I N TERN ATI ON AL I S0

STAN DARD 1 0721 -I

Fi rst edi ti on
1 997-02-01

Steel structu res -

Part 1:
M ateri al s an d desi g n

Structures en acier -

Partie I : Matbriaux et conception

This material is reproduced from I S0 docu m ents under I nternational

Organization for Standardization (I SO) Copyright License n u m ber

I H SI I CCI l996. Not for resale. No part of these I S0 docu men ts may be

reproduced in any form, electronic retrieval system or otherwise, except

as allowed in the copyright law of the country of use, or with the prior

written consent of I S0 (Case postale 56, 1 21 1 Geneva 20, Switzerland, Fax

+41 22 734 1 0 79) , IHS or the I S0 Licenser’s mem bers.

Reference nu mber

I S0 1 0721 -1 :1 997(E)
IS0 1 0721 4:1 997(E)

CONTENTS Page

1 SCOPE ............................................................................................ 1

2 NORMATIVE REFERENCES .......................................................... 1

3 DEFINITIONS AND SYMBOLS ..................................................... 2

3.1 Definitions ...................................................................................... 2

3.2 List of svmbols .............................................................................. 5

4 DOCUMENTATION OF THE DESIGN ......................................... 11

4.1 Calculations ................................................................................. 11

4.2 Testing ......................................................................................... 11
4.3 Documentation ............................................................................ 11

5 BASIC DESIGN PRINCIPLES ....................................................... 11

5.1 Obiectives and aeneral recommendations ............................... 11

5.2 Limit states .................................................................................. 12
5.3 Desion situations and member resistance ............................... 12

5.3.1 General ......................................................................................... 12

5.3.2 Design situations ......................................................................... 12
5.3.3 Member resistance ..................................................................... 13

6 BASIC VARIABLES ...................................................................... 13

6.1 General ......................................................................................... 13

6.2 Actions ......................................................................................... 13

6.2.1 General ......................................................................................... 13

6.2.2 Design value ................................................................................ 14

6.3 Materials ...................................................................................... 14

6.3.1 General ......................................................................................... 14

6.3.2 Structural steels .......................................................................... 14
6.3.3 Connecting devices ..................................................................... 14
6.3.4 Testing and inspection of materials .......................................... 15

6.4 Geometrical parameters ............................................................. 15

6.5 Desian vahe of resistance ......................................................... 15

Q IS0 1 997
All rights reserved. Unless otherwise specified, no part of this publication may be reproduced or
utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying and
microfilm, without permission in writing from the publisher.
International Organization for Standardization
Case postale 56 9 CH-1 21 1 Gen&ve 20 l Switzerland
Internet central Qiso.ch
X.400 c=ch; a=llOOnet; p=iso; o=isocs; s=central
Printed in Switzerland

ii
 I S0 1 0721 -l :1 997(E)
0 I S0

Page

7 ANALYSI S OF STRUCTU RES ....... ... ... ...... ........... ...... ..... . ...... ..... 15

7. 1 General ......................................................................................... 15

7. 2 Structural behaviour ................................................................... 16

7. 3 Methods of analvsis .................................................................... 16

7. 3. 1 General ......................................................................................... 16

7. 3. 2 Elastic analysis ............................................................................ 16

7. 3. 3 Elastic-plastic analysis ................................................................ 16

7. 3. 4 Plastic analysis ............................................................................ 16

8 ULTIMATE LIMIT STATES .. .......... ...... . ..... ..... ...... ...... .. .... ... .. .. .... 17

8. 1 Mem ber desian .. . ... . . ... .. .. .. . . .... . .... . ... .. . .. .. . . ... . . .. .. . . . ... . . .. .. .. . . . .. .. . .. . 17

8. 1 . 1 General ......................................................................................... 17

8. 1 . 2 Cross-sectional resistance .......................................................... 17

8. 1 . 3 Mem ber stability ......................................................................... 17

8. 2 Resistance of m em bers .... ... ... ....... .... ...... ...... . ..... ..... .... .. .. ... . ... ... 18

8. 2. 1 Mem ber strength .............. ... ... ....... .... ... ... ...... ..... . ...... .... ....... ... ... 18

8. 3 Classification of cross sections .. ....... ....... ... .. ...... ..... . .... ... .... ..... . 18

8. 3. 1 General ......................................................................................... 18

8. 3. 2 Definitions of classes .................................................................. 18

8. 3. 3 Maximum width-thickness ratios of elements su bjected to

com pression and/or bending ..................................................... 19

8. 4 Flexural buckling .. ... .... ... ....... ....... ...... .... .... ... .... ... ..... ...... ... .. ...... . 19

8. 4. 1 Effective buckling length ............................................................ 19

8. 4. 2 Slenderness ................................................................................. 19

8. 4. 3 Compressi on resistance ............................................................. 20

8. 4. 4 Buckling strength fc .................................................................... 20

8. 4. 5 Compressi on m em bers su bjected to m om en ts ....................... 20

8. 4. 6 Buckling of built-up m em bers ..................................................... 21

8. 5 Torsional and lateral torsional bucklinq ..... .. ... . ...... .... ....... ... ... . 21

8. 5. 1 Torsional buckling ...................................................................... 21

8. 5. 2 Lateral torsional buckling ........................................................... 21

8. 5. 3 Buckling strengths-f, , and fcL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

8. 5. 4 Bracing of beam s, girders and tru sses ..................................... 22

8. 6 Bucklina of plates . .. .... ...... ..... ...... ...... .... .. . ..... ...... ... .. .. ....... .. .. .... .. 22

8. 6. 1 General ......................................................................................... 22

8. 6. 2 Uniaxial force or in-plane m om ent ........................................... 22

8. 6. 3 Shear resistance of webs ........................................................... 23

8. 6. 4 Combined forces ......................................................................... 23

8. 6. 5 Webs or panels subdivided by stiffeners ................................. 23

 I S0 1 0721 -l : 1 997(E) 0 I S0

Page

8. 7 Connections. ueneral reauirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ___. . . . . . . . . . . _. 24

8. 8 Bolted connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _. 25

8. 8. 1 General ......................................................................................... 25
8. 8. 2 Bolting details .............................................................................. 25
8. 8. 3 Strength of connections with bolts and rivets ......................... 26
8. 8. 4 Slip coefficients ........................................................................... 26
8. 8. 5 Deduction for holes .................................................................... 26
8. 8. 6 Length of connection .................................................................... 27

Wel ded connections ................................................................... 27

8. 9

........................................................................................... 27
8. 9. 1 Scope

General requirements ................................................................. 28

8. 9. 2
Types of welds ............................................................................ 29
8. 9. 3
Design assumptions ................................................................... 29
8. 9. 4
Design provisions ....................................................................... 30
8. 9. 5

8. 9. 6 Complete joint penetration groove welds in butt

and tee joints ............................................................................... 30

Fillet welds ................................................................................... 32

8. 9. 7
Plug and slot welds ..................................................................... 34
8. 9. 8

Joints in contact bearinq ............................................................ 34

8. 1 0

SERVI CEABI LI TY LIMIT STATES ................................................ 34

9

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..~............................................................ 35
10 FATI GUE

. . . 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ~ *. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . 35
1 0. 1 ScoDe

General ......................................................................................... 35
1 0. 1 . I

Limitations ........................................................................... . ....... 35

1 0. 1 . 2
Situations in which no fatigue assessment is required ........... 35
1 0. 1 . 3

1 0. 2 Fatique assessm ent procedu res . ...... ..... .. .... . ... ... ..... ...... . ... ... .... . 35

1 0. 2. 1 Fatigue assessm ent based on nominal stress range ............... 36

1 0. 2. 2 Fatigue assessm ent based on a geom etric stress range ........ 37

1 0. 3 Fatiaue loading ............................................................................ 37

Fatiaue stress soectra ................................................................. 37

1 0. 4

Stress calculation ........................................................................ 37

1 0. 4. 1

1 0. 4. 2 Design stress range spectru m ................................................... 38

Fatiaue strenath . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . *. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
1 0. 5

1 0. 5. 1 Definition of fatigue strength curves for classified structural

details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. m. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . . .... ... .... . .. .... ..... ...... . .. .... . 39

1 0. 5. 2 Definition of reference fatigue strength curves for

non-classified details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..~................. 39

Fatique strenath modifications .................................................. 39

1 0. 6

1 0. 7 Partial safetv factors ................................................................... 39

iv
0 I S0 I S0 1 0721 -1 :1 997(E)

Page

1 0. 7. 1 Partial safety factors for fatigue loading ................................... 39

1 0. 7. 2 Partial safety factors for fatigue strength ................................. 40

1 0. 7. 3 Values of the partial safety factors ............................................ 40

Annex A ............................................................................................................ . 41

A. 6 BASI C VARI ABLES ....................................................................... 41

A. 6. 3 Materials ....................................................................................... 41

A. 6. 3. 2 Structural steel ............................................................................. 41

A. 7 ANALYSI S OF STRUCTURES ...................................................... 41

A. 7. 1 General .......................................................................................... 41

A. 7. 2 Structural behaviour .................................................................... 41

A. 7. 3 Methods of analvsis ..................................................................... 41

A. 7. 3. 2 Elastic analysis ............................................................................. 41

A. 7. 3. 4 Plastic analysis ............................................................................. 42

A. 8 ULTIMATE LIMIT STATE ............................................................. 42

A. 8. 2 Resistance of structural m em bers .............................................. 42

A. 8. 3 Classification of cross sections ................................................... 45

A. 8. 3. 1 General .......................................................................................... 45

A-8. 3. 2 Definitions of classes ................................................................... 46

A. 8. 3. 3 Maximum width-thickness ratios of elem ents su bjected to

compressi on and/or bending ...................................................... 46

A. 8. 4 Flexural bucklinq ........................................................................... . 48

A. 8. 4. 1 Effective length ............................................................................ 48

A. 8. 4. 2 Slenderness .................................................................................. 48

A. 8. 4. 3 Compression resistance .............................................................. 48

A. 8. 4. 4 Determination of fc ....................................................................... 48

A. 8. 4. 5 Compression m em bers su bjected to m om ents ........................ 52

A-8. 4. 6 Buckling of built-up m em bers .................................................... 56

A. 8. 5 Torsional and lateral torsional buckling .................................... 57

A. 8. 5. 3 Buckling strengths fcT and f cL. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

A. 8. 5. 4 Bracing of beam s, gi rders and trusses ...................................... 60

A. 8. 6 Bucklinq of plates ......................................................................... 61

A. 8. 6. 1 General .......................................................................................... 61

A. 8. 6. 2 Plates su bjected to uniaxial force or in-plane m om ent ............ 61

A. 8. 6. 3 Shear resistance of webs ............................................................ 65

A. 8. 6. 4 A combination of forces .............................................................. 67

A. 8. 6. 5 Webs or panels subdivided by stiffeners .................................. 70

V
 Q I S0
I S0 1 0721 4:1 997(E)

Page

A. 8. 8 Bolted connections ..................................................................... 73

A. 8. 8. 2 Bolting details .............................................................................. 73

A. 883 Strength of connections with bolts and rivets ......................... 74

A. 8. 8. 4 Slip coefficients ........................................................................... 76

A. 8. 8. 6 Length of connection .................................................................. 77

AA. 9 Wel ded connections ................................................................... 77

A. 8. 9. 2 General requirements ................................................................. 77

A. 8. 9. 4 Design assumptions ................................................................... 77

A. 8. 9. 5 Design provisions ....................................................................... 77

A. 8. 9. 6 Groove welds in butt and tee joints .......................................... 78

A. 8. 9. 7 Fillet welds ................................................................................... 78

A. 1 0 FATI GUE ...................................................................................... 79

A. lO. l Scope ........................................................................................... 79

A. 1 0. 1 . 3 Situations in which no fatigue assessment is required ........... 79

A. 1 0. 2 Fatique assessm ent orocedures ................................................ 80

A. 1 0. 2. 1 Fatigue assessm ent based on nominal stress range ............... 80

A. 1 0. 2. 2 Fatigue assessm ent based on a geom etri c stress range ........ 80

A. 1 0. 3 Fatiaue loadinq ............................................................................ 80

A. 1 0. 4 Fatiaue stress sbectra ................................................................. 81

A. 1 0. 4. 2 Design stress range spectru m ................................................... 81

A. 1 0. 5 Fatiaue strength .......................................................................... 81

A. 1 0. 5. 1 Definition of fatigue strength curves for classified

constructional details ................................................................. 84

A. 1 0. 5. 2 Definition of reference fatigue strength curves for

non-classified details ................................................................ 1 05

A. 1 0. 6 Fatigue strenath modifications ................................................ 1 05

A. 1 0. 6. 1 Influence of m ean stress level in non-welded or stress

relieved welded details ............................................................. 1 05

A. 1 0. 6. 2 Influence of thickness ............................................................... 1 05

A. 1 0. 7 Partial safetv factors ................................................................. 1 05

A. 1 0. 7. 3 Values of partial factors ............................................................ 1 05

Annex B (Reference publications) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . *. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 07

vi
0 IS0 IS0 1 0721 -1 :1 997(E)

Foreword
IS0 (the International Organization for Standardization) is a worldwide federation of national standards bodies (IS0
member bodies). The work of preparing International Standards is normally carried out through IS0 technical
committees. Each member body interested in a subject for which a technical committee has been established has
the right to be represented on that committee. International organizations, governmental and non-governmental, in
liaison with ISO, also take part in the work. IS0 collaborates closely with the International Electrotechnical
Commission (IEC) on all matters of electrotechnical standardization.
Draft International Standards adopted by the technical committees are circulated to the member bodies for voting.
Publication as an International Standard requires approval by at least 75 % of the member bodies casting a vote.
International Standard IS0 1 0721 -l was prepared by Technical Committee lSO/TC 1 67, Steel and aluminium
structures, Subcommittee SC 1 , Steel: Material and design.
IS0 1 0721 consists of the following parts under the general title Steel and aluminium structures:
- Part 1 : Materials and design
- Part 2: Fabrication and erection
Annexes A and 6 of this part of IS0 1 0721 are for information only.

vii
 I S0 1 0721 =1 :1 997(E) 0 I S0

I ntrodu cti on

This part of I S0 1 0721 establishes a common basis for drafting national standards for the use of materials in steel
structures and for their design, in order to ensure adequate and consistent measures regarding safety and
serviceability.

