𝑚)(2.5 𝑚) 𝑭𝑯 = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟐𝟔𝟐𝟓 𝒌𝑵 ⟶
2 𝑚
ℎ
= 0.3333𝑚 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝒚𝑪𝑷 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟕 𝒎 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒.
3
Solving for 𝐹 by panel equation,

𝐹 = 𝑝𝐴 = 𝛾 (𝒚 sin 𝛼)𝐴 = 9.81 𝑘𝑁 (0.5𝑚)(2.5 𝑚)(1 𝑚) 𝑭𝑯 = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟐𝟔𝟐𝟓 𝒌𝑵 ⟶
𝑚
2.5(1 𝑚)
𝑦 = 0.5𝑚 + 12 𝒚𝑪𝑷 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟕 𝒎 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒.
0.5(2.5 𝑚)(1 𝑚)
Solving for 𝐹 ,
𝐹 = 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑚 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒
𝐹 =𝛾 × 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑡 × 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒
𝜋(1 𝑚)
𝐹 = 9.81 𝑘𝑁 (2.5 𝑚)
𝑚 4
𝑭𝑽 = 𝟏𝟗. 𝟐𝟔𝟏𝟗 𝒌𝑵 ↓
Since 𝐹 is a weight, its location will be at the
centroid of the quadrant,
𝟎. 𝟒𝟐𝟒 𝐦 to the right of the center of the culvert.
Solving for 𝑭 and 𝜽,

𝐹 = 12.2625 + 19.2619 𝑭 = 𝟐𝟐. 𝟖𝟑𝟒𝟎 𝒌𝑵 ↘
19.2619
𝜃 = tan 𝜽 = 𝟓𝟕. 𝟓𝟏𝟖𝟒°
12.2625
Illustrative example 2. The 3-m-wide circular gate
shown weighs 400 N with center of gravity 0.9 m to
the left of the hinge. Estimate the force P needed to
open the gate.
To solve for the horizontal component, we use the

panel equations,
𝐹 = 𝑝𝐴 = 𝛾 (𝒚 sin 𝛼)𝐴
𝐹 = 9.81 𝑘𝑁 (6.5𝑚)(3 𝑚)(3 𝑚)
𝑚
𝑭𝑯 = 𝟓𝟕𝟑. 𝟖𝟖𝟓 𝒌𝑵 ⟶
3(3 𝑚)
𝑦 = 6.5𝑚 + 12
3 𝑚(3 𝑚)(6.5 𝑚)
𝒚𝑪𝑷 = 𝟔. 𝟔𝟏𝟓𝟒 𝒎 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒.
Using the panel equations for determining 𝐹 is more practical in this case as the solution
is shorted and direct to the point. Besides, the semi-graphical approach will still yield the
same answer.
For the vertical components 𝐹 = 𝑊 + 𝐹
𝑊 is the weight of the water acting directly on the curve

( )
𝑊 = 9.81 𝑘𝑁 (3 𝑚) 𝑾𝟏 = 𝟐𝟎𝟖. 𝟎𝟐𝟖𝟒 𝒌𝑵 ↑
𝑚
𝑊 is acting at a distance of 0.424R or 𝟏. 𝟐𝟕𝟐 𝒎 to
the left of the hinge.
𝐹 is the additional water prism above the quadrant.
𝐹 = 9.81 𝑘𝑁 (3 𝑚)(5 𝑚)(3 𝑚) = 𝟒𝟒𝟏. 𝟒𝟓 𝒌𝑵 ↑
𝑚
𝐹 is acting at a distance of 𝟏. 𝟓𝟎 𝒎 to the left of
the hinge.
The location of both 𝑊 and 𝐹 are based on the centroids of their prisms. The
centroid of a quarter circle is at 0.424R and b/2 for the rectangular prism.
To solve for the vertical component, 𝐹 = 𝑊 + 𝐹 = 208.0284 𝑘𝑁 + 441.45 𝑘𝑁 =

𝟔𝟒𝟗. 𝟒𝟕𝟖𝟒 𝒌𝑵
We can solve for the location of 𝐹 by applying the Principal of Moments;

𝑥𝐹 = 𝑊 𝑥 + 𝐹 𝑥 𝑥(649.4784 𝑘𝑁) = 208.0284 𝑘𝑁(1.272 𝑚) + 441.45 𝑘𝑛(1.50 𝑚)
𝒙 = 𝟏. 𝟒𝟐𝟕𝟎 𝒎
To solve for P,
We take moment sum about the hinge,
𝑀 = 0] ↷ +
𝑷(1.5 𝑚) + 649.4784 𝑘𝑁(1.4270 𝑚) − 0.4 𝑘𝑛(0.90 𝑚)
− 573.885 𝑘𝑁(6.6154 − 5 𝑚) = 0
𝑷 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟎𝟓𝟒 𝒌𝑵 ⟶
A. Resolve the problem from M1-U4 Elaborate using the general solution. Be sure to
include the diagrams in determining the hydrostatic force components. Did you
get the same answer using the panel equations and the pressure-prism concept?
B. Work on the following problems. Indicate first under which case it belongs to and
then solve completely.
1. Plate AB has a width of 1.5 m and a radius

of 3 m. Determine the horizontal and
vertical components of reaction at the pin
A and the vertical reaction at the smooth
stop B due to the water pressure.
(AV = 0, AH = 66.218 kN←, RB = 104.014kN↓)
2. Determine the resultant force the oil