Annex A of this part of I S0 1 0721 contains noncompulsory recommendations which may be used as guidelines for
practical design.

The speci fic and numerical requirements for the completion of structures which are optimal with respect to the
state of a country’s economy, development and general values should be given in the national codes of the
country.

The design rules given concern limit-state verifications for comparing the effects of actions or combinations of
actions with the strength (resistance) of the structure and its components.

...
VI I I
I NTERNATI ONAL STAN DARD o I S0 I S0 1 0721 -1 :1 997(E)

Steel structu res -

Part 1 :
M ateri al s an d desi g n

1 Scope

This part of I S0 1 0721 establishes the principles and general rules for the use of steel materials and design of steel
structures in buildings.

NOTE 1 The degree of reliability should be as speci fied in national codes. In the establishment of design safety factors,
due consideration should also be given to I S0 1 0721 -2 for fabrication of steel structures.

This part of I S0 1 0721 is also applicable to bridges, off-shore and other civil engineering and related structures, but
for such structures it may be necessary to consider other requirements.

This part of I S0 1 0721 does not cover the special requirements for steel structures in corrosive environments
beyond normal atmospheric conditions and corrosion protection with regard to fatigue design.

This part of I S0 1 0721 does not cover the special requirements of seismic design.

For welded connections and for structures su bject to fatigue, special considerations regarding the scope of this
document are presented in 8. 9 and 1 0. 1 respectively.

N OTE 2 Rules and recommendations regarding composi te steel and concrete structures and fi re safety of steel structures
will subsequently be issued as separate International Standards.

2 N orm ati ve references

The following standards contain provisions which, through reference in this text, constitute provisions of this part of
I S0 1 0721 . At the ti me of publication, the editions indicated were valid. All standards are su bject to revision, and
parties to agreements based on this part of I S0 1 0721 are encouraged to investigate the possibility of applying the
most recent editions of the standards indicated below. Members of I EC and I S0 maintain registers of currently
valid International Standards.

I S0 630: 1 995, Structural steel - Plates, wide fl ats, bars, sections and profi les.

I S0 898:1 988-l 994, Mechanical properties of fasteners (all parts) .

I S0 2394: -“, Genera/ principles on reliability of structures.

I S0 3989: -“, Bases for design of structures - Notations - General symbols.

I S0 4753: 1 983, Fasteners - Ends of parts with external metri c I S0 thread.

I S0 4951 : 1 979, High yield strength steel bars and sections

I S0 6892: -3’, Metallic materials - Tensile testing at ambient temperature.

1 ) To be published. (Revision of I S0 2394:1 986)

2) To be published. (Revision of I S0 3898:1 987)

3) To be published. (Revision of I S0 6892:i 984, replacing I S0 82:1 974)

 8 I S0
I S0 1 0721 -1 :1 997(E)

3 DEFI NI TI ONS AND SYMBOLS

For the purposes of this part of I S0 1 0721 , the following definitions and symbols apply.

3. 1 Definitions

Limit states: The states beyond which the structure no longer satisfies the

design requirements.

U ltimate limit state: The limit states corresponding to the maximum load carrying

resistance (safety related) .

Serviceability limit The limit states related to normal use (often related to function).

state:

Specified life: The ti m e the structure is to be used under the given design

assumptions.

Direct action: One or a set of concentrated or distributed forces acting on the

structure, such as seffweight, i m posed specified actions, wind,

etc.

I ndirect action: The cause of i m posed or constrained deform ations in the

structure, such as tem peratu re effects, settlements, creep etc.

Nominal action: The numerical value of an action sither defined by the authorities

or by the contract docu ments. When this value corresponds to a

specified probability to be exceeded within a specified reference

ti m e, it is called characteristic action, and it is calculated in

accordance with I S0 2394.

Design action: Actions used in calculations. The design action is the nominal

action multiplied by its partial safety factor y, , or it is the

combination of nominal actions, each multiplied by its partial

safety factor yr for the relevant limit state.

0 I S0 I S0 1 0721 -1 :1 997(E)

Shake down: The process of local yielding due to the initial applications of

variable actions, leading to a condition of residual stress where

all further applications can be sustained elastically (applies

particularly to the form ati on of plastic hinges).

Variable action: Action which is unlikely to act throughout a given design situa-

tion or for which the variation in magnitude with ti me is not .

monotonic nor negligible in relation to the mean value.

Repetetive action: Design action which involves stress fluctuations leading to

possible fatigue effects, i. e. it is the design action to be used for

checking the fatique limit state.

Characteristic The value of material properti es established by its specified

material property: occurrence taking account of control conditions and statistical

variability.

Design material The value of material properties obtained by dividing the

property: characteristic property by a partial m aterial safety factor.

Nominal strength The strength or resistance value based on specified

or resi stance: characteristic m ateri al and geom etric properties.

Design strength The nominal strength or resistance divided by the

or resistance: appropriate partial safety factor for resistance, y, .

N ormal use: N orm al use is that which conform s to the loading and

perform ance intended by the designer, or as specified in

codes of practi ce, or by other relevant requirements.

Fatigue: Dam ag e, by gradual crack propagation in a stuctural part, caused

by repeated stress fluctuations.

Fatigue loading: A set of typical load events described by the position of loads,

their intensities and their relative occurence.

Loading event: A defined loading sequence applied to the structure and giving

rise to a stress history variation.

Equivalent A simplified fatigue loading representing the fatigue effects of all

fatigue loading: loadings events.

Stress history: A record or a calculation of the stress variation at a particular

point of a structure during the load event.

Stress range: The algebraic difference between two extrema of the stress

history (Aos = a, , , , - a, , or AT = T, . , , = - T, , +, ) . This difference

is usually identified by a stress cycle counting m ethod.

Nominal stress: A fatigue design stress in the parent material adjacent to

potential crack location calculated in accordance to simple elastic

strength of materi als theory. For the purpose of fatigue

assessm ent of a particular class of constructional detail, the

design stress is either the normal stress (axial and bending

stress) or/and the shear stress. Where there is a geom etri c

discontinuity, not taken into account in the classi-

fication of the constructional detail, the nominal stress shall be

modified by the use of stress concentration factors.

 0 I S0
I SO1 0721 -1 :1 997(E)

Geom etric stress: A fatigue design stress, adjacent to the weld toe, defined as the

extrapolation of the maximum principal stresses. The geom etric

stress takes into account the overall geom etry of the

constructional detail, excluding local stress concentration effects

due to weld geom etry and inherent defects in weld and adjacent

parent m etal. (The geometri c stress is often referred in the

litterature as the “hot spot stress”) .

Cycle counting: A particular method used for counting the number of stress

cycles and related stress ranges from a stress history.

Stress-range H i stogram of the frequency of occurrence for all stress ranges

spectru m : of different magnitudes recorded or calculated for a particular

loading event.

Design spectru m : The total of all stress spectra relevant to the fatigue assess-

ment.

Equivalent stress The constant-amplitude stress range that would result in the

range: sam e fatigue life (number of cycles of stress ranges) as for the

spectru m of variable amplitude stress ranges based on a Miner’s

su mmation.

Miner’s sum mation: A cumulative linear dam age calculation based on the

Palmgren-Miner rule.

Constant amplitude The limiting stress range value above which a fatigue

fatigue limit: assessm ent is necessary.

Detail category: The designation given to a particular welded or bolted detail, in

order to indicate which fatigue strength curve is applicable for

the fatigue assessm ent.

Fatigue strength The quantitative relationship between stress range and

curve: number of stress cycles to fatigue failure (selected on the basis

of a statistical analysis of available test data of a constructional

detail).

Design life: The reference period of ti me for which a structure is required to

perform safely with an acceptable probability that failure by

fatigue or cracking will not occur.

Cut-off limit: Limit below .which stress ranges of the design spectru m do not

contribute to fatigue dam ag e.

Groove (butt) weld: A weld m ade in a preparation to receive weld m etal. (Also

referred to as a butt weld).

4
0 I S0 I S0 1 0721 4:1 997(E)

Logdo

Fatigu e strength curve

Fig. 3. 1 Fatigue strength curve definitions

3. 2 List of svmbols

(see also I S0 3898)

LATI N U PPER CASE LETTERS:

A Cross-sectional area

4 Effective cross-section area

Gross section area

AC4

AL Cross-sectional area of longitudinal stiffener

A, Effective area of longitudinal stiffener

A, For fillet welds, A, = effective size multiplied by its length.

For butt joi nts, A, = thickness of base m etal multiplied by its length. For

T-joints, A, , , = size of fusion face in base m etal multiplied by the length of

the weld

A, N et section area

A, Cross-sectional area of a stiffener

ASP Nominal area of the threaded part of a bolt

4 Cross-sectional area of transverse stiffener

4. Effective shear area of bolts

4, Cross-sectional area of web

Effective area of weld (effective throat of weld multiplied by its length).

For plug or slot welds, A, = area of faying surface

5
 0 I S0
I S0 1 0721 -1 :1 997(E)

B Coefficient

L Warpi ng constant of torsion for the cross-section

E Modulus of elasticity (Young’s modulus)

ET Tangent modulus

F Force, action

Fb Bearing resistance of bolts

Fk Characteristic action

FrJ Design force, action

. FP Preloading force in bolts

F‘ Slip resistance of bolts

Ft. Tensile force resistance of bolts

FV Shear force resistance of bolts

G Modulus of shear = E/ (2(1 +u) )

It I , , I, Moment of inertia (about y- and z-axis, respectively)

4 Moment of inertia of a stiffener

Polar m om en t of inertia
4

I, St. Venant torsion constant of the cross-section

KS Coefficient for buckling length

Ki Coefficients (i = l-51

L Length

LE Effective length (in buckling)

Laterally unsupported length

L Load distribution length

M, M, , M, Bending m om en t (about y- and z-axis, respectively)

Mrdr Mdyr M , , Moment resistance (abou t y and z-axis, respectively)

M . 9, Reduced m om en t resistance

MEL Elastic lateral torsional buckling m om ent

W Plastic m om en t of flanges

MLd Moment resistance in lateral torsional

buckling

Plastic m om ent = f, W,
0 IS0 IS0 1 0721 -I :I 997(E)

Ml Torsional moment
MW Plastic moment of web
MY Yield moment = f,W
M,, M, The larger and the smaller moments at the supported ends of a member
N Normal force fchapt. 81
N Number of fatigue strength cycles (chapt 1 0)
N cd Buckling resistance (chapt. 8)
NC Number of cycles (2.1 0”) at which the reference value of the fatigue
strength curve is defined (chapt. 1 0)
N,,, N,z Buckling resistance about y- and z- axis, respectively
ND Number of cycles for which the constant amplitude fatigue limit is defined
(= 5.1 0”)
N, Normal force resistance
NV, Normal force design resistance
NE, b % Elastic buckling force of a pinned column = ~2rr2 El
(about the y- and z-axis, respectivelyf.
N Ear Elastic buckling load of a structure = L,’n= El
NET Elastic torsional buckling load
Ni Number of cycles of stress Aq to cause failure
Nl. Number of cycles for which the cut-off limit is defined (= 1 0’)
Plastic normal force resistance
N Td Torsional buckling resistance
N vd Ultimate tensile yield force resistance
kd Ultimate tensile strength
P Concentrated force
‘d Concentrated force resistance
R Resistance
S Static moment of area
T Tensile force (in a bolt)
v Shear force
V, Shear resistance
7
IS0 1 0721 -1 :1 997(E) 0 IS0

vi Notional shear force in built up members

w, WV, w, Elastic section modulus
we, we0 we, Elastic section modulus of the effective cross section
w,, w,,, w,z Plastic section modulus

LATIN LOWER CASE LETTERS:

a, a,, a, Distance. The weld throat “a-dimension”
b Width (of plates)
bea be,. be, Effective width
C Distance
CL, =t Coefficients for stiffeners
d Diameter. Depth
d, Effective depth
e, e,, e, Eccentricity. Distance (for bolts)
ftl Bearing strength in bolted connections
L fcyr f,, Buckling strength (about y- and z-axis, respectively)
fed fJv,
f CL Lateral torsional buckling strength
f CT Torsional buckling strength
fd Desrgn strength
f =P Local elastic plate buckling strength
f” Specified ultimate tensile strength of base material or bolt material
fw Specified ultimate tensile strength of weld material
fv Specified yield strength of material or the stress giving 0.2 % permanent
strain
f VC Reduced (effective) yield strength of material
fvw Specified yield strength of weld material
g Distance between bolt holes (the gauge)
h Height (of web)
he Effective heigth
i, i,, i, Radius of gyration (about y- and z-axis, respectively)
8
0 I S0 I S0 1 0721 -1 :1 997(E)

Polar radius of gyration

4

k, k Coefficient for the effect of the stress distribution and the support

conditions on elastic plate buckling

k, , k Compressi on m em ber buckling coefficients

k Elastic shear buckling coefficient

I Length, span

m Slope constant of the fatigue strength curve. The curves have slopes of

-1 1 3 and /or -l/5 and the corresponding values of the slope constant m

are 3 and 5

n N u mber. Coefficient (for bu ilt-u p-m embers)

4 Equivalent number of stress cycles

ni Nu m ber of applied stress cycles Au,

r Radius

S Distance between bolt holes (the staggered pitch) . Wel d size for T-welds

t Thickness

1,
Flange thickness

Lv
Web thickness

x Ye z Cartesian Coordinates (x along m em ber axis)

Y. 1 z,
Shear center coordinates

GREEK LETTERS:

a Angle. Buckling curve designation. Coefficient for arbitary eccentricity of

column load. Bearing stress coefficient for bolted connections. Aspect

ratio for plates

P Coefficient for arbitrary eccentricity. Reduction coefficient for the length

of bolted connections

Equivalent uniform m om en t coefficient for beam-colum ns

Partial coefficient

Partial safety factor for actions

Partial safety factor for resistance (in this document identified as

resistance factor)

Vrc Resistance factor for a connection

Vr, Slip resistance factor

9
 IS0 1 0721 -1 :1 997(E) 0 IS0

AC7 Nominal stress range (normal stress)

AT Nominal stress range (shear stress)
A% Reference value of the fatigue strength at 2 million cycles (normal stress)
A% Stress range corresponding to the constant amplitude fatigue limit, simply
called the *‘fatigue limit”
Equivalent stress range of constant .amplitude cycles (normal stress)
Acr, Stress range corresponding to the cut-off limit
Fatigue strength (normal stress)
Reference value of the fatigue strength at 2 million cycles (shear stress1
AT, Fatigue strength (shear stress)
L 4 Initial out-of straightness
Strain
Coefficient. Coordinate
kt k, Coefficient
A Slenderness
Slenderness parameter = ndE/f,
Relative slenderness of columns
Relative slenderness limit, below which strain hardening effects in
columns occur
Effective relative slenderness for members with L-sections
Relative slenderness of plate
Effective relative slenderness for built-up members
P Slip coefficient
Coefficients (flexural buckling)
PL Coefficient (lateral torsional buckling)
9 Lateral torsional buckling coefficient
ru, Cross sectional parameter
WV1 wz Coefficient (bending moment diagram)

10
0 I S0 I S0 1 0721 -1 :1 997(E)

4 DOCUMENTATI ON OF THE DESI GN

4. 1 Calculations

Design calculations shall include

- design assumptions (calculation m odel) ,

- action arrangem ents (including im posed actions) ,

- material properti es,

- properties of connecting devices and

- verification of the relevant limit states.

4. 2 Testinq

4. 2. 1 The design m ay be verified by testing, or by testing combined with calculations.

4. 2. 2 The magnitude and distribution of actions during tests shall correspond to the design

actions for the relevant limit states.

4. 2. 3 Sam ple size, scale effects and other relevant effects shall be considered in establishing

the design strength of the structure or structural element.

4. 3 Documentation

The calculations, drawings, or other relevant docu ments shall be presented in a manner

which is appropriate to the information and documentation requ irements.

5 BASI C DESI GN PRI NCI PLES

5. 1 Obiectives and aeneral recomm endati ons

Stru ctures or structural elements shall be designed and maintained such that they, with

an appropriate degree of reliability,

- will sustain actions likely to occur

- will perform adequately in normal use

- have a sufficient durability.

These requirements, which can be satisfied by use of this code, shall apply throughout

the specified life of a structure, including the period of construction.

The degree of reliability should be chosen to account for the possible consequences of

exceeding the design criteria of the limit states. These consequences will vary. The

following classification is appropriate:

- ri sk to life is negligible and econom ic consequences are small or negligible

- ri sk to life exists and/or economic consequences are considerable

- ri sk to life is high and/or economic consequences are great.

The choice of structural concept should also take into account accidental events and

their possible consequences. The main structure should as far as practical not be

dam ag ed to an extent which is disproportionate to the accidental event.

11
 I S0 1 0721 -1 :1 997(E)

The design of steel structures should aim at a ductile behaviour, avoiding brittle fractu re

by appropriate choice of m ateri als, material thickness, connections and selection of

details and fabrication m ethods. See also 6. 3. 2. 3.

Limit states

The structural perform ance of a whole structure or parts of it shall be descri bed with

reference to limit states.

The limit states. are classified into the following two categories, which may also be

subclassified:

al The ultimate limit states.

b) The serviceability limit states.

U lti mate Lim it States correspond to:

- overturning of the stru cture, or parts of the structure;

- rupture of critical sections of the structure due to exceedance of the material

strength;

- transformati on of the structure into a m echanism (collapse) ;

- loss of stability (buckling, etc. ) ;

- excessive displacements or deformations, leading to a change of geometry, which

necessitates replacing the structure;

- failure of a structure or a m em ber su bjected to repetitive actions (fatigue) .

The Serviceability Limit States correspond to:

- deformations which affect the normal use or perform ance of structural or

non-structural elem ents;

- oscillations producing di scom fort or affecting structural or non-structural elements

or equipment;

- local dam age, including limited cracking, which reduces the durability of a

structure or affects the perform ance of structural or non- structural elements.

Desian situations and m em ber resistance

5. 3. 1 General
---

All relevant limit states shall be considered in design. A calculation model shafl be

established for each specific limit state.

5. 3. 2 Design situations

For any structure it is generally necessary to consider

several design situations. . Corresponding to each of these, there m ay be different

structural system s, different reliability requirements, different design values, and different

environmental conditions. The design situations m ay include permanent, transient and

accidental conditions.

12
0 I S0 I S0 1 0721 4:1 997(E)

5. 3. 3 M em ber resistance
_^-. --. _-.
_---_--I --

5. 3. 3. 1 For the ultimate limit states, the structure shall be designed for sufficient resistance, i. e.

strength and/or stability. At every part of the structure the m em ber resistance shall be

larger than or equal to the action effects of the relevant ultimate limit load cases.

5. 3. 3. 2 Variable and repetitive actions shall be considered. At. . . every part of the structure the

fatigue strength shall be larger than or equal to the effects of the repetetive actions.

5. 3. 3. 3 For the serviceability limit states the structure shall be designed to eliminate unacceptable

levels of vibration, deflections or slip under the effects of the relevant serviceability

actions.

6 BASI C VARI ABLES

6. 1 General

The design assumptions shall include the necessary set of basic variables. The normal

basic variables are the relevant param eters characterizing:

- actions;

- m ateri al properti es;

- structural Qeom etry;

- environmental conditions.

Other variables shall also be considered, such as uncertainties of calculation m odels.

6. 2 Actions

6. 2. 1 General
--em

Actions are characterized as

1. Direct actions:

One or an assembly of concentrated or distributed forces acting on the structure,

such as selfweight, i m posed specified actions, wind etc.

2. I ndirect actions:

The result of i m posed or constrained deformati ons in the structu re, such as

tem peratu re effects, settlements, creep etc.

For characteristic values of the actions, reference is m ade to the relevant I S0 standard or

to the appropriate national standards.

According to their occurrence in ti m e and to the variation of their magnitude with ti m e,

actions are classified as follows:

- perm anent actions,

- variable actions,

- repetitive actions,

- accidental actions,

- temporary or transient actions.

A load case com pri ses a relevant combination of actions.

13
I S0 1 0721 4:1 997(E) 0 I S0

According to the way in which the structure responds to an action, one may distinguish

between

- static actions, which are acting on the structure without causing any significant

oscillations of the structure or parts of the structure.

- dynamic actions, which may cause i mpact effects or significant oscillations of the

structure or parts of the structure.

- repetitive actions, which m ay cause fatigue.

Dynamic actions, which cause i m pact effects, m ay be handled as static by an appropri ate

increase of the magnitude of its corresponding static effect, except for the cases when

such dynamic effects are cyclical or repetitive.

6. 2. 2 Design Value
__. __._.
- - _-_-.
--.
.

For a specific limit state the design value, F, , is the representative action or combination

of representative actions, F, , each multiplied by a partial coefficient, y, , i. e.

6. 3 Materials

6. 3. 1 General
---

All m ateri al shall be suitable for its intended use.

6. 3. 2 Structural steels
-- --

6. 3. 2. 1 The steel to be used shall conform to the requ irements of I S0 630 and I S0 4951 or to

the requirements of the appropriate national standards for structural steels.

6. 3. 2. 2 The dimensions and m ass of all steel sections and plates and their dimensional and m ass

tolerances, shall comply with the relevant I S0 or national standards.

6. 3. 2. 3 When elements of the structure may be used at low tem peratu res, consideration shall be

given to notch toughness- characteristics of the steel to avoid brittle fracture. This is

particularly necessary where thick welded constructions are su bjected to tensile stresses.

The selected steel shall be of sufficient toughness and the structure shall be designed

with specific attention to minimizing notches and stress concentrations.

A higher notch tOU Qhnk?SS specification may be required for steel which is to be cold

form ed and welded.

6. 3. 2. 4 Weldability shall be considered when selecting the appropriate grades of steel.

Weldability may be determ ined on the basis of the carbon equivalent value or other

relevant param eters. See also 8. 9. 1 .

When an element is stressed in tension normal to its rolling plane via heavy welds on the

surface, lamellar tearing shall be considered. See also 8. 9. 2. 7. The ri sk of lamellar

tearing may be reduced by using steel with specified through thickness ductility in the

element concerned.

6. 3. 3 Connecting devices
-

6. 3. 3. 1 Connecting devices covered by the design rules of this standard are bolts, studs, rivets

and welds.

14
Q I S0 I S0 1 072+1 :1 997(E)

6. 3. 3. 2 All bolts, nuts and washers, including plated com ponents, shall conform to the relevant

I S0 standards, or to the appropriate national standards. Bolts used for stru ctures

covered by this standard, shall not be of higher grade than 1 0. 9, see I S0 898.

Nuts for preloaded bolts or bolts loaded in tension shall be such that stripping failure will

not occur pri or to bolt failure.

6. 3. 3. 3 All material for riveting shall conform to the appropri ate national standard.

6. 3. 3. 4 All welding consumables shall conform to the appropriate I SO, IIW or national standards.

6. 3. 4 Testing and inspection of m aterials

. ___. _. . -_-. _--~ __. . ~ . . ~ ~ -. ---. -~ -. ~ ----. --.

Methods for testing and inspection shall be in accordance with the appropri ate I S0 or

national standards.

6. 4 Geometrical oaram eters

Geometry of the structure shall be uniquely described, i. e. shape, size and arrangem ent

of the structure and its elements. Tolerances shall be included if they are im portant. to

the resistance of the structure.

6. 5 Desian value of resistance

The design value of resistance R, shall be determined by dividing the characteristic value

of resistance R by the appropriate resistance factors y, , i. e.

R, = R/y,

See I S0 2394, General principles on reliability for structures.

The resistance factor y, com prises uncertainties from :

- the possible systemati c deviation and the variability of the material properti es

(such as f, , f, and E) and the geom etri cal cross-sectional dimensions and the

derived cross-sectional properti es (such as A, I , W, W, , i),

- the prediction of m em ber resistance, i. e. the deviation between the actual m em ber

resistance and the resistance based on calculations, m odels or tests.

7 ANALYSI S OF STRUCTU RES

7. 1 General

Calculation m odels and basic assumptions for the calculations shall represent the

structural response according to the limit state under consideration.

The distribution of internal forces and bending m om en ts shall be determi ned either by

calculations or testing.

In proportioning the structure to m eet the various design requirements, the m ethods of

analysis given in this chapter shall be used, as appropriate. The distributions of internal

forces and bending m om ents shall be determ ined under:

- U ltimate limit state actions, to satisfy strength and overturning requirements;

- Serviceability actions, to’satisfy the requirements of serviceability;

- Repetitive actions, for the fatigue safety assessment.

15
 I S0 1 0721 -l :1 997(E) 0 I S0

7. 2 Structural behaviour

The influence of deformati ons shall be considered.

The analysis referred to in 7. 1 shall, where sway effects are significant, include the sway

effects produced by the vertical actions acting on the structure in its displaced configu-

ration. For som e types of structu res where the vertical actions are small and the

structure is relatively sti ff, and where the lateral displacement resisting elements are well

distributed, the sway effect m ay be insignificant.

In all cases, the details of m em bers and connections should be consistent with the

assumptions m ade in the design, without adversely affecting any other part of the

stru cture.

Effects such as the distortions of semi-rigid connections and the siip in long slotted holes

shall be considered for strength and stability at the ultimate limit states.

7. 3 Methods of analvsis

7. 3. 1 General
.-

An ultimate limit state for which the structure will have a ductile m ode of failure, may be

analyzed by either of the m ethods given in 7. 3. 2 - 7. 3. 4.

7. 3. 2 Elastic analysis
--_----

The forces and m om ents throughout all or parts of the structure m ay be determined by

an analysis which assu m es that individual m em bers behave elastically.

Having determ ined the forces and m om ents on the basis of an elastic analysis, the

resistance of the structural m em bers may be based either on the fi rst yield criterion in

accordance with theory of elasticity or on the Strength of the cross section in accordance

with Chapter 8.

7. 3. 3 Elastic-plastic analysis
-

For each combination of actions the forces and m om en ts throughout all or parts of the

structure may be determi ned by an analysis which considers the non-linear force-defor-

mation relationship of the structural parts.

7. 3. 4 Plastic analysis

For each combination of actions, the forces and m om en ts throughout all or parts of the

stru cture may be determi ned by a plastic analysis provided that:

a) The steel m ateri al exhibits the stress-strain characteristics necessary to achieve

m om en t redistribution.

b) The relevant widththickness ratios m eet the requirements of cross-sections of class I,

as given in 8. 3. 3.

c) The m em bers are prevented from prem atu re lateral buckling in accordance with

requi rements, for instance as given in A. 7. 3. 4.

d) Web stiffeners are supplied at points of concentrated actions where plastic hinges

will form . This requirement need not be m et at the location of the last plastic hinge.

16
0 IS0 IS0 1 0721 4:1 997(E)

e) Except for those splices designed and detailed to behave as hinges, splices occurring
within the length of a member shall have an adequate deformability and shall be
designed to transmit at least 1 .l times the maximum computed force at the splice
location. The design strength need not exceed the full resistance of the member but
shall be at least 25 % of that resistance.
Unless specific provisions have been made in both the analysis and design, plastic design
shall not be used for structures subjected to alternating plasticity which leads to
incremental collapse.
For structures subjected to variable actions of high amplitude which could cause repeated
plastic deformations leading to incremental collapse, the design action shall not exceed
the shake down resistance.
The resistance of the member is the full strength of the cross-section. The behaviour
corresponding to this strength is complete yielding under the given actioneffects whether
in tension, compression, shear or bending.