exerts on the semicircular surface AB. The tank
𝑘𝑔
has a width of 3 m. Take 𝜌 = 900
𝑚
(50.132 kN)
There are more problems to practice on at the end of the Chapter readings. An
answer key is provided for your reference.
Accomplish the EVALUATIVE QUIZ.
UNIT 6: BUOYANCY
Read the comic strip below.
Do you know about this story? Research on Archimedes Principle of Buoyancy and on its
real-world applications.
Study the formula for buoyant force and distinguish between positive, negative and
neutral buoyancy.
Why is buoyancy important? Post a short answer on this question in our Google classroom.
Chapter 3: Fluid Statics (pp. 41-43)
Archimedes Principle states that “a body partially or completely immersed in a fluid is
buoyed up by a force equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the body.”
Consider a body submerged in a liquid of specific weight as shown in the first figure. The
second figure shows the pressure distribution acting on the submerged body and the
liquid around it. It is assumed to be of cylindrical section having the prism. cross-sectional
area of the body. If we take the sum of forces along the vertical neglecting the weight
of the body, we get
𝐹 =𝐹 − 𝐹 − 𝐹
The resultant by definition is called the Buoyant Force, and expanding the equation gives
us,
𝐵𝐹 = 𝛾ℎ 𝐴 − 𝛾ℎ 𝐴 − 𝛾𝑉 = 𝛾(ℎ 𝐴 − ℎ 𝐴 − 𝑉 )
But the total body submerged 𝑉 = (ℎ − ℎ )𝐴 − 𝑉 ;
𝐵𝐹 = 𝛾 𝑉 = 𝛾 𝑉
The buoyant force acting on a body immersed in a fluid is equal to the weight of the fluid
displaced by the body, and it acts upward through the centroid of the displaced volume.
For floating bodies, the weight of the entire body must be equal to the buoyant force,
which is the weight of the fluid whose volume is equal to the volume of the submerged
portion of the floating body. The depth by which a body is submerged is called the draft.
When a body is immersed in a liquid,
1. It remains at rest at any point in the fluid when its

density is equal to the density of the fluid,
2. Sinks to the bottom when its density is greater than

the density of the fluid, and
3. Rises to the surface of the fluid and floats when the

density of the body is less than the density of the fluid
Illustrative example 1. An iceberg in ocean floats with one-

eight of its volume above the surface. What is its specific
gravity relative to ocean water, which is 64 lb/ft3? What
portion of its volume would be above the surface if the ice
were floating in pure water?
𝐵𝐹 = 𝑊
7
64 𝑙𝑏 𝑓𝑡 𝑉 = 𝑆𝐺 64 𝑙𝑏 𝑓𝑡 (𝑉)
8
𝑺𝑮 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟕𝟓
Illustrative example 2. A 1.2-ft3 block of aluminum is tied to a piece of cork (SG=0.22),

as shown. What volume of cork is required to keep the aluminum (SG=2.7) from sinking
in castor oil (SG=0.96)?
𝐵𝐹 + 𝐵𝐹 = 𝑊 + 𝑊
0.96𝛾 (1.2 𝑓𝑡 ) + 0.96𝛾 (𝑉 𝑓𝑡 ) = 2.7𝛾 (1.2 𝑓𝑡 ) + 0.22𝛾 (𝑉 𝑓𝑡 )
𝑉 = 2.8216 𝑓𝑡
Solve for the following buoyancy problems:
1. Water in the container is originally at a
height of h = 1 m. If a block having a
density of 800 kg/m3 is placed in the
water, determine the new level h of
the water. The base of the block is
square, 600 mm by 600 mm, while the
base of the container is 1.2 m by 1.2m.
(1.12 m)
2. A cube of material is 4 in. on a side and floats at the interface between

kerosene (SG=0.82) and water, as shown.
a. Find the specific gravity of the material. (SG=0.94)
b. How much weight is required to fully submerge the cube under
water? (0.139 lb)
Module 2: Hydraulics
UNIT 1: FUNDAMENTALS OF FLUID FLOW
Watch the flow visualization video posted in the Google classroom. Try to take note of
important terms mentioned such as: stagnation point, separation bubble, turbulence,
fluctuations, wakes, vortices, and streamlines.
Chapter 4: Fundamentals of Fluid Flow (pp. 51-65)
Flow Visualization
A flow pattern/ field refers to lines constructed to show the direction
of flow. In the figure, water from a tank exits the opening as shown.
The blue lines are called streamlines.
Flow patterns help us in distinguishing different types of flow, usually

expressed in the velocity of the fluid as
𝑉 = 𝑉(𝑠, 𝑡)
where: 𝑠 = distance travelled by a fluid particle along a path and 𝑡 = time
A pathline is the path of a particle as it moves through a flow field. A bundle of pathlines
is usually referred to as a streamtube.
A streakline is the line generated by a tracer fluid, such as dye, continuously injected into
the flow field at starting point.
Types of Flow
1. Uniform and Non-uniform flow
Uniform flow
𝝏𝑽
=𝟎 Non-uniform Flow
𝝏𝒔 𝝏𝑽
≠𝟎
𝝏𝒔
 velocity does not  velocity changes
change along a along a fluid path.
fluid path; fluid i.e. flow in a vortex or
paths are straight converging pipe
and parallel. i.e.
flow in pipe
2. Steady and Unsteady Flow

𝝏𝑽 𝝏𝑽
Steady flow =𝟎 Unsteady Flow ≠𝟎
𝝏𝒕 𝝏𝒕
 velocity at a given point on a fluid path  velocity at a given point on a fluid path
does not change with time would be increasing or decreasing with time
3. Laminar and Turbulent Flow
Laminar Flow Turbulent Flow
 a well-ordered flow in which adjacent fluid layers  an unsteady flow characterized by

move smoothly with respect to each other. i.e. flow intense cross-stream mixing. i.e.
of honey from a container, lava flow
4. One-Dimensional, Two-Dimensional and Three-Dimensional Flows

 The dimensionality of a flow field is characterized by the number of spatial
dimensions needed to describe the velocity field.
1D Flow in a circular duct  uniform, velocity

does not change in the flow direction, depends
only one direction which is the radius
2D Flow in a rectangular duct  flow depends on

x and y dimensions
3D Flow in a diverging rectangular duct  flow

depends on x, y and z dimensions
5. Compressible and Non-Compressible Flow
Compressible Flow Non-Compressible Flow
 refers to the fluid flow in which the fluid’s  flow that undergoes a notable variation
density is constant in density with trending pressure.
6. Rotational and Ir-rotational Flow

Rotational Flow Irrotational Flow
 fluid particles apart from moving along  fluid particles while flowing do not
the flow, rotate about its own axis with rotate about its own axis
some angular velocity
RATE of FLOW
DISCHARGE, 𝑸  the volume of fluid passing a cross section of a stream in a unit time.
The usual units are cubic feet per second (CFS or cusecs) or cubic meter per second
(CMS or cumecs)
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝑄=
𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑝𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
In certain engineering applications, the appropriate units for discharge such as gallons
per minute (gpm), gallons per day (gpd) or millions of gallons per day (mgd) are used
depending on the magnitude.
If equal velocities at all points in the cross-section of a stream were possible, a volume
equivalent to that of a prism having a base equal to the cross-sectional area of the
stream and a length equal to the velocity. Thus,
𝑄 = 𝐴𝑉
Where: A = cross-sectional area and V = mean velocity of flow
When, at any instant, the number of particles passing every cross-section of the stream,
is the same, the flow is said to be continuous. Flow can then be expressed in terms of:
𝑄 = 𝐴 𝑉 = 𝐴 𝑉  Volume flow rate
𝜌𝑄 = 𝜌 𝐴 𝑉 = 𝜌 𝐴 𝑉  Mass flow rate
𝛾𝑄 = 𝛾 𝐴 𝑉 = 𝛾 𝐴 𝑉  Weight flow rate
Illustrative Example 1. Compute the discharge of water through a 3”-diameter pipe if the
mean velocity of flow is 8.5 ft/s.
𝜋 1𝑓𝑡 𝑓𝑡 𝑓𝑡
𝑄 = 𝐴𝑉 = 3𝑖𝑛 × 8.5 𝑠 = 0.4172 𝑠
4 12𝑖𝑛
Illustrative Problem 2. A pipeline consists

of successive lengths of 15”, 12” and
10” pipe. With a continuous flow
through the line of 9 CFS of water,
compute the velocity in each pipe.
Since flow is continuous, 𝑄=𝑄 =𝑄 =𝑄 =𝑄

𝑄 = 9 𝑐𝑓𝑠 = 𝐴 𝑉 = 𝐴 𝑉 = 𝐴 𝑄
Therefore, 𝑉 =
𝑉 = = = 𝟕. 𝟑𝟒 𝒇𝒑𝒔 𝑉 = = = 𝟏𝟏. 𝟒𝟔 𝒇𝒑𝒔 𝑉 = = = 𝟏𝟔. 𝟓𝟎 𝒇𝒑𝒔
Illustrative example 3. The velocity at section A-A is 18 ft/s, and the vertical depth y at the
same section is 4 ft. If the width of the channel is 30 ft, what is the discharge in cubic feet
per second?
𝑄 = 𝐴𝑉
This equation is used to evaluate the discharge when the
velocity vector is normal to the cross-sectional area. In this
case, since the A is not perpendicular to V, we solve the
effective area using cos 30° =
𝐴 = (30 𝑓𝑡)(4 𝑓𝑡) cos 30° = 103.92 𝑓𝑡

𝑓𝑡
𝑄 = (103.92 𝑓𝑡 ) 18 𝑠
𝒇𝒕𝟑
= 𝟏𝟖𝟕𝟎. 𝟔𝟏𝟒𝟗 𝒔
Illustrative example 4. What is the velocity of the flow of water in leg B of the tee shown
in the figure?
Assuming continuous, steady flow,
𝑄 =𝑄 +𝑄
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
(4𝑚) (6 𝑚⁄𝑠) = (4𝑚) 𝑉 + (2𝑚) (4 𝑚⁄𝑠)
4 4 4
𝑽𝑩 = 𝟓 𝒎⁄𝒔
Illustrative example 5. Assuming that complete
mixing occurs between the two inflows before
the mixture discharges from the pipe at C, find
the mass rate of flow, the velocity, and the
specific gravity of the mixture in the pipe at C.
Assuming continuous, steady flow,

𝑄 +𝑄 =𝑄 ; 3𝑐𝑓𝑠 + 1𝑐𝑓𝑠 = 𝑄 𝑄 = 4𝑐𝑓𝑠
𝛾 𝑄 +𝛾 𝑄 =𝛾 𝑄
𝑓𝑡 𝑓𝑡 𝑓𝑡
0.95 62.4 𝑙𝑏 3 𝑠 + 0.85 62.4
𝑙𝑏 1 𝑠 = 𝑆𝐺 62.4
𝑙𝑏 4 𝑠
230.88 𝑙𝑏 𝑙𝑏
𝑠 = 𝑆𝐺 249.6 𝑠 𝑺𝑮𝑪 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟐𝟓
𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔𝑠 𝑓𝑡 𝒔𝒍𝒖𝒈𝒔
𝜌𝑄 = 0.925 1.94 4 𝑠 = 𝟕. 𝟏𝟕𝟖 𝒔
𝑓𝑡
𝑄 4 𝑐𝑓𝑠
𝑉 = = = 𝟐𝟎. 𝟑𝟕𝟏𝟖 𝒇𝒑𝒔
𝐴 𝜋 6
. 𝑓𝑡
4 12
In 1738, a mathematician in the person of Daniel

Bernoulli demonstrated that in any stream flowing
steadily without friction, the total energy contained
in a given mass is the same at any point in its path of
flow.
Bernoulli’s equation states that the sum of the

piezometric pressure and kinetic pressure is constant
along a streamline for the steady flow of an
incompressible, inviscid fluid.
𝑣
𝑝 + 𝛾𝑧 + 𝜌 =𝐶
2
These two forms of pressure are:

1. Piezometric pressure (𝑝 + 𝛾𝑧)
2. Kinetic pressure 𝜌
𝒗𝟐 𝒑
Dividing each by the unit weight gives us + + 𝒛 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
𝟐𝒈 𝜸
Thus for the given figure, + +𝑧 = + +𝑧 =𝐶
Illustrative problem 6. Piezometric tubes are
tapped into a venturi section as shown in the
figure. The liquid is incompressible. The upstream
piezometric head is 1 m, and the piezometric
head at the throat is 0.5 m. The velocity in the
throat section is twice large as in the approach
section. Find the velocity in the throat section.
We can start by writing the Bernoulli equation for
each point in the venturi meter.
At point ① the Inlet: + +𝑧 = +1+𝑧
At point ② the throat: + +𝑧 = + 0.5𝑚 + 𝑧