8 ULTIMATE LIMIT STATES

8.1 Member desinn
8.1 .l General
a-mu--
The resistance of the members should be checked against the internal forces and
moments, derived from the structural analysis.
In all cases the resistance of the members shall not be less than the effects of the
relevant design actions. The member resistance depends on a criterion either of strength
or of overall stability.
The member cross-section should be considered at critical positions along its length for
each of, or combination of:
-. axial tension
- axial compression
- bending about either axis
- directional or torsional shear.
For structures analysed plastically, where a redistribution of moments is taken into
account, special requirements a&placed on the material behaviour and structural
geometry to ensure that the structure will behave as assumed in design, see 7.3.4 and
8.3.3.
8.1 .2 Cross-sectional resistance
------
Cross-sectional strength is determined on the basis of a classification system, see 8.3.
The particular classification wil depend on the behaviour of the cross-section and on its
orientation.
For class 1 and class 2 sections the resistance of a cross section is the full plastic
strength. For class 3 and class 4 sections local buckling may occur before the full plastic
Strength can be attained.
8.1 .3 Member stability
----.-.---
Where member instability occurs at the ultimate limit state, the resistance of the member
is based on 8.4 and 8.5 for class 1 , 2 and 3 sections, and on 8.6 for class 4 sections.
17
I S0 1 0721 -1 :1 997(E) 0 I S0

8. 2 Resistance of m em bers

8. 2. 1 Mem ber strength

_---. ----_I ---

For class 1 or 2 sections where no instability occurs prior to the ultimate limit state, the

resistance of a structural element is based on the full Strength of the cross-section.

This strength involves yielding under the given actions whether in tension, compression

or bending;

The resistance of tension m em bers is governed by yielding or fractu re as given in

A. 8. 2. 1 . l.

For m em bers or parts of m em bers su bjected to com pressi on, with the exception of

class 4 sections, limitations are im posed on the width-thickness rati os to ensure that

prematu re local instability will not occu r, see 8. 3. 3. For m em bers su bjected to bending

the section class also depends on the axis about which the m em bers is bent.

For m em bers with a cross-section of class 4 the effects of local buckling shall be

adequately included.

8. 3 Classification of cross sections

8. 3. 1 General
--

Mem bers are designated as class 1, 2, 3 or 4 depending on the maximum

width-thickness ratios of their cross-sectional elem ents su bject to compression, and/or

bending, and thus on the capability of the m em ber to resist local buckling.

8. 3. 2 Definitions of classes
----

Class I: Cross-sections which can develop yielding in the entire cross-section, and

perm it sufficient rotations to allow redistribution of m om ents in the structure.

Class 2: Cross-sections which can develop yielding in the entire cross-section, but local

buckling prevents sufficient rotations at constant m om ent and therefore limits

redistribution of m om en ts in the structure.

Class 3: Cross-sections which can attain the yield strain at the extreme fibres of the

compression zone, and, becau se of local buckling, are prevented from

developing full plasticity.

Class 4: Cross-sections which do not qualify as class 1, 2 or 3 sections, and, because of

local buckling, are prevented from attaining gross yielding in compression.

Class I cross-secti ons shall, when containing a plastic hinge, have an axis of sym metry in

the plane of the action. Class 1 cross-sections without an axis of sym m etry may be used

when the design does not require plastic hinges, in which case lateral bending and

torsion m u st be taken into account.

Class 2 cross-secti ons shall, when su bjected to flexure, have an axis of symm etry in the

plane of the action, unless the effects of possible asym metry are included in the analysis.

By use of a reduced yield stress ‘fye, see A. 8. 3. 2, or by using a width reduced to m eet

Class 1 section requirements, such sections may be regarded as class 1 sections.

Class 2 cross sections m ay be used for plastic design provided that the rotation capacity

required at locations of plastic hinges can be achieved by the section.

Local buckling does not further govern the design of a m em ber if the proportions of the

cross-section do not exceed the limiting values given in Table A. 8. 3. 3 for class I and 2

cross-sections.

18
0 I S0 I S0 1 0721 -l :1 997(E)

8. 3. 3 Maximum width-thickness ratios of elements su bjected to com pression and/or bendina

Maximum width thickness ratios of cross-sectional elements su bjected to compression

and/or bending shall be given in the national standards.

Recom m ended width-thickness ratios for cross-secti ons of class 1 , 2 and 3 are given in

Table A. 8. 3. 3. For class 4 sections the m em ber resistance m ay be determi ned by the

m ethods given in A. 8. 6.

8. 4 Flexural buckling

8. 4. 1 Effective buckling length

. . . ^_. . ----I --^^---.

The effective IenQth L, of a compression m em ber m ay be defined as L, = K, L, where

and N Ecris the theoretical elastic buckling load of the actual column, com pu ted with due

regard to rotational and translational restraints, and L is the geom etri cal length of the

m em ber, i. e. distance between the centres of joints.

8. 4. 1 . 1 For compressi on m em bers in trusses or fram es the effective length should be considered

for buckling both in and out of the plane of the truss or fram e.

8. 4. 1 . 2 The effective in-plane buckling length of com pressed m em bers in trusses or fram es

should be esti m ated with due consideration of the cross-section of the m em bers and their

end restraints. When estimating out of plane effective lengths of com pressed m em bers,

the end restraint of the m em bers and the resistance to displacements of the restraining

m em bers out of the plane of the trestle fram e should be taken into consideration.

8. 4. 1 . 3 For structures with m om ent resisting fram es in which the sway effects have been

included in the analysis to determ ine the m om ents and forces in the m em bers, or for

structures in which the sway effects, in addition to the lateral actions, are resisted by

bracing or shear walls, the effective length factor, K, , shall be taken eoual to 1 . O, unless

the degree of rotational rest. raints afforded at the ends of the unbraced lengths show that

a value of K, less than 1 . O is applicable.

For structures with m om ent resisting fram es in which sway effects have not been

included in the analysis used to determine the design m om en ts and forces, the effective

length factor shall be determ ined from the degree of rotational and translational restraints

afforded at the ends of the unbraced length, but shall not be less than 1 . O.

8. 4. 2 Slenderness
-

The relative slenderness is defined by

5;= -N r
J N Em
where N , is the cross-sectional, normal force resistance and N Esr is the elestic buckling

load.

The relative slenderness for class 1, 2 and 3 sections is the slenderness A divided by a

factor A,

E
where 1, = TF~

Y
19
 I S0 1 0721 -1 :1 997(E) 0 I S0

The relative slenderness is introduced to obtain formulae and diagram s which are

independent of the yield strength of the steel m aterial.

The slenderness A should be taken as the effective length L, divided by the radius of

gyration of the cross-section, calculated with respect to its relevant axis of buckling:

Due to serviceability and erection requirem ents, limitations for the slenderness of

compressi on m em bers m ay be given in national standards. See also 9. 2 regarding

vibration considerations.

8. 4. 3 Compression resistance
-. - --

Compression resistance of a m em ber su bjected to an axial force depends on the

slenderness Q, the yield strength f, and the cross-sectional properties.

For cross-secti ons of class I , 2 or 3, see 8. 3. 3, the resistance is

= 1 f, . A, = f, . As
N,
Yr

For a column with a cross-section of Class 4 the com pression resistance mu st also

include the effects of local buckling.

8. 4. 4 Buckling strength f,

Buckling curves for the determination of f, should represent the maximum load resistance

of the actual m em ber. When using the curves a computational model with effective

length L, and simple end conditions, i. e. translational restraints only, is adopted.

The following shall be accounted for in the derivation of the buckling curves:

al magnitude and distribution of the residual stresses

b) out-of-straightness due to manufacture

The actual curve to be used will depend on the cross-sectional shape, manufacturing

process as it affects residual stresses and out-of-straightness, and the axis of buckling.

Buckling curves given in A. 8. 4. 4, National Standards, or the Structural Stability

Research Council’s Guide to Stability Design Criteria for Metal Structu res, accounting for

the preceding effects, are considered acceptable.

8. 4. 5 Compression m em bers su bject to m om ents

The resistance of compressi on m em bers su bject to m om en ts m ay be checked using

interaction equations as given in national standards. Such interaction equations shall

a) provide sufficiently good statistical correlation with experimental results or

numerical simulations so that resistance factors can be evaluated.

b) take into account such effects as the amplification of bending m om en ts due to

the axial force acting on the deform ed shape of the m em ber, the variation of

bending m om ents along the length of the m em ber, torsional or lateral torsional

buckling; initial ou t-of-straightness, residual stresses.

cl give valid results for any combinations of N, M, and M, .

20 Examples of interaction equations are given in A. 8. 4. 5.

0 I S0 I S0 1 0721 -1 :1 997(E)

8. 4. 6 Buckling of built-up m em bers

. . -_.---.
_ _. . I . ____--_-
. _--. . . . -.
_-----I
. . ----.

Built-up m em bers shall be calculated considering the possibility of local buckling of the

different parts of the m em ber. The strength and the stiffness of the different parts of

the m em ber shall be such that the assum ed buckling m ode may be attained.

Buckling of built-up m em bers m ay be calculated as given in 8. 4. 3 - 8. 4. 5.

The slenderness of such a m em ber shall be increased due to shear deformati ons.

See A. 8. 4. 6.

Built up m em bers where the different parts of the cross-section is continuously

connected to the rest of the section, shall be calculated considering the entire cross

section as one part.

8. 5 Torsional and lateral torsional buckling

8. 5. 1 Torsional buckling
. _-_. _-. -_----_.

The torsional buckling resistance of a column with a cross-section of class 1, 2 or 3 may

be expressed as

N ’ f
Td = - CT ’ A,
Yf

where f, is the torsional buckling strength.

For a column with a cross-section of class 4, the torsional buckling resistance shall also

include the effects of local buckling.

8. 5. 2 Lateral torsional buckling

------___

The lateral torsional buckling resistance of a beam may be expressed by

M, =lf, -W,
Yr

for class 1 and 2 sections

for class 3 sections, and by

M, = l f, *W,
Yr

for class 4 sections, unless a m ore detailed analysis is m ade, where fcL is the lateral

torsional buckling strength.

M embers in structures where the distribution of m om ents and forces have been

determined by plastic analysis shall be braced to resist lateral and torsional di splacements

at, or immediately adjacent to, all hinge locations. (See e. g. A. 7. 3. 4)

Calculation of elastic lateral torsional buckling strength should for Class 4 sections be based

on the net effective section.

8. 5. 3 Buckling strengths f, r and fcL

----

The buckling strengths f, , and f, , for torsional and lateral torsional buckling, respectively,

shall include all relevant effects and provide sufficient correlation with experiments and/or

numerical simulations.
21
I S0 1 0721 -1 :1 997(E) 0 I S0

The buckling strengths f, , and f, , shall be given in the national standards, or as

recom m ended in A. 8. 5. 3.

8. 5. 4 Bracing of beam s, girders and trusses

-_. -_----. --____-_------. ----. --

8. 5. 4. 1 Bracing m em bers assum ed to provide lateral support to the compressi on flange of beam s

and girders, or to the compression chord of tru sses, and the connections of such bracing

m em bers, shall be proportioned to resist a force equal to 1 per cent of the force in the

compression flange or chord at the point of support, unless m ore accu rate calculations

are m ade.

8. 5. 4. 2 The stiffness of bracing m em bers shall be sufficient to restrict the increase of

out-of-plane deflections at the braced point to a value equal to or close to the initial

out-of-plane imperfection of the braced m em ber.

8. 5. 4. 3, When bracing of the compression flange or chord is effected by a slab or deck, the slab

or deck, and the means by which the compu ted bracing forces are transmi tted between

the flange or chord and the slab or deck, shall be adequate to resist a force in the plane

of the slab or deck.

8. 5. 4. 4 The stiffness of the slab or deck shall be sufficient to enable the braced m em ber ro reach

its design resistance. In assessing the stiffness, the structural stiffness of the d eck or

slab, the flexibility of the connecting elements and the flexibility of the anchoring portion

of the structu re, shall be considered.

8. 5. 4. 5 Consideration shall be given to the probable accumulation of forces from one braced

m em ber to another.

8. 5. 4. 6 M em bers restraining beam s and gi rders designed to resi st actions causing torsion shall be

proportioned to resist these effects. Special consideration shall be given to the

connections of asym metri c sections such as channels, angles and zees.

8. 6 Buckling of elates

8. 6. 1 General
--

The calculation of the ultimate resistance of a plate m ay be based on a large deflection

theory or on test results. At its ultimate resistance the plate has buckled and the in-plane

stresses are concentrated at the supported plate edges. In these regions stresses m ay

reach the yield stress.

For design calculations the concept of an effective area m ay be used.

The effective area is a reduced area which, multicplied by the yield stress, will give the

sam e ultimate resistance as obtained from tests on the entire plate.

8. 6. 2 Uniaxial force or in-alane m om ent

8. 6. 2. 1 The resistance of a plate su bject to uniaxial force or in-plane m om en t m ay be expressed

as a function of f, and of the relative slenderness A, , defined by

where the coefficient k depends on the stress distribution and the support conditions.

Normally, the edge should be assu med to be simply su pported or free, unless it can be

proved that the edge is effectively restrained or fixed.

22
0 I S0 I S0 1 0721 4:1 997(E)

8. 6. 2. 2 The m om ent resistance of a web may be calculated according to A. 8. 6. 2. 2. I f the

effective flanges of an l-beam su bjected to bending m om ent can sustain the entire

m om en t alone, the web may be exclusively retained for the purpose of carrying an

additional shear force. Otherwise, the com bined buckling effects of shear and bending

shall be considered.