Since 𝑉 = 2𝑉 ,
𝑣 (2𝑣 )
+1+𝑧 = + 0.5 + 𝑧
2𝑔 2𝑔
Assuming 𝑧 − 𝑧 is negligible,
4𝑣 − 𝑣 𝑚
1 − 0.5 = 𝑣 = 1.8083 ; 𝒗𝟏 = 𝟑. 𝟔𝟏𝟔𝟔 𝒎/𝒔
2 9.81 𝑚 𝑠 𝑠
Illustrative example 7. An open tank filled with water and drains through a port at the
bottom of the tank. The elevation of the water in the tank is 10 m above the drain. The
drain port is at atmospheric pressure. Find the velocity of the liquid in the drain port.
This time, let’s directly apply Bernoulli’s equation on the

streamline from point ① to ②,
𝑣 𝑝 𝑣 𝑝
+ +𝑧 = + +𝑧
2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾
From the figure, it can be seen that that at the water surface,
point ① is exposed to the atmosphere while at point ②, the
discharging stream or jet exits through the drain port to the
atmosphere. This indicates that for both points, the gage
pressure is equal to zero;
𝑝 𝑝
≈ =0
𝛾 𝛾
Further, the velocity at point ① can be assumed to be very small; ≈ 0 as validated by the
ratio = . Since the reservoir’s surface area is far greater than the cross-sectional area of the
port, 𝑣 ≈0
The distance between the drain port and the surface is given to be 10m = ∆𝑍 = 𝑧 − 𝑧 .
The equation therefore reduces to
𝑣 𝑣
∆𝑍 = 10𝑚 = 𝒗𝟐 = 𝟏𝟒. 𝟎𝟎𝟕𝟏 𝒎⁄𝒔
2𝑔 2 9.81 𝑚 𝑠
Illustrative problem 8. A water jet issues vertically from a nozzle, as shown. The water
velocity as it exits the nozzle is 20 ft s. Calculate how high h the jet will rise.
In this problem, we can apply Bernoulli’s equation assuming point ①
to be at the mouth of the nozzle and point ② at the top of the jet.
Writing the equation,
𝑣 𝑝 𝑣 𝑝
+ +𝑧 = + +𝑧
To reduce the equation, we need to define the parameters that may
be cancelled out. Similar to the last problem, the jet is atmospheric,
𝑝 𝑝
≈ =0
𝛾 𝛾
Also, we can assume that the velocity of flow reaches a value of zero when it the jet reaches its
maximum height therefore,
𝑣
=0
2𝑔
The value h in the figure also indicates the change in elevation ∆𝑍.
𝑓𝑡
𝑣 20 𝑠
= ∆𝑍 =ℎ 𝒉 = 𝟔. 𝟐𝟏𝟏𝟐 𝒇𝒕
2𝑔 𝑓𝑡
2 32.2 𝑠
Try to solving these problems:
1. Water at A has a pressure of 400 kPa
and a velocity of 3 m/s. Determine the
pressure and velocity at B and C.
(pB=381.719 kPa, VB=6.75 m/s)
2. Water flows through the pipe at A

at 6 m/s. Determine the pressure
at A and the velocity of the water
as it exits the pipe at B.
(pA=29.43 kPa, VB=6 m/s)
3. A siphon is used to drain out a tank of water

as shown. The siphon is 3” in diameter and
drains out a nozzle of 2”-diameter. Determine
the flow velocity in the jet. (Hint: Assume a
streamline of flow from the water surface,
through the siphon and out the jet. Apply
Bernoulli’s equation on the streamline
assuming point ① at the water surface and
point ②on the jet)
(V= 22.698 ft/s)
UNIT 2: THE ENERGY EQUATION
Have you ever wondered about how hydroelectric plants generate electricity? Illustrate
the concept of hydropower by a simple schematic diagram and briefly discuss how it
works in a short narrative.
Chapter 5: Mechanism for Conservation of Flow Properties
The Bernoulli equation is concerned with the

conservation of kinetic, potential, and flow
energies of a fluid stream and their P.E. is attributed to
mass and 
conversion to each other.
position
The energy equation is a statement of the

conservation of energy principle. Energy is
defined as the ability to do work. The two K.E. is attributed to
forms of energy associated with fluid flow are  mass and speed 
kinetic energy and potential energy.
1. Kinetic energy  the ability of a mass to do work by virtue of its velocity. If in any
mass M, every individual particle has the same velocity, the energy of the mass is
𝑀𝑉 and since 𝑀 = , 𝐾𝐸 = 𝑊
2. Potential energy  is divided into energy due to position and due to a pressure in
the fluid.
Elevation energy is manifested in a fluid by virtue of its position with respect to

some arbitrarily selected datum. It’s has an amount of elevation energy equal to
𝑊𝑧.
Pressure energy is energy acquired by a mass by virtue of contact with other
masses having some form of energy. It is written as 𝑊
A practical solution in most hydraulics is considered by considering a stream tube in a

given cross-section. The total energy at the cross section is given by:𝐸 = 𝑊 + 𝑊 + 𝑊𝑧
For a weight of unity, this reduces to 𝐸= + +𝑧
In analyzing the dimensional homogeneity of the energy equation, it reduces to linear

quantity (feet in English units and m in SI units) and is also referred to as Total head.
A fluid in motion expends energy to overcome

resistances to flow. It is the conversion of useful
mechanical energy to waste thermal energy
through viscous action between fluid particles and
is often referred to as lost energy or head loss.
This lost energy may occur as a result of friction

between fluid particles as they rub against each
other.
The derivation of Bernoulli’s equation as shown is by

applying the law of conservation of energy to
incompressible fluids. It states that:
Neglecting friction, the total head, or the total

amount of energy per unit weight, is the same at
every point in the path of flow.
However, the energy equation of the entire cross-section of a continuous stream

including head loss becomes:
𝒗𝟏 𝟐 𝒑𝟏 𝒗𝟐 𝟐 𝒑𝟐
+ + 𝒛𝟏 = + + 𝒛𝟐 + 𝑯𝑳𝟏→𝟐
𝟐𝒈 𝜸 𝟐𝒈 𝜸
With continuous, steady flow, the total head at any point in the stream is equal to the
total head at any downstream point plus the loss of head between the two points.
If energy is added between the two points, such as due to addition of a pump;
𝑣 𝑝 𝑣 𝑝
+ +𝑧 +𝐻 = + + 𝑧 + 𝐻𝐿 →
If energy is lost or given up between the two points, such as due to a turbine;
𝑣 𝑝 𝑣 𝑝
+ +𝑧 = + + 𝑧 + 𝐻𝐿 → +𝐻
Illustrative problem 1.The

horizontal pipe carries water
at 10°C for thermal power
plant from a reservoir as
shown. The head loss in the
pipe is
0.02 𝐿 𝐷 𝑉
𝐻𝐿 =
2𝑔
Where 𝐿 = length of pipe from reservoir to point ②, 𝐷 = pipe diameter, and 𝑉 = mean
velocity of flow in the pipe. If the pipe diameter is 20cm and the rate of flow is 0.06 m 3/s,
what is the pressure in the pipe at a length of 2000m.
With 𝐷 = 20 cm or 0.20 m and from 𝑄 = 𝐴𝑉, 𝑉 = , we can solve for pipe velocity
0.06 𝑚 𝑠
𝑣 = 𝜋 = 1.91 𝑚/𝑠
(0.20 𝑚)
4
We can compute the head loss as,
0.02 2000 𝑚 0.20 𝑚 (1.91 𝑚⁄𝑠)
𝐻𝐿 = = 37.1821 𝑚
2 9.81 𝑚
𝑠
Writing down the energy equation between points ① and ②;
𝑣 𝑝 𝑣 𝑝
+ +𝑧 = + + 𝑧 + 𝐻𝐿 →
Term-by-term analysis shows that ≈ 0, and that = 0 since point ① atmospheric. If

we assume the centerline of the pipe to be the reference datum, 𝑧 = 100𝑚 while 𝑧 =
20 𝑚. This reduces the energy equation to:
𝑧 = + + 𝑧 + 𝐻𝐿 →
Substituting,
( . ⁄ )
100 𝑚 = ( . ⁄ )
+ + 20 𝑚 + 37.1821 𝑚 = 42.6320 𝑚
Converting to its equivalent pressure at 10 °C, 𝑝 = 𝛾ℎ = 9.8071 𝑘𝑁 (42.6320 𝑚)
𝑚
𝒑𝟐 = 𝟒𝟏𝟖. 𝟎𝟗𝟒𝟓 𝑲𝑷𝒂
The Power equation. The power given by a pump or delivered by a turbine are
expressed as: 𝑊̇ = 𝛾𝑄𝐻 and 𝑊̇ = 𝛾𝑄𝐻
This can be generalized in terms of the Power Formula: 𝑷 = 𝜸𝑸𝑯
Energy loss due to mechanical friction, viscous dissipation and leakage are accounted
for by efficiency 𝜂 defined as the ratio of power input to power output. Thus, the output
power is equal to 𝜂𝑃 .
Illustrative problem 2.
A pipe 50 cm in diameter carries
water (10°C) at a rate of 0.5 m3/s. A
pump in the pipe is used to move the
water from an elevation of 30 m to
40 m. The pressure at section ① is 70
kPa gage and the pressure at
section ② is 350 kPa gage. What
power in kilowatts and in
horsepower must be supplied to the
flow by the pump? Assume 𝐻𝐿= 3 m
of water.
It should be noted that in the figure, a value for 𝛼 is given. This is a correction factor
for at which all particles in a stream cross-section are assumed to have equal velocity
but are ordinarily not. But since this value introduces very little error in computations, it is
usually assumed to have a value of 1.0 as in this problem.
The energy equation in this case may be written as:
𝑣 𝑝 𝑣 𝑝
+ +𝑧 +𝐻 = + + 𝑧 + 𝐻𝐿 →
Analyzing the terms, the pipe diameter is constant from point ① to ② so 𝑣 = 𝑣 ,

elevations 𝑧 = 30 𝑚 and 𝑧 = 40 𝑚 and pressure heads may be computed as
= = 7.1377 𝑚 and = = 35.6886 𝑚
° . ° .
Reducing the energy equation, +𝑧 +𝐻 =+ + 𝑧 + 𝐻𝐿 →
And substituting, 7.1377 𝑚 + 30 𝑚 + 𝐻 = 35.6886 𝑚 + 40 𝑚 + 3 𝑚 𝑯𝒑 = 𝟒𝟏. 𝟓𝟓𝟎𝟗 𝒎
Converting the head delivered by the pump to power,

𝑘𝑁. 𝑚
𝑃 = 𝑄𝛾𝑯𝑷 = 0.5 𝑚 𝑠 9.8071 𝑘𝑁 (41.5509 𝑚) = 203.7459
𝑚 𝑠
.
*** = 1 𝑘𝑊1 and ℎ𝑃 = 0.746 𝑘𝑊; 𝑃 = 203.7459 𝑘𝑊 × 𝑷 = 𝟐𝟕𝟑. 𝟏𝟏𝟕𝟖 𝒉𝑷
.
Illustrative problem 3.
At the maximum rate of power generation, a

small hydroelectric power plant takes a
discharge of 14.1 m3/s through an elevation
drop of 61 m. The head loss through the
intakes, penstock, and outlet works is 1.5 m.
The combined efficiency of the turbine and
electrical generator is 87%. What is the rate of
power generation?
The energy equation is in the general form : + +𝑧 = + + 𝑧 + 𝐻𝐿 → +𝐻

Since point ① and ② are atmospheric, the pressure heads may be assumed zero. The
change in the water level both points, are also assumed to approach zero since both
water surfaces are very large in area. Using the water surface downstream the power
plant as a reference datum, 𝑧 = 61 𝑚 while 𝑧 = 0.
Rewriting the energy equation, 61 𝑚 = 1.5 𝑚 + 𝐻 𝑯𝑻 = 𝟓𝟗. 𝟓 𝒎

To determine the rate of power generation,
𝑃 = 𝑄𝛾𝑯𝑷 = 14.1 𝑚 𝑠 9.81 𝑘𝑁 (59.5 𝑚) = 8230.0995 𝑘𝑊
𝑚
Considering the combined efficiency of the turbine and electrical generator
𝑃 = 𝜂𝑃 = 0.87823 × 0.0995 𝑘𝑊 𝑷 = 𝟕𝟏𝟔𝟎. 𝟏𝟖𝟔𝟔 𝒌𝑾
Hydraulic Grade Line (HGL) and the Energy Grade Line (EGL)
Grade lines are visual representations that show energy in a system. The EGL is a line
that indicates total head while the HGL only shows piezometric head (sum of pressure
and elevation energy).
(Read on the tips in drawing HGLs and EGLs on pp.233-234)
Some examples are shown below:
1. The irrigation pump is used to supply

water to the pond at B at a rate of
0.09 m3/s. If the pipe is 150 mm in
diameter, determine the required
power of the pump. Assume the
frictional head loss per meter length
of pipe is 0.1 m/m. Draw the energy
and hydraulic grade lines for this
system.
(P= 5.361 kW)
2. Determine the power delivered to the turbine if

the water exits the 400-mm-diameter pipe at 8 m/s.
Neglect all losses.
(P= 243.969 kW)
Answer the Self-Assessment Checklist for this unit.
Most
All the
Not at of the
time
all time
ON THE MODULE
I can distinguish between the continuity, Bernoulli’s and the
energy equation.
I understand what head loss is.
I can differentiate HGL and EGL.
I can derive the discharge formulas for these devices by
applying the continuity, Bernoulli’s and the energy equation.
I did not have difficulty in converting head/ energy to
power.
ON THE PROBLEM SET