8. 6. 2. 3 The width-thickness-ratio of a web should be limited such that the compression flange is

prevented from buckling into the web.

8. 6. 2. 4 For web panels with varying bending m om ent and axial force the design stress

distribution may be calculated according to A. 8. 6. 2. 4.

8. 6. 3 Shear resistance of webs

-_-_-. _-__-___---. . _

8. 6. 3. 1 The shear resistance of webs may be calculated according to the method given in

8. 6. 3. 2. Alternatively, the shear resistance of webs may be calculated according to a

tension field theory, which has been sufficiently correlated to experimental results and/or

numerical simulations.

8. 6. 3. 2 The shear resistance of webs m ay be explessed as a function of f, and the relative

slenderness A, , defined by

where T, , = f, /d3 and k, is the elastic shear buckling coefficient depending on the aspect

ratio, see A. 8. 6. 3. 2.

The resistance of a web also depends on the flexural rigidity of the end stiffeners in the

web ulane.

The resistance is given by

Recom m ended values forthe buckling strength TV is given in A. 8. 6. 3. 2.

The shear resistance should be checked against the largest shear force within the panel.

A rigid end stiffener shall satisfy the requirements in 8. 6. 5. 4 and 8. 6. 5. 5.

8. 6. 4 Combined forces
-Y--s-. .

Combined forces m ay be handled by simplified interaction formulae. Recom m ended

formu lae, based on 8. 6. 2 and 8. 6. 3. 2, are given in A. 8. 6. 4.

8. 6. 5 Webs or panels subdivided by stiffeners

--___-__- --

8. 6. 5. 1 The pu rpose of stiffeners is to subdivide a plate or a web into smaller panels to increase

the resistance. The smaller panels shall be calculated as given in 8. 6. 2 to 8. 6. 4,

see Fig. 8. 6. 5. Stiffeners shall be designed such that they provide sufficient stiffness

and strength to allow the required resistance of the plate or web to be developed.

23
I S0 1 0721 4:1 997(E) 0 I S0

Fig. 8. 6. 5 Examples of transverse and longitudinal stiffeners

Unless m ore accurate calculations are m ade, the stiffeners shall comply with the

requi rements given in 8. 6. 5. 2 - 8. 6. 5. 5.

For structu res su bject to repetitive actions the unfavourable fatigue effects of possible

non-continuous longitudinal stiffeners, or termi nated transverse and support stiffeners,

shall be considered.

8. 6. 5. 2 A transverse stiffener shall have sufficient strength to carry all the forces which are

transferred to it, and have sufficient stiffness to allow the required resistance of the

adjoining panels to be developed.

Recom m en ded requ irements for the second m om ent of area and the cross section area of

transverse stiffeness are given in A-8. 6. 5. 2.

8. 6. 5. 3 A longitudinal stiffener shall’ have sufficient strength to carry all the forces which are

transferred to it, and have sufficient stiffness to allow the required resistance of the

adjoining panels to be developed.

Recom m en ded requ irements for the second m om ent of area of longitudinal sriffeners

intended to form a rigid suppdit for adjacent panels are given in A. 8. 6. 5. 3.

8. 6. 5. 4 Stiffeners at su pports should be checked for the total support force. The buckling length

is equal to 0. 75 h, where h is the web plate height or the distance between flanges.

Parts of the web may be considered as acting together with the stiffener.

The stiffener m ay be stopped at a distance not less than 4t and not larger than 6t from

the unloaded flange. This also applies to intermediate transverse stiffeners.

8. 6. 5. 5 A stiffener at the end of a web Shall be able to’carry all the forces which are transferred

to it from the adjoining web, see A. 8. 6. 5. 5.

8. 7 Connections, aeneral reauirements

Connections may be designed to transm it forces through fasteners of different types.

The design shall be based on the strength of the individual connectors or welds.

24
0 I S0 I S0 1 0721 -1 :1 997(E)

All connections shall have a design strength such that the structure is capable of

resisting the design forces.

The structural properties of connections shall be such that the assumptions m ade in the

analysis and design of the structure are achieved. Connections m ay be classified

according to their rigidity and/or strength.

Connections may be designed by distributing the internal forces in a rational manner

provided that they are in equilibrium with the applied design forces, that the design

resistance is nowhere exceeded and that the adopted distribution does not entail

excessive deformations.

Should there be significant deform ati ons, their structural effects shall be considered.

I f the design strength of the connection is less than that of the connected m em bers, the

deformati on capacity of the connection shall be sufficient for the assum ed failure m ode

to be reached. This deformati on capacity shall be dem onstrated by experiments or

calculations.

When various types of fasteners are used to carry a shear force in the sam e plane or

when welding and fasteners are combined, then one type of connection should normally

be designed to carry the total action. Wel ds and preloaded high-strength bolts in

slip-critical connections m ay, however, be assu med to share the forces at the service-

ability load level provided the bolts are fully tightened after welding, see 8. 8. 3. 2-b.

8. 8 Bolted connections

8. 8. 1 General
--. _-. --

The fasteners used in bolted connections may either be ordinary bolts or high-strength

bolts, as described below. High-strength bolts may be non-preloaded or preloaded, as

described in 8. 8. 2. 3.

8. 8. 1 .l Ordinary bolts are those which are manu factured from low-carbon steel. The steel used

shall conform to the requirements of I S0 4753 or to the requirements pf the appropri ate

national standards.

8. 8. 1 . 2 High strength bolts are those which are manufactu red of high-strength steel. The steel

used shall conform to the-requirements of the appropri ate I S0 or national standards.

8. 8. 1 . 3 N on-preloaded bolts may be used as fastening elements in connections with shear,

tension, or combi ned shear and tension in the bolts. They should not be used in joints

which are su bjected to fatigue or earthqu ake actions and they should not be used in

structures sensitive to geom etric changes, as joint slip m ay occur. See also 8. 8. 2. 4.

8. 8. 1 . 4 H igh-strength bolts installed in accordance with the provision of 8. 8. 2. 3 have a closely

controlled preload in the bolts. They m ay be used as the fastening elements in

connections which produce shear, tension, or combined shear and tension, or in

slip-critical connections.

8. 8. 2 Bolting details
--_---. -_. -__

8. 8. 2. 1 Spacing of bolts should comply with the requirements in A. 8. 8. 2. 1 .

8. 8. 2. 2 The nominal diam eter of the bolt hole shall not be m ore than 2 mm larger than the

nominal bolt di am eter for bolts smaller than 27 mm and 3 mm for bolts equal to 27 mm

di am eter and larger. Oversize or slotted holes m ay be used for 16 mm or larger bolts.

25
IS0 1 0721 -1 :1 997(E) 0 IS0

Joints using oversize or slotted holes shall meet the requirements given in A.8.8.2.2 or
as given in the national standard.
Oversize holes shall not be used in bearing-type connections but may be used in any or
all plies of slip-critical connections.
8.8.2.3 Each preloaded high-strength bolt shall be tightened to provide, when all bolts in the joint
are tight, a tensile force equal to or greater than 70 % of the nominal ultimate tensile
strength of the bolt.
8.8.2.4 Ordinary bolts and non-preloaded high-strength bolts with normal clearance between hole
diameter and shaft diameter shall not be used in connections where the force direction is
frequently changing.

8.8.3 Strength
-._-. of connections ----_-------_---_--_-
-_--.__.-_-.-.----- with bolts and rivets
8.8.3.1 For calculation of bolts in tension, see A.8.8.3.1 . It is important that possible prying
forces are -included. Such connections shall .not be used with non-preloaded bolts if the
connection is subject to frequent variation in tension, see also chapter 1 0.
8.8.3.2 Bolted joints subjected to shear forces may be designed according to the following
aJ Bearing type connections with normal bolts or high strength bolts with no
controlled tightening up to grade 1 0.9:
The shear force at the ultimate limit state should not exceed the bearing
resistance nor the shear resistance as given in National Standards or in
A.8.8.3.2.1 .
b) Slip-critical connections with preloaded high strength bolts where slip shall not
occur at the serviceability limit state:
The shear force at the serviceability limit state should not exceed the slip
resistance as given in National Standards or in A.8.8.3.2.2.
The shear force at the ultimate limit state should not exceed the bearing
resistance nor the shear resistance as given in National Standards or in
A.8.8.3.2.1 .

8.8.4 Slip coefficients

----.-
The slip coefficient p depends on the conditions of the faying surfaces of the parts.
Representative values of the slip coefficient are given in Table A.8.8.4.
8.8.5 Deduction for holes
8.8.5.1 In deducting holes for fasteners, the hole diameter should be used, not the diameter of
the fastener.
For countersunk holes, the area to be deducted.should be the gross area for the hole,
including the countersunk portion, in plane of its axis.
8.8.5.2 When holes are not staggered the area to be deducted from the gross sectional area
should be the maximum sum of the section area of the holes in any cross section, at
right angles to the direction of stress in the member
8.8.5.3 When holes are staggered the area to be deducted should be the greater of:
a) Deduction for non-staggered holes.

26
0 I S0 I S0 1 0721 4:1 997(E)

b) The su m of the sectional areas of all holes in any zig-zag line extendig

progressively across the m em ber or part of the m em ber, minus s2t/4g for each

gauge space in the chain of holes.

s = the staggered pitch, i. e. the distance, measu red parallel to the direction of

stress in the m em ber, centre-to-centre of holes in consecutive lines.

t = the thickness of the plate

g = the gauge, i. e. the distance, m easu red perpendicular to the direction of

stress in the m em ber, centre-to-centre of holes in consecutive lines.

For sections such as angles with holes in both legs, the gauge should be m easu red along

the centre of thickness of the plate.

In a built-up m em ber, where the chain of holes, considered in individual parts, do not

correspond with the critical chain of holes for the m em ber as a whole, the resistance

of any fasteners joining the parts between such chains of holes should be taken into

account in determining the resistance of the m em ber.

8. 8. 5. 4 Rivets and fitted bolts shall be calculated as regular non-preloaded bolts. When m aking

alterations, rivets and new high-strength bolts in slip-critical joints may be considered as

sharing forces due to selfweight and i m posed specified actions.

Rivets shall when possible not be used for connections giving tensile forces in the rivets.

8. 8. 6 Length of connection
------

For a distance less than 1 5-d between the first and the last bolt in a connection, the

resistance of the ipint can be taken as the su m of the resistances of the individual bolts.

d is the di am eter of the bolt. When the distance is larger than 1 5. d, the resistance of the

joi nt shall be reduced, see A. 8. 8. 6.

However, this reduction does not apply for uniform dis-

tribution of forces over the connection length, e. g . for the transfer of shear forces from

the web of a beam ‘or column to the flange, neither does it apply to slip critical

connections.

8. 9 Welded connections

8. 9. 1 scope
. _____-

The provisions of this section are intended to apply to:

1) welded joints in steel structures su bjected primarily to static actions. For provisions

applicable to steel structures under fatigue actions, see chapter 1 0.

2) weldable structural steels meeti ng the requirements of 6. 3. 2. Suitability for welding

shall be established by reference to the relevant national welding standard. In

particular the Carbon Equivalent Value (calculated for instance in accordance with

the IIW formu la) may need to be controlled, and also the sulphur level may need to

be controlled in heavy welded joints carrying through thickness tensile stresses.

3) materi al thicknesses of 4 m m and larger.

4) welding with arc welding processes

5) joints in which the weld m etal is compatible with the base m etal in term s of

mechanical properti es, as defined in the relevant national standards.

27
I S0 1 0721 -1 :1 997(E) 0 I S0

8. 9. 2 General requ irements

_C_____. -. _. . . - . . --. 1 _1 -.

8. 9. 2. 7 Wel ded stru ctures shall be designed to perm i t adequate access for welding and

inspection during construction.

8. 9. 2. 2 Com plete information regarding location, type, size, and length of all welds shalt be

shown on the drawings. The drawings shall distinguish between shop and field welds.

8. 9. 2. 3 In the case of partial joint penetration grooves, detailed shop or working drawings shall

specify the groove depths applicable to the effective throat required.

8. 9. 2. 4 Wh ere it is i mportant to minimize shrinkage stresses and distortions, special fabrication

procedures shall be established.

8. 9. 2. 5 The required weld lengths specified on the drawings shall be the effective lengths.

8. 9. 2. 6 inspection requ irements shall be defined on the plans or in the specifications.

8. 9. 2. 7 Wh ere tensile stresses occur via heavy welds perpendicular to the surface of the

element, attention should be given to the susceptibility of the steel m aterial to lamellar

tearing. If such details cannot be avoided, appropriate measu res shall be taken to

minimize the possibility of lamellar tearing. For flat elements with a thickness of m ore

than 16 mm the combination of welding procedu re and/or the through-thickness

properti es of the m ateri af and/or the joint detail (see e. g. Fig. 8. 9. 2. 7) shall be such as to

avoid lamellar tearing.

“] i;

Susceptible detail I mproved detail

Susceptible detail I mproved detail

Fig. 8. 9. 2. 7

8. 9. 2. 8 Eccentricity between intersecting parts and m em bers shall be avoided unless accounted

for in the design.

I f it cannot be avoided, adequate design provisons shall be m ade for all eccentricities. In

the cases of end connections, of single angles, double angles and similar type of

m em bers, it is not necessary to completely balance the welds about the neutral axis or

axes of such m em bers.

8. 9. 2. 9 Welds at the location of plastic hinges shall be able to develop the full resistance of the

connected parts.

28
0 I S0 I S0 1 0721 -1 :1 997(E)

8. 9. 2. 1 0 For ordinary structural steels welding in cold form ed areas is allowed, provided

appropriate m easu res are taken to avoid the possibility of brittle fractu re.

8. 9. 3 Types of welds
____-. .___I
. . _-. .-------

8. 9. 3. 1 For the purpose of this Standard, welds shall be generally classified as groove, fillet, plug

or slot welds.