I read each problem twice before solving.
I can distinguish the parameters given in the problem.
I understood what was being asked.
I drew a diagram to illustrate the problem.
I wrote the equations and conversion factors I needed.
The diagram helped me in my solution.
My solution was clear and organized.
I have a final answer with the correct units.
I followed the required format for my output.
I submitted my work on time.
UNIT 3: FLOW-MEASURING DEVICES
Recall the equations from the previous unit.
Chapter 5: Mechanism for Conservation of Flow Properties (pp. 51-65)
Chapter 12: Measurement of Flow of Fluids

Giles, Ranald V., Jack B. Evett, and Cheng Liu. 2014. Schaum's Outline of Fluid
Mechanics and Hydraulics. 4th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill Education.
Flow measuring devices

Practical use of the energy equation is in flow measuring devices such as the orifice
meter, venturi meter, and the weir.
An orifice meter is an instrument

for measuring flow rate by using
a carefully designed plate with
a round opening and situating
this device in a pipe. Q is found
by measuring the pressure
change before and after the
orifice plate, and then applying
Bernoulli’s equation.
At point ② in the figure, there is a contraction of the submerged jet which is referred to
as the vena contracta (VC). The ratio of the actual orifice opening/ diameter to the
diameter of the jet at the vena contracta is called the coefficient of contraction.
𝐴@
𝐶 =
𝐴
Applying Bernoulli’s equation (head loss is neglected)
𝑣 𝑝 𝑣 𝑝
+ +𝑧 = + +𝑧
From the continuity equation, 𝑄 = 𝑄 , 𝐴 𝑉 = 𝐴 𝑉 and 𝑉 = 𝑉 =𝐶 𝑉
2𝑔(ℎ − ℎ )
𝑉 =
𝑐 𝐴
1−
𝐴
The actual velocity in the jet is less than the theoretical velocity due to frictional
resistance. The ratio of actual mean velocity and the theoretical velocity is called the
coefficient of velocity.
𝑉
𝐶 =
𝑉
Solving for Q,
𝐶 𝐶 𝐴
𝑄= 2𝑔(ℎ − ℎ )
𝑐 𝐴
1−
𝐴
The value 𝐶 𝐶 is referred to as the coefficient of discharge.
Another general case is when you have

an orifice discharging from the side of a
tank as shown. The orifice equations
above are still applicable however is
reduced to,
𝑄 = 𝐶 𝐶 𝐴 2𝑔ℎ
Where ℎ = head measured from the water

surface to the centroid of the orifice
opening.
Illustrative example 1. If water (20°C) is flowing through this 5 cm orifice meter, estimate
the rate of flow.
Since no coefficients are given in the problem, the discharge can
be determined by applying Bernoulli’s equation and then the
continuity equation.
 ①
The energy equation is expressed as
 ②
𝑣 𝑝 𝑣 𝑝
+ +𝑧 = + +𝑧
We can consider that since flow is continuous, 𝑄 = 𝑄

𝐴 𝑉 =𝐴 𝑉; 𝑉 = 𝑉 𝑉 = 100𝑉
Flow is downward but we can assume our reference datum at point 1,
𝑣 60 𝑘𝑁 (100𝑣 ) 50 𝑘𝑁
+ 𝑚 +0= + 𝑚 − 0.30 𝑚
2 9.81 𝑚 9.7926 𝑘𝑁 2 9.81 𝑚 9.7926 𝑘𝑁
𝑠 𝑚 𝑠 𝑚
*Notice that the elevation energy 𝑧 is negative in the equation since the
reference datum is along point ①.
𝒗𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝟗𝟐 𝒎
𝒔𝟐
𝟑
Solving for Q, 𝑄=𝐴 𝑉 = 50𝑐𝑚 × 0.0592 𝑚 𝑸 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟗𝟗 𝒎 𝒔
𝑠
Illustrative example 2. For the given jet and orifice shown, determine the orifice
coefficients
 ①  ③
@
×
𝐶 = = 𝑪𝑪 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟒
×
For 𝐶 =
* 𝑉 is computed by applying Bernouilli’s equation
②  neglecting head loss,
𝑣 𝑝 𝑣 𝑝
+ +𝑧 = + +𝑧
Term-by-term analysis shows that 𝑣 ≈ 0, 𝑝 = 𝑝 = 0, and 𝑧 ≈ 0.
This reduces the Bernoulli’s equation to 2𝑚 = 𝑣 = 6.2642 𝑚/𝑠 (This is theoretical 𝑣)
Note that if the direction of the jet is vertically upward gravity retards the velocity of the jet. This means that
the height of the jet will not be able to shoot up the same height as the water surface in the tank. This means
that there is a total head loss equal to the difference between 𝑧 and 𝑧 equal to 0.10m. Therefore,
Applying the energy equation, 2𝑚 = + 0.10𝑚 𝑣 = 6.1056 𝑚/𝑠 (This is actual 𝑣)
𝑣 6.1056 𝑚/𝑠
𝐶 = = 𝑪𝒗 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟕𝟒𝟕
𝑣 6.2642 𝑚/𝑠
𝐶 = 𝐶 𝐶 = (0.64)(0.9747) 𝑪𝑫 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟐𝟑𝟖
Illustrative example 3. The figure represents two large

tanks with an orifice in the dividing partition. The
orifice has a diameter of 2” and is rounded so that 𝐶
= 1.0 and 𝐶 = 0.97. Pressures 𝑝 and 𝑝 are
atmospheric. Determine the theoretical velocity, the
actual velocity and the discharge if ℎ = 16 ft.
To determine the theoretical velocity, we apply Bernoulli’s equation form A B

neglecting the head losses, + +𝑧 = + +𝑧
𝑓𝑡
* With 𝑣 ≈ 0, 𝑝 = 𝑝 = 0, 𝑧 = 0, and 𝑔 = 32.2 16 𝑓𝑡 = 𝑣 = 32.0998 𝑓𝑝𝑠
𝑠
Substituting 𝐶 = 0.97 = 𝒗𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍 = 𝟑𝟏. 𝟏𝟑𝟔𝟗 𝒇𝒑𝒔
.
Solving for 𝑄, 𝑄=𝐶 𝐶 𝐴 2𝑔ℎ