8. 9. 3. 2 A com plete penetration groove weld is defined as one having com plete penetration and

fusion of weld and base m etal throughout the depth of the joint, see 8. 9. 5. 7.

8. 9. 3. 3 A partial penetration groove weld is defined as one having weld penetration less than the

full thickness of the joint, see 8. 9. 5. 8 and 8. 9. 5. 9.

8. 9. 3. 4 National standards shall be consulted for additional conditions defining com plete and

partial penetration groove welds.

8. 9. 3. 5 Flare grooves shall be classified as partial penetration groove welds, see also 8. 9. 7. 1 1.

8. 9. 3. 6 Groove welds shall be continuous for the full length of the joint, except as provided in

8. 9. 3. 7 or as otherwise perm i tted.

8. 9. 3. 7 M em bers of an assembly connected by groove or fillet welds throughout their length

m ay, at points of external framing, have additional welds to accom m odate the external

action, but such welds need not be continuous for the full length of the m em bers.

8. 9. 3. 8 Fillet welds may be continuous or intermittent.

Except as permi tted in national standards, fillet welds shall not termi nate at corners of

parts or m em bers, but shall be returned continuously, full sized, around the corner for a

length equal to twice the weld size where such return can be m ade in the sam e plane.

End returns shall be indicated on drawings.

8. 9. 3. 9 All corners of slots provided for fillet welding shall be rounded and the fillet welds shall

extend completely around the periphery of the slots.

8. 9. 3. 1 0 Groove and fillet welds m ay be used to transmi t any combination of forces.

Single fillet and single partial penetration groove welds shall not be su bjected to bending

about the longitudinal axis of the weld if it produces tension at the root of the weld.

Fillet welds m ay be used for connecting parts, of which the fusion faces form an angle of

60” to 1 20”, see Fig:8. 9. 7. 2. Angles of less than 60” are perm i tted. H owever, in such

cases the weld shall be calculated as a partial penetration groove weld. For angles larger

than 1 20” the fillet welds shall not be relied upon to transmi t calculated forces.

Plug and slot welds in lap joints may be used to transm it shear or to prevent buckling or

separation of lapped parts.

81 9. 4 Design assumptions
-. ------

8. 9. 4. 1 For welded joints or single welds, designed to transfer any combination of loads, the

forces within the joints or the welds at their line of action shatl be established by either

an elastic or a plastic analysis.

8. 9. 4. 2 Although the distribution of stresses along the length of the weld may be uneven, such

distributions can, in m ost cases, be considered uniform. H owever, other stress

distributions m ay be assu med provided they satisfy the basic requ irements of equilibrium

and continuity and they adequately relate to the actual deformation charac-

teristics of the joint.

29
 I S0 1 0721 4:1 997(E) 0 I S0

8. 9. 4. 3 Residual stresses and stresses not participating in the transfer of forces need not be

considered in the design of welds su bjected to static actions. This applies specifically to

the normal stress parallel to the axis of the weld which is accom m odated by the base

materi al.

8. 9. 5 Design provisions
_--_

8. 9. 5. 1 The strength of base m etals shall be those specified in the applicable national standard.

The strength of the weld m etal shall normally be equal to or greater than the strength of

the weakest base m etal.

8. 9. 5. 2 The resistance of welded joints shall be checked as recom m ended in A. 8. 9. 5, A. 8. 9. 6

and A. 8. 9. 7 or as specified in the applicable national standard.

8. 9. 5. 3 The design value for shear in the base m etal is the shear strength, which, unless

otherwise specified in the applicable national standard, is taken as the limiting value of F

given in A. 8. 9. 7. 1 .

8. 9. 5. 4 The vector su m of longitudinal and transverse shear forces shall not exceed the Strength

requirements given in A. 8. 9. 7. 1 , unless an alternative acceptable ultimate strength

analysis is used.

8. 9. 5. 5 Plug and slot welds shall be considered only to provide shear resistance in the plane of

the connected parts.

8. 9. 5. 6 The effective area of groove welds shall be the effective weld length multiplied by the

effective throat thickness.

The effective weld length for any groove weld, squ are or skewed to the direction of

stress, shall be the width of the parts which are joined.

8. 9. 5. 7 The effective throat thickness of a complete penetration Qroove weld shall be the

thickness of the thinner part joi ned, and no increase is perm i tted for weld reinforcem ent.

The effective throat thickness of a partial penetration groove weld shafl be as defined in

the relevant national standard.

The compressi ve resistance of joints utilizing partial penetration groove welds shall be

based on the effective throat area of the welds plus the area of the base m etal fitted in

contact bearing.

8. 9. 5. 8 The effective throat thickness of a partial penetration groove weld for joi nts with no root

opening shall be the depth of cham fer, minus 2 mm for grooves having an included angle

at the root of the groove less than 60” but not less than 45”.

The effective throat thickness of a partial penetration groove weld shall be the depth of

cham fer for grooves having an included angle at the root of the groove of 60” or greater.

8. 9. 5. 9 The effective throat thickness of a partial penetration groove weld reinforced with a fillet

weld shall be the shortest distance between the root of the groove and the su rface of the

fillet, minus 2 mm where such reduction is required by 8. 9. 5. 8.

8. 9. 6 Com plete joi nt penetration groove welds in butt and tee joints

8. 9. 6. 1 Tension butt joints in plates of different material thicknesses or widths shall be m ade in

such a manner that the slope through the transition zone is not steeper than 1 in 1,

except for structures su bject to fatigue, in which case the slope should not be steeper

than 1 in 4. The transition shall be accomplished by chamfering the thi cker part, tapering

the wider part, sloping the weld m etal, or by any combination of these, see Fig. 8. 9. 6. 1
a and b.
30
0 IS0 IS0 1 072%1 :1 997(E)

Compression butt joints do not require a transition zone in members of different thickness
or width.

2C 1 2C
1

*
m 1 m

-1
2c 2c \J
Chamfer
after before
weldlng welding

b
LC I 2c 1
k

bl Transition
wC) Transition
a) Transition by slQplng the
by
hnferlngX
b
sloplq the
weld surface veld surface
snd chamfering
thicker part

C = 4 for structures subject to fatigue

C = 1 for structures not subjected to fatigue
Fig. 8.9.6.1 .a Transition of butt joints in parts of unequal thickness

Fig. 8.9.6.1 .b Transition of width

8.9.6.2 Partial penetration groove welds are permitted for steels with good ductility in butt, tee
and corner joints. When required such joints may be reinforced with fillet welds, see
Fig. 8.9.6.2.

Fig. 8.9.6.2 Partial penetration groove welds

31
IS0 1 0721 -i : 1 997(E) 0 IS0

8.9.7 Fillet welds

8.9.7.1 A uniform stress distribution may be assumed along the length and over the throat
section of fillet welds.
8.9.7.2 The effective cross-sectional area of a fillet weld shall be the area of the largest triangle
which can be fully inscribed within the fusion faces and the weld surface, provided there
is a minimum root penetration, but with such penetration not taken into account.
The throat thickness, or the “a” dimension, shall be the height of the largest inscribed
triangle, see Fig. 8.9.7.2.

Fig. 8.9.7.2 Throat thicknesses for fillet welds

8.9.7.3 For automatic submerged arc welding and for welding with deep penetration electrodes,
which are recognized as such by national standards, the throat dimension “a” may be
increased by 20%, but not by more than 3 mm.
8.9.7.4 Unless otherwise specified in national standards the effective length of a fillet weld shall
be the overall length of the full-size fillet, including end returns. No reduction in effective
length shall’ be made for neither the start nor the termination of the weld if the weld is
full size throughout its length. The minimum effective fillet length shall be a length equal
to six times the throat of the weld (6a) or 40 mm, whichever is larger.
8.9.7.5 The effective weld length of a fillet weld shall be used for strength calculations and be
shown on design drawings. The effective weld length shall be the required length to
safely transfer the design forces. There will be no upper limit for the length of the weld
when the stress distribution along the weld corresponds to the stress distribution in the
adjacent base metal.
8.9.7.6 The minimum throat thickness is 3 mm. The throat thickness shall not be larger than
that required to balance the strength of the adjacent base metal.
8.9.7.7 Fillet welds shall preferably be made with equal leg sizes and with reasonably flat faces.
8.9.7.8 Intermittent fillet welds may be used to carry calculated forces.
8.9.7.9 Fillet welds in holes or slots may be used to transmit shear, to prevent buckling or for
separation of joined parts. Fillets welds in holes or slots are not to be considered as plug
or slot welds. The minimum diameter of holes or width of slots shall not be less than the
thickness of the part containing it plus 8 mm. The ends of slots shall be semicircular or
shall have the corners rounded to a radius not less than the thickness of the part
containing it, except for those ends which extend to the edge of the part.
32
0 I S0 I S0 1 0721 -1 :1 997(E)

8. 9. 7. 1 0 The leg size of fillet welds reinforcing groove welds, for sm oother transition in T- and

corner joints, shall not be less than t/4 where t is the thickness of the welded m em ber,

but need not be m ore than 10 mm. Such reinforcement is mandatory for T-joints

su bjected to fatigue actions, Fig. 8. 9. 7. 1 0. See also chapter 1 0, Fatigue.

Fig. 8. 9. 7. 1 0 Reinforcement for T- and corner joints

8. 9. 7. 1 1 The effective throat thickness

- of flare-V- and flare-bevel-groove welds in joints of hollow rectangular sections, see

Fig. 8. 9. 7. 1 1 . a, and

- of flare-groove welds for solid bars fitted flush to the surface of the solid section of

the bar, see Fig. 8. 9. 7. 1 1 . b,

shall be as defined in the relevant national standard.

The effective throat thickness may be established by m eans of trial welds for each set of

procedural conditions, and the trial welds should be sectioned and measu red to obtain

welding techniques that will ensure that the design throat thickness is achieved in

production.

Fig. 8. 9. 7. 1 1 .a Flare grooves in RH S joi nts

Fig. 8. 9. 7. 1 1 .b Flare grooves in solid section joints

33
 I S0 1 0721 -l :I 997(E) 0 I S0

8. 9. 8 Plug and slot welds

---

8. 9. 8. i The diam eter of the hole for a plug weld or the width of a slot for a slot weld shall not be

less than the thickness of the part containing it plus 8 mm.

8. 9. 8. 2 The ends of the slot shall be semi-circular or shall have the corners rounded to a radius

not less than the thickness of the part containing it, except for those ends which extend

to the edge of the part.

8. 9. 8. 3 The thickness of plug or slot welds in plates of 1 6 .mm thickness or less shall be equal to

the thickness of the materi al.

The thickness of plug or slot welds in plates thicker than 16 mm shall be at least one-half

of the thickness of the plate, but not less than 16 mm.

a. 1 0 Joints in contact bearing

8. 1 0. 1 Compression forces between different parts in welded joi nts may be transmi tted by

contact bearing provided that the contact su rfaces are parallel and fit reasonably well.

Small local lack of fit due to irregularities of the mating su rfacesof up to 2 mm is

perm i tted. Contact surfaces shall be locked against lifting or sliding, unless otherwise

specified or in agreem ent with accepted practice.

For stru ctures su bject to fatigue, see chapter 1 0.

8. 1 0. 2 Provisions shall be m ade to prevent lateral di splacement. Friction forces m ay be taken

into account. Tensile and shear forces and forces which m ay be generated by buckling

shall be carri ed by joints designed for such forces.

9 SERVI CEABI LI TY LIMIT STATES

9. 1 The evaluation of the serviceability limit states shall be based on the representative

actions.

9. 2 Serviceability limit states shall com pri se considerations of

- Deform ations which affect the efficient use or the appearance of structural or

non-structural elements.

- Vibrations producing discom fort or adversely affecting structural or non-structural

elements and equipment, especially if resonance occu rs. Resonant oscillations of

slender m em bers exposed to wind action or water flow shall be considered.

- Local dam age, including cracking, which reduces the durability of a structure or

. affects the efficiency or appearance of strucutral or nonstructural elements.

- Durability, the structure shall withstand the actions for the expected lifetime of the

structu re, or plans for maintenance work shall be given.

- Any other criteria arising from special functional requirem ents.

9. 3 In the serviceability limit states normally two types of combinations are appropri ate:

- Combination for short term action effects, such as combinations of permanent

actions and variable actions with frequent values.

0 I S0 I S0 1 0721 -I :1 997(E)

Combination for long-term action effects, such as combinations of permanent

actions and variable actions with quasi-permanent (sustained) values.

9. 4 For the serviceability limit states, the calculations shall normally be carri ed out in the

elastic field. However, a restri cted plastic redistribution of forces and m om en ts can be

accepted, provided the plastic redistribution is not repeated, and it is included in the

calculation of deform ations.

10 FATI GUE

1 0. 1 Scope

1 0. 1 .I General

These rules present a general method for the fatigue assessm ent of structures and

structural elem ents which are su bjected to repeated fluctuations of stresses.

The fatigue assessm ent procedures assum e that the structure has been designed in

accordance with the other limit state reguirements of this standard and the material

conform s to the properti es required in 6. 3.

1 0. 1 . 2 Limitations

The rules are applicable for all structural steel grades in accordance with this standard.

Bolts are acceptable up to I S0 grade 1 0. 9 or equivalent.

All nominal stresses for fatigue assessm ent mu st be within the elastic limits of the

m aterial, the range of such stresses (unfactored) should not exceed 1 .5 f, for normal

stresses and 1 .5 f, h/3 for shear stresses.

The following effects are not covered by the rules of this standard:

a1 Reduction of fatigue life due to corrosion of structures in corrosive environments

beyond normal atm ospheric conditions and suitable corrosion protection.

b) . Thermal fatigue of structu res su bject to temperatu res beyond 1 50 “C.

Situations in which no fatigue assessm ent is required

’ 0. ’ *3 _. -.
___-. __.
---_I
_ -_. -_--. ----. -._-__-__-. -- -. -. -. -- _-_-. __---
---. _ - --. -

a) A fatigue assessm ent m ay be om itted for ordinary building structures except in the

following cases:

- M em bers supporting lifting appliances or rolling loads.