In this equation, the value 𝐶 2𝑔ℎ is actual velocity and 𝐶 𝐴 is the cross-sectional
area at the vena contracta
𝜋 1𝑓𝑡 𝑓𝑡 𝒇𝒕𝟑
𝑄 = (1.0) 2" × 31.1369 𝑠 𝑸 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟕𝟗𝟑 𝒔
4 12"
Venturi meters are flow measurement instruments which use a
converging section of pipe to give an increase in the flow
velocity and a corresponding pressure drop from which the
flowrate can be deduced. They have been in common use for
many years, especially in the water supply industry.
(http://www.thermopedia.com/content/1241/).
The Venturi Principle states that an increase in

kinetic energy is equal to the decrease in potential
energy. Deriving this from Bernouilli’s equation,
𝑣 𝑝 𝑣 𝑝
+ +𝑧 = + +𝑧
Where point ① is the inlet (entry from pipe) and ②

is the throat (contracted diameter). Transposing
terms, the equation becomes
− = +𝑧 − +𝑧 (Venturi principle)
The change in pressure is usually measured by a differential manometer connecting the

inlet and the throat.
Theoretical discharge 𝑄 is calculated by neglecting head losses between the inlet and
the throat. This loss causes actual flow to be less than 𝑄 . The correction is called a
meter coefficient which varies from 0.96 to 0.98.
Applying Bernoulli’s equation from the inlet to the throat gives the formula
𝐴𝐶
𝑄= 2𝑔(ℎ − ℎ )
𝐴
1−
𝐴
Where 𝐴 = cross-sectional area of the throat, 𝐴 = cross-sectional area of the inlet,

𝐶 = meter coefficient, (ℎ − ℎ )= piezometric head difference between inlet and
throat.
It is important to note that though there are standard formulas for determining Q using
flow measurement devices, there is no need to memorize them. It is much better to be
able to get familiar with the use of the continuity equation, Bernoulli’s equation and the
energy equation as the formulas are based from these.
Illustrative problem. JP-4 fuel (SG = 0.77) flows through the Venturi meter shown with a
velocity of 15 ft/s in the 6-in. pipe. If viscous
effects are negligible, determine the
elevation, h, of the fuel in the open tube
connected to the throat of the Venturi meter.
Writing Bernoulli’s equation from the throat to

the outlet,
𝑣 𝑝 𝑣 𝑝
+ +𝑧 = + +𝑧
From the continuity of flow, 𝑄 =

𝑄 𝐴 𝑣 =𝐴 𝑣
( ")
With 𝑣 = 15 𝑓𝑝𝑠, 𝑣 = 𝑣 = (15 𝑓𝑝𝑠) = 33.75 𝑓𝑝𝑠
( ")
.
= = 17.6873 𝑓𝑡 = = 3.4938 𝑓𝑡
. .
Using the throat as the reference datum, 𝑧 = 0" while 𝑧 = 8"
Simplifying the equation, 17.6873 𝑓𝑡 + = 3.4938 𝑓𝑡 + + 𝑓𝑡 − = 13.5269 𝑓𝑡
Analyzing the open manometers in the venturi meter,
𝑝 = 𝛾ℎ = −0.77 62.4 𝑙𝑏 ℎ = −48.048ℎ (negative due to direction)

𝑓𝑡
𝑝 = 𝛾ℎ = 0.77 62.4 𝑙𝑏 6𝑓𝑡 = 288.288 𝑙𝑏

𝑓𝑡 𝑓𝑡
Substituting the values in = 13.5269 𝑓𝑡
288.288 𝑙𝑏 − −48.048𝒉 𝑙𝑏 = 0.77 62.4 𝑙𝑏 (13.5269 𝑓𝑡)

𝒉 = 𝟕. 𝟓𝟐𝟔𝟗 𝒇𝒕
A weir, as shown, is an instrument for determining flow rate in
liquids by measuring the height of water relative to an
obstruction in an open channel.
The definition sketch for a sharp-crested weir is shown below.
It is important to note that discharge over a weir is a function of weir geometry (shape)
and head on the weir (H). A weir is very much similar to an orifice except that the head
is really low.
Some weir geometries include
Rectangular Triangular
Trapezoidal
Specifications for a standard weir include
1. Upstream face of weir plate shall be vertical and smooth
2. The crest edge shall be level and have a square upstream corner
3. Sides of flume shall be vertical and smooth
4. Pressure in the nappe is atmospheric
5. Approach channel shall be uniform cross-section.
Rectangular weirs may be full-width or contracted (on one side or on both sides) and
there have been a number of formulas used to evaluate these.
full-width weir contracted (both sides)
The Francis Formula is one of the most commonly used where
𝑄 = 1.84 𝐿 𝐻 (S.I. Unit) and 𝑄 = 3.33 𝐿 𝐻 (English Unit)
where: 𝐿 = 𝐿 − 𝑁𝐻, 𝐿 = width of the weir, 𝑁 = number of contractions (𝑁 =

0.1 for one end contraction and 𝑁 = 0.2 for both ends contracted) and 𝐻 =
head above the weir
A general formula for rectangular weirs is given in the textbook as:

2
𝑄= 𝐶 2𝑔𝐿𝐻
3
The value 𝐶 is usually referred to as the weir coefficient and designated as 𝐾. For low-
viscosity liquids, 𝐾 is a function of 𝐻 𝑃 determined by Kindsvater and Carter as
𝐻
𝐾 = 0.40 + 0.05
𝑃
Where 𝐻= head over the weir and 𝑃= weir height. 𝐾 is valid up to values of = 10.
Triangular weirs or notches are considered to have a higher

degree of accuracy compared to rectangular weirs. The
discharge equation is given as
8 𝜃
𝑄= 𝐶 2𝑔 tan 𝐻
15 2
Where: 𝜃= notch angle

For 𝜃 = 90 ∘ and 𝐶 = 0.60, 𝑄 = 1.4𝐻 (SI Units) and
𝑄 = 2.48𝐻 (English Units)
Discharge for trapezoidal weirs are calculated by combining the formulas for a
rectangular and triangular weir.
2 8 " 𝜃
𝑄= 𝐶 2𝑔𝐿𝐻 + 𝐶 2𝑔 tan 𝐻
3 15 2
The value of 𝐿 in the first term of the equation pertains to the base width of the
trapezoidal weir, while 𝐿 in the second term refers to the base of the combined
triangles from the weir’s ends assuming the side slopes are symmetrical.
A cipoletti weir is a kind of trapezoidal weir whose geometry is as shown
For such,
𝑄 = 1.859 𝐿𝐻 (SI Units)
𝑄 = 3.367 𝐿𝐻 (English Units)
Take note here that the value 𝐿 is the

base width of the cipoletti.
Solving weir problems are not really difficult as it is commonly by direct substitution to
the formula.
1. Estimate the rate of flow of water

through the venturi meter shown.
(Q=1.792 cfs)
2. A contracted rectangular sharp-crested weir 6ft long discharges water under a

head of 1.55ft. Compute the discharge by the Francis formula.
(Q=36.564 cfs)
3. Find the discharge over a triangular notch of angle 60°, when head over the
triangular notch is 0.25m. Assume C=0.57.
(Q=0.024 cfs)
4. A trapezoidal notch of 1.2m wide at the top and 450mm at the bottom is 300mm
high. Find the discharge through the notch if the head of water is 225mm.
Assume C=0.60.
(Q=0.128 m3/s)
Answer the Self-Assessment Checklist for this unit.
Most
All the
Not at of the
time
all time
ON THE MODULE
I can differentiate between theoretical values and actual
values.
I can recognize by sight the different flow-measuring
devices discussed in the module
ON THE PROBLEM SET

I read each problem twice before solving.
I can distinguish the parameters given in the problem.
I understood what was being asked.
I drew a diagram to illustrate the problem.
I wrote the equations and conversion factors I needed.
The diagram helped me in my solution.
My solution was clear and organized.
I have a final answer with the correct units.
I followed the required format for my output.
I submitted my work on time.

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UNIT 5: HYDROSTATIC FORCE ON SUBMERGED CURVED AREAS

Chapter 3: Hydrostatic Force on Surfaces

Another important area of interest is determining the hydrostatic force on acting on

The resultant hydrostatic force is computed by 𝑭 = 𝑭𝑯 𝟐 + 𝑭𝑽 𝟐 and its direction by

CASE 1. Water on top of the curve

CASE 3. Water on top and underneath the curve

To start, let us first work on the figure. For the

Solving for 𝐹 by pressure prism concept,

Solving for 𝐹 by panel equation,

Solving for 𝑭 and 𝜽,

To solve for the horizontal component, we use the

For the vertical components 𝐹 = 𝑊 + 𝐹

𝑊 is the weight of the water acting directly on the curve

To solve for the vertical component, 𝐹 = 𝑊 + 𝐹 = 208.0284 𝑘𝑁 + 441.45 𝑘𝑁 =

We can solve for the location of 𝐹 by applying the Principal of Moments;

1. Plate AB has a width of 1.5 m and a radius

2. Determine the resultant force the oil

Accomplish the EVALUATIVE QUIZ.

Read the comic strip below.

But the total body submerged 𝑉 = (ℎ − ℎ )𝐴 − 𝑉 ;

1. It remains at rest at any point in the fluid when its

2. Sinks to the bottom when its density is greater than

3. Rises to the surface of the fluid and floats when the

Illustrative example 1. An iceberg in ocean floats with one-

Illustrative example 2. A 1.2-ft3 block of aluminum is tied to a piece of cork (SG=0.22),

2. A cube of material is 4 in. on a side and ﬂoats at the interface between

Accomplish the EVALUATIVE QUIZ.

Flow patterns help us in distinguishing different types of flow, usually

2. Steady and Unsteady Flow

3. Laminar and Turbulent Flow

Laminar Flow Turbulent Flow

 a well-ordered flow in which adjacent fluid layers  an unsteady flow characterized by

4. One-Dimensional, Two-Dimensional and Three-Dimensional Flows

1D Flow in a circular duct  uniform, velocity

2D Flow in a rectangular duct  flow depends on

3D Flow in a diverging rectangular duct  flow

6. Rotational and Ir-rotational Flow

Where: A = cross-sectional area and V = mean velocity of flow

𝑄 = 𝐴 𝑉 = 𝐴 𝑉  Volume flow rate

𝜌𝑄 = 𝜌 𝐴 𝑉 = 𝜌 𝐴 𝑉  Mass flow rate

𝛾𝑄 = 𝛾 𝐴 𝑉 = 𝛾 𝐴 𝑉  Weight flow rate

Illustrative Problem 2. A pipeline consists

Since flow is continuous, 𝑄=𝑄 =𝑄 =𝑄 =𝑄

𝑉 = = = 𝟕. 𝟑𝟒 𝒇𝒑𝒔 𝑉 = = = 𝟏𝟏. 𝟒𝟔 𝒇𝒑𝒔 𝑉 = = = 𝟏𝟔. 𝟓𝟎 𝒇𝒑𝒔

𝐴 = (30 𝑓𝑡)(4 𝑓𝑡) cos 30° = 103.92 𝑓𝑡

Assuming continuous, steady flow,

In 1738, a mathematician in the person of Daniel

Bernoulli’s equation states that the sum of the

These two forms of pressure are:

Thus for the given figure, + +𝑧 = + +𝑧 =𝐶

At point ① the Inlet: + +𝑧 = +1+𝑧

At point ② the throat: + +𝑧 = + 0.5𝑚 + 𝑧

This time, let’s directly apply Bernoulli’s equation on the

2. Water flows through the pipe at A

3. A siphon is used to drain out a tank of water

Accomplish the EVALUATIVE QUIZ.

The Bernoulli equation is concerned with the

The energy equation is a statement of the

Elevation energy is manifested in a fluid by virtue of its position with respect to

A practical solution in most hydraulics is considered by considering a stream tube in a