- M embers su bjected to repeated stress cycles by vibrating machinery.

- M em bers su . bject to wind or water induced oscillations.

- Crowd-induced oscillations

b) A fatigue assessm ent is not required if the repeatedly applied stresses are

insignificent as regards fatigue.

1 0. 2 Fatiaue assessm ent orocedu res

The aim of designing a structure against the limit state of fatigue failure is to ensure,

within an acceptable level of probability, that its perform ance is satisfactory during its

entire design life, such that the structure is unlikely to require repai r or to fail by fatigue.

35
 I S0 1 0721 4:1 997(E) 0 I S0

The required safety level shall be obtained by imposing an appropri ate fatigue load factor

yt and a fatigue strength resistance factor y, in accordance with 1 0. 7.

The safety verification shall be carried out either in term s of the equivalent stress range

by comparing it with the fatigue strength for a given number of stress cycles, or in term s

of dam ag e by comparing the applied dam ag e to the limiting dam age.

When the constructional detail is defined in the detail classification tables (see 1 0. 5 and

A. 1 0. 51 , the stress range to be used is the nominal stress range, unless otherwise

specified in the classification tables.

When the detail di ffers from a constructional detail defined in the classification tables

(see 1 0. 5 and A. 1 0. 5) by the presence of a geom etri c stress concentration effect which

should be included, the stress range to be used is the nominal geom etri c stress range,

see 1 0. 2. 2.

Careful attention is required in ensuring that the geom etri c stress is properly evaluated,

see 1 0. 4 and that the detail can be considered to be that in the classification tables.

As regards constructional details not included in the detail classifications, 1 0. 5. 2

indicates the requirements and fatigue strength curve references to be used in

conjunction with the determination of the geom etri c stress range.

1 0. 2. 1 Fatigue assessm ent based on nominal stress range

---_-

1 0. 2. 1 . 7 For variable amplitude loading defined by a design spec-

tru m , the fatigue assessment shall be based on the Palm -

gren-Miner rule of cu mulative. damage:

where

ni is the number of cycles of stress range A4 which occurs during the required design

life.

Ni is the number. of cycles of stress range AUi to failure, which depends on the detail

category.

The cumulative dam age assessm ent shall be based on the relevant slope constants m

(see 1 0. 5) for the normal stress range Au

Alternatively, the fatigue assessm ent may be based on an equivalent constant amplitude

stress calculation, see A. 1 0. 2. 1 . 1 .

1 0. 2. 1 . 2 Nominal shear stress ranges, AT, shall be handled similarly to nominal normal stress

ranges, but using a unique slope constant m (see 1 0. 5) .

1 0. 2. 1 . 3 Combination of nominal normal and nominal shear stress ranges.

In the case of a combination of normal and shear stresses the fatigue assessm ent shall

consider their combined effects. When applicable, one of the following methods m ay be

used:

a) The maximum principal stress m ay be used when normal and shear stresses

induced by the sam e loading event are in phase, provided that the planes of the

maximum principal stress do not change significantly in the course of a loading

event.

36
0 IS0 IS0 1 0721 -1 :1 997(E)

b) If, at the same location, normal and shear stresses vary independently, the
components of damage using the Palmgren-Miner rule for both normal and shear
stresses should be combined according to the following expression:

where
D AU is the fatigue damage due to normal stresses and calculated according to
1 0.2.1 .l
D Ar is the fatigue damage due to shear stresses calculated according to 1 0.2.1 .2.
The nominal shear stress may be neglected when its equivalent constant amplitude stress
range is less than 1 5 % of the equivalent nominal normal stress range.
1 0.2.2 Fatigue assessment based on a geometric _---____-
stress range
The geometric stress (or “hot spot stress”) is defined as the extrapolation of the
maximum principal stresses to the weld toe. The maximum values of principal stresses
at the weld toe shall be found, investigating various locations around the welded joint or
the stress concentration area. The geometric stress takes into account only the overall
geometry of the joint, excluding local stress concentration effects due to the weld
geometry and discontinuities at the weld toe.

1 0.3 Fatiaue loading

The fatigue loading is to be taken from appropriate IS0 or national standards. The
loading used for the fatigue assessment should represent a conservative estimate of the
accumulated service loading throughout the required design life of the structure. A
confidence level of at least 95 % shall be sought for both amplitude and frequency.
Dynamic effects, shall be considered when the dynamic response of the structure
contributes to the modification of the design spectrum.

1 0.4 Fatiaue stress spectra

1 0.4.1 Stress calculation
._-I--------
Stresses shall be determined by an analysis of the structure under fatigue loading,
according to elastic theory. Dynamic response of the structure or impact effect shall be
considered when appropriate.
a) Stress range for failure in parent material:
Depending upon the fatigue assessment carried out, either nominal stress ranges or
geometric stress ranges shall be evaluated.
When using the nominal stress range assessment procedure, a detail shall have a
particular category designated if it complies in every respect with the tabulated
description. The effect of stress concentrations which are not characteristic of the
detail category itself, such as holes, cut-outs, re-entrant corners, etc. shall be
taken into account by appropriate stress concentration factors.
Whatever the fatigue assessment procedure used, the effect of stresses arising
from joint eccentricity, imposed deformations, secondary stresses due to partial
joint stiffness, non-linear stress effects in the post-buckling range (e.Q. “breathing”
effects in slender webs), shear lag, and prying effect shall be calculated and taken
into account when determining the stress at the detail.
37
IS0 1 0721 -l :1 997(E) 0 IS0

b) Stress range for failure in welds:

In load-carrying partial penetration or fillet welded joints, where fatigue failure
through the weld throat is being checked, the forces transmitted should be
resolved into two stress components, one normal stress-component transverse to
the longitudinal axis of the weld and one shear-stress-component parallel to the
longitudinal axis of the weld. Their combined damage may be evaluated according
to 1 0.2.1 .3, subclause b. The stress-components may be obtained by using the
relevant vector components of forces.
1 0.4.2 Design .---.--
-.--.--.---.1 Strf?SS range SpeCtrUm
The stress variation or stress history due to a loading event shall be reduced to a stress
range spectrum by employing a method of cycle counting.
For a particular detail, the total of all stress range spectra, caused by all loading events,
shall be compiled. This compilation results in the design stress range spectrum to be
used for the fatigue assessment.
Different components of a structure may have different stress range spectra.

1 0.5 Fatiaue strenoth

Fatigue strength shall be calculated in accordance with national standards, or as
recommended in Appendix A. 1 0.
The expression of the fatigue strength is conveniently presented in the form of log Au -
log N-curves, each applicable to typical detail categories. The detail category is
designated by a number which represents in MPa a fatigue strength reference value Au,-,
at 2 million stress cycles.
The fatigue strength curves (normal stress) are expressed by the following equation:
IOQ N = IOQ a - m * iOQ Au,
where
Aof+ is the fatigue strength
N is the number of.stress range cycles
m is the ,slope constant of the fatigue strength curves
log a is a constant which depends on the slope of the related part of the S-N-curve.
The expression of the fatigue strength curves for shear stress is mathematically
equivalent to that of normal stress.
When test data are used to assess a classification category for a particular constructional
detail, the 95 % confidence interval of log N at.2 million cycles should be calculated
taking into account the standard error of estimate and sample size. The number of data
points (not lower than 1 0) shall be considered in the statistical analysis.
The curves shall be based on representative experimental investigations and as such,
include the effects of:
- local stress concentrations due to the weld geometry
- size and shape of acceptable discontinuities
- the stress direction
- residual stresses
- metallurgical conditions
- in some cases, welding process .and post weld improvement.
38
0 I S0 I S0 1 0721 -1 :1 997(E)

Proper account shall be taken of the fact that residual stresses are low in small scale

samples. The resulting fatigue strength curve shall be corrected for the effect

of residual stresses occuring in full scale structures.

1 0. 5. 1 Definition of fatigue strength curves for classified structural details

._
_-__.__
-. . - _
. ---. -___ ___--_--________------~ . . -. . - . -. - --____-_-_. __-_. . . .

The classification of structural details shall be in accordance with national standards, or

as recom m ended in Appendix A. 1 0.

The classification of each part of a structural detail shall account for:

- the directions of the fluctuating stress relative to the detail

- the locations of possible crack initiation

- the geometrical arrangement and proportions of the detail

- the m ethod of manufacture and inspection

In welded details there are several locations at which potential fatigue cracks m ay

initiate, and the detail classification shall take this into account.

1 0. 5. 2 Definition of reference fatigue strength curves for non-classified details

-. --. ---_-_------ --. _ --I _. ------. -_----__.

For details with geom etry not classified in 1 0. 5. 1 , the fatigue strength shall be--

determi ned on the basis of reference fatigue strength curves and the geom etri c stress

range.

The reference fatigue strength curves shall be based on fatigue strength tests for relevant

structural details, and take account for weld type, weld profile and accep-

tance criteria for weld defects.

The geom etri c stress range shall represent the effect of stress concentrations due to the

geometry of the detail, such as variation of stiffness within the detail, and load

eccentricities.

1 0. 6 Fatigue strength modifications

The influence of m ean stress level in non-welded or stress relieved welded details may be

accounted for by modifying the compressi on component of the stress range.

For thicknesses of the parent material that exceed those included in the experimental

basis for the fatigue Strength curves, a reduced fatigue strength m ay be obtained based

on a model that takes account of the crack propagation in a region with stress gradients.

1 0. 7 Partial safetv factors

1 0. 7. 1 Partial safety factors for fatigue loading

_---___ ___. _-

To take into account uncertainties in the fatigue response analysis, the design stress

ranges shall, for the fatigue assessm ent procedu re, include a partial safety factor yr.

The factor y, covers the uncertainties in estimating:

- the applied load levels

- the conversion of these loads into stresses and stress ranges

- the equivalent constant amplitude stress range from the design stress range

spectru m

- the design life of the structure, and the evolution of the fatigue loading within the

required design life of the structure. 39

I S0 1 0721 -1 :1 997(E) 0 I S0

1 0. 7. 2 Partial safety factors for fatigue strength

----------- -_----_

In order to take into account uncertainties in the fatigue resistance, the characteristic

fatigue strength shall be divided by a partial safety factor y, .

The factor y, covers the uncertainties of the effects of:

- the size of the detail

- the dimension, shape and proximity of the discontinuities

- local stress concentrations due to welding

- variable welding processes and metallurgical effects.

1 0. 7. 3 Values of the partial safety factors

-_. __-. -----. - _-_--_-_-___-----

Values of the partial safety factors y, and y, shall. be given in the relevant national

standards.

40
0 IS0 IS0 1 0721 -l :1 997(E)

Annex A
(informative)
A.6 BASIC VARIABLES
A.6.3 Materials
A.6.3.2 Structural steel
All steel shall be identified in accordance with the requirements of the appropriate IS0 or
national standard when leaving the mill.
It may be requested to prove the quality and the origin of the steel, if needed.
Any steel which is not in accordance with appropriate IS0 or national standard is to be
subject to acceptance testing requirements, see IS0 82 and 630.

A.7 ANALYSIS OF STRUCTURES

A.7.1 General
The design strength established on the basis of testing should be greater than the design
load by a margin adequate to account for possible deviations of the actual structural
element from those tested.
A.7.2 Structural behaviour
The analyses of any structures or structural parts, may be carried out on the basis of one
or more of the following
a) Simple construction
b) Continuous construction
c) Semi-continuous construction
d) Experimental verification.
Continuous structures are structures where the beams, girders and trusses are rigidly
framed, or are continuous over supports. Connections are generally designed to resist
the internal forces which may be computed by assuming that the original angles between
intersecting members remain unchanged as the structure is loaded.
In all cases, the details of the members and connections should be such as to realize the
assumptions made in the design, without adversely affecting any other part of the
structure.

A.7.3 Methods of analvsis

A.7.3.2 Elastic analysis
_~-----_.
Forces and moments in the structure may be determined by an analysis which assume all
members to behave elastically. The yield criterion is the Huber-Hencky-von Mises
hypothesis
f
f 2 a2x + U’Y - a,uy + 3&y
r

However, in general it may be accepted that the first yield is exceeded in small local
areas, provided that no single stress component exceeds f,/y,.
41
IS0 1 0721 4:1 997(E) 0 IS0

A.7.3.4 Plastic analysis

----___-
When calculating the full strength of a member it is assumed that the material is in a
state of yielding in the entire cross-section, whether this is in tension, compression or
shear, or in combinations of stresses. Local buckling effects may be handled according
to 8.3 or 8.6.

Combinations of moments, shear forces and axial forces may generally be checked by
use of relevant interaction formulae. Examples of such interaction formulae are given in
A.8.2.1 .

Members in structures or portions of structures in which the distributions of moments

and forces have been determined by a plastic analysis shall be braced to resist lateral and
torsional displacements at, or immediately adjacent to, all hinge locations. The minimum
laterally unsupported distance, L,, from such braced hinge locations to the nearest
adjacent and similarly braced point, is given by

L, = 1 .3 i, Ffor1 .0 2: $ 2 0.5
I- Y 1

L,, = (2.0-1 .4 $) i, 1 .0 5 MM2 < 0.5

1 1

where MJM, is equal to the ratio of the smaller to the larger moment at opposite ends of
the unbraced length in the plane of bending, positive when the member is bent in single
curvature and negative when the member is bent in double curvature.

4 is the lateral radius of gyration for the entire section.

The necessary control of the bracing may be done according to A.8.5.4. The bracing
must be designed to be effective when the structure reaches its ultimate limit.

Where the sequence of formation of hinges can be predicted with certainty, bracing is
not required at the location of the last hinge to form in the relevant failure mechanism.

A.8 ULTIMATE LIMIT STATES

A.8.2 Resistance of structural members

A.8.2.1 Calculation of sections which may reach full plastification, i.e. class 1 and 2 sections,
can be done by any rational stress distribution which is in consistency with the laws of
equilibrium. Alternatively, interaction type of formulae may be used, calculating the
different forces and or moments and relate them to their fully plastified capacities.
Simplified formulae are given in A.8.2.1 .l - A.8.2.1 .5.

A.8.2.1 .l Axial tension:

The axial tensile resistance N, of a member is by the lesser of

Of

N,, = A, - f, 1
YIU
42
0 I S0 I S0 1 0721 -l : 1 997(E)

Wh ere du cti l e beh avi ou r is d esi red , N, > N yd , an d th erefore

A f
--1 r YN l

A! %l Y, f”

wh ere Y, , > yry

A. 8. 2. 1 . 2 Com pressi on resi stan ce:

The axial com pressi ve resi stan ce, N rd , d evel oped by a m em ber, n ot su bj ect to l ocal

i n stabi l i ty, is gi ven by

N,, = 5 = !!!Y

Yr Yr

wh ere A is th e area avai l abl e to resi st th e com pressi ve forces.

If th e m em ber is su bj ect to l ocal i nstabi l i ty for th e wh ol e or parts of th e secti on , i . e. th e

m e m be r h as a cl ass 4 secti on , th e com pressi ve resi stan ce of th e secti on will be red u ced ,

see A. 8. 3. 2 an d A. 8. 4. 4. 3.

A. 8. 2. 1 . 3 Sh ear resi stan ce:

For m em be rs wi th a web wh ere no prem atu re bu ckl i n g will occu r, th e sh ear resi stan ce of

th e web is gi ven by:

wh ere A, is th e rel evan t web area an d rY i s th e sh ear yi el d stress.

Th e con di ti on th at prem atu re sh ear bu ckl i n g will n ot occu r is m et if th e d epth over

th i ckn ess d oes n ot exceed 2. 2d El f, .

For pl asti c desi g n rv m ay be taken as

= 0. 6 f,
TV

an d for el asti c desi g n i ncl u ding strai n h arden i n g ry m ay be taken as

= 0. 66 f,
TV

Th e u pper limit of

T, s 0. 58 f,

sh ou l d g en eral l y be ad opted , wh ere th e resi stan ce is d eterm i n ed on th e basi s of th e n et

secti on .

Th e cal cu l ati on s of sh ear resi stan ce m u st i ncl u de th e effects of possi bl e web cu t-ou ts.

M em bers for which prem atu re sh ear bu ckl i n g m ay occu r sh ou l d be d esi g n ed accord i n g to

A. 8. 6. 3.

A. 8. 2. 1 . 4 U niaxial m om en t resi stan ce:

Th e uniaxial m om en t resi stan ce of a m e m be r which is adequ atel y su pported to preven t

any l ateral torsi on al bu ckl i n g effects, is for secti on s of cl ass 1 an d 2 gi ven by

43
 0 I S0
I S0 1 0721 4: 1 997(E)

an d for secti on s of cl ass 3 gi ven by

=! xW=M y
M rd

Yr Yr

For secti on s of cl ass 4 th e resi stan ce cal cu l ati on s m u st adequ atel y i ncl u de th e effects of

l ocal bu ckl i n g . This m ay ei th er be d on e by ad opti n g th e con cept of a red u ced effecti ve

cross-secti on wh ose secti on m od u l u s is W, , see A. 8. 6, in which case th e m om en t

resi stan ce is gi ven by

or by ad opti n g th e con cept of a red u ced effecti ve yi el d stren g th kf, , in which case th e

m om en t resi stan ce is gi ven by

Both con cepts m u st be su ffi ci en tl y correl ated to experi m en ts an d /or n u m eri cal

si m u l ati on s. For th e form er of th e two con cepts, A. 8. 6 m ay be ad opted .

A. 8. 2. t .5 Com bi n ati on of forces:

If a m e m be r is su bj ected to a com bi n ati on of forces an d it is adequ atel y su pported to

preven t any l ateral torsi on al bu ckl i n g effects, th en i ts resi stan ce m ay be ch ecked by an

appropri ate i n teracti on form u l a, which m ay ei th er be based on th e th eory of pl asti ci ty an d

-fi nal l y veri fi ed by experi m en ts, or it m ay be based on experi m en ts al on e.

For m em bers wi th an l ; secti on of cl ass 1 or 2, th e resi stan ce m ay be ch ecked accord i n g

to th e fol l owi ng sets’ of form u l ae:

a) The com bi n ati on of stron g axis m om en t an d sh ear m ay be ch ecked by redu ci n g th e

pl asti c m om en t resi stan ce accord i n g to

VP
M
rsd = 4 + Mw (1 i I v) 1

wh ere M, an d M, are th e pl asti c m om en t resi stan ce of th e fl an g es an d th e web,

respecti vel y, or al tern ati vel y accordi n g to

M, = M, (1 . 4 - 0. 6

b) The com bi n ati on of axial force an d otaxral m om en t, m ay be ch ecked accordi n g to

M M
N
N, + 0. 85 2 + 0. 60 -2 5 1
M
MdY dr

M M
Y+Z1 ; 1

M cty Mdz

wh ere y an d z are th e stron g an d weak axes of th e cross-secti on , respecti vel y.

44
0 I S0 I S0 1 0721 -1 :1 997(E)

For m em bers with a cross-secti on of class 3, stresses should be calculated according to

simple theory of elasticity and the resistance m ay be checked according to the yield

criterion given in A. 7. 3. 2. I f the m em ber is su bjected to a combination of axial force and

biaxial m om en t, the linear interaction form ula

may be adopted.

For m em bers with a cross-section of class 4, the recom mentations given in A. 8. 6. 4 may

be adopted.

A. 8. 3 Classification of cross sections

A. 8. 3. 1 General
. -_. --. ---. -

In general the width-thickness ratio of a compression element m u st be defined, as the

boundary conditions of a plate are dependant on whether the edges are free, hinged or

considered to be fixed, see Fig. A. 8. 3. 1 . A single fillet weld will act as a hinge, whereas

a double fillet weld may give restraining effects.

Fig. A. 8. 3. 1

For elements supported along one edge only, parallel to the direction of the compressive

force, the width shall be taken as follows:

a) For plates and flanges of l-shapes, the width fb) is the distance from the free edge

to the first row of fasteners or the toe of fillet welds or the transition curve to the

web.

b) For legs of angles, flanges of channels and zees, and stem s of tees, the width (b)

is the full nominal dimension.

For elements su pported along two edges parallel to the direction of the compressi ve

force, the width shall be taken as follows:

a) For flange or diaphragm plates in built-up sections the width (b) is the distance

between adjacent lines of fasteners or welds.

45
I S0 1 0721 -1 :1 997(E)

For elements supported by two welds on each side the width is the distance

between the weld toes. For rolled sections the width is the distance between the

transition to the flanges.

b) For flanges of rectangular hollow structural sections the width (b) is the width

measu red on the outside of the section.

The thickness of elements is the nominal thickness. For tapered flanges of rolled

sections, the thickness is the nominal thickness halfway between a free edge and the

corresponding face of the web.

A. 8. 3. 2 Definitions of classes
__--_
-. . -. ----. --_. ----. . ---. -

Class 2 l-sections in continuous beam s may be calculated as if they were class 1

sections provided the m ateri al yield strength f, is replaced by a reduced effective yield

strength, f, , . For a free flange f, , may be calculated as

= 0, 1 02 E (;) ’ s f,
fw

and similarly, for a web in pure bending and with hinged boundaries the effective yield

strength may be calculated as

fYa = 6, 25 E (;) 2 < f,

Based on the effective yield strength fys, effective plastic resistances m ay be calculated.

For class 3 sections the general requirement is that the section shall be able to attain the

yield stress in its m ost com pressed fibre prior to local buckling or distortion of the cross

section. According to the methods given in 8. 6 and A. 8. 6 this implies that any plate or

part of the cross-section mu st comply with the width-thickness requirement

The factor’k depends on the boundary conditions, see 8. 6. The edge condition

comprising one fillet weld is equivalent to a hinge. In Fig. A. 8. 3. 1 som e examples are

given of how to define th. e b/t relation.

A-8. 3. 3 Maximum width-thickness ratios of elements su bjected to com pression and/or bending

Recom mended values for the maximu m width-thickness ratios of elements su bjected to

com pression and bending are given in Table A. 8. 3. 3.

46
0 IS0 IS0 1 0721 4:1 997(E)

Table A.8.3.3 Classification of cross-sections WA = Not Applicable)

Cross section Stress distribution in the Medium b/t - ratio
element element
Class 1 Class 2 Class 3 Class 4
Webs of l-sections. Axial compression NA NA 1 ,4 d/E/f,
Webs or flanges of
Melded box sections Moment:

Class 1 & 2

Class 1 & 2 Class 3

:langes of I-sections. Compression or 0.37m 0.45 \IE/f,
Free flanges of strong axis momet% 0.32@g
welded box sections
Compression and moment:

Class 1 & 2 Class 3

Rectangular hollow
sections: Compression (flange)

b Moment (web)

Circular hollow
sections: Compression and/or
moment
rj 0.065;
Y fY 4
Angles:
Compression E
fy
K, = 1 - 0.39 NIN, K, = 1 - 0.63 N/N, K, = 1 - 0.67 N/N N/N refers to the fully cross section
for doubly symmetric sections
K, = (0.425 - 9.1 (w+l) + 1 0.4(~+1 )’ ]“2 u/ is positive as indicated above
K, = 1 0.57 + 0.2~ + 0.07yr’ )1 ’2
NAp3
Note 1 : Class 4 are governed by A-8.8 or alternatively A.8.4.4.3 47
IS0 1 072+1 :1 997(E) 0 IS0

A.8.4 Flexural buckling

A.8.4.1 Effective---.. length

___.---.
The effective buckling length of a member, may vary considerably due to the end
restraint conditions. It should generally be acknowledged that a 1 00% effective end
restraint is difficult to obtain. The effective buckling length may be determined by
simplified methods, or based on theory of elasticity.

A.8.4.2 Slenderness
--------.
Relative slenderness is introduced to give non-dimen-
sional formulae and diagrams, i.e. diagrams which can be used independent of the yield
strength of the steel.

1 = $
c
where A,=n;
J-- Y

A.8.4.3 Compressiond---e--
resistance
For cross-sections of class 1 , 2 or 3, see Table A.8.3.3, the resistance will be

Noal= lfc . A0 = f, . A,
Yr

where f, is the buckling strength.

For cross-sections of class 4 the resistance in compression may because of local buckling
be handled as given in A.8.4.‘4,3.

A.8.4.4 Determination .--cof f

A.8.4.4.1 Alternative 1:

The buckling strength f, may be obtained from Fig. A.8.4.4.a, where f, is presented as a
function of the relative slenderness i. The buckling strength curves of Fig. A.8.4.4.a are
the result of an extensive test program involving tests of columns of various
cross-sections.

For members with cross-sections as shown in Fig. A.8.4.4.b, f, is determined from the
appropriate curve. For crpss-sections not shown in Fig. A.8.4.4.b, curve c may be used.

The values of f, presented in Fig. A.8.4.4.a may with a very good accuracy be found
from the expression

+ = [B + (B* i i2 )““3-’
‘Y

where

B = 0.5 [i + a ( 1 -Q + i’l

o represents the effects of initial- out-of-straightness, load eccentricity and residual

stresses.

A, represents the relative slenderness, below which no instability will occur due to strain
hardening effects.

Unless the curves of Fig. A.8.4.4.a are adopted, values of o and 2, should be given in
national standards.

48
0 IS0 IS0 1 0721 -l :1 997(E)

For the curves in Fig. A.8.4.4.a the following values may be adopted:

- buckling curve a: u = 0.21 , & = 0.2

- buckling curve b: u = 0.34, i, = 0.2
- buckling curve c: a = 0,49, & = 0.2
For members with practically no residual stresses a = 0.1 3 and A,, = 0.2 may be
adopted.
For members with residual stresses of prevailing importance to its behaviour, e.g.
thick-walled heavy columns, CI = 0.76 and &, = 0.2 may be adopted.

1 .0
fc.

Oa
lJ

fCL
fY 0.8
JCJ 0.7
fY
0.6 s;c =q -i-
fr
E

0.5 i, = JK-
n,
0.4
x, = P--&

0.3

0.2

O.l----p--l-

0
0 0.5 1 .0 1 .5 2.0 2.5 3,o 3.5
Fig. A.8.4.4.a Buckling curves, alternative 1
49
 I S0 1 0721 4: 1 997(E) 0 I S0

Con di ti on bkl i n g
bkl i n s
cross sect1 cl n : een d l ai kr
cu rve
=w-m e’ l t
m0 -e ds

H ot form ed t a-
H ol l ow secti on s: Y-Y a
col d form an d or

sl rese rel i eved z-z

y-g +&~ ~ ~ -y Col d form ed

(f, based on stu b y2 C

col u m testl n g 1 z-z

2' zi

Ei
Wel d ed box secti on s: Stress rel i eved y-y orZ-Z

Ae wel ded
y-y or z-z b
(except as bel ow>

Y-Y

z-z

Y-Y a
h

-I Qb
z-z b

b
l -7 <’ Y-Y
- - 1 2
b
C
z-z

a
Y-Y

Stress rel i eved

z-z b

Y-Y
Wel d ed
Fl am e cu t fl aps b
I -secti on s:
Z”-;

b
Y-Y

Rol l ed fl m g es
z-z C

Y-Y b

Rol l ed I -secti on s
Re-en forced
wi th vel ded
I -sectI on S
Ye-V --*Y
fl en g e pl ate! 3
z-z e
z

V. .U U -U

./
C

or
L-secti on s: X.

L l -b+d l p gal van i zed

v-v
b
U’ ‘V

U -3 T-
Y-Y
an d
-- or
-! -- -y
C
sol i d y
Q z-z
secti on s:
I

Fi g . A. 8. 4. 4. b Rel ati on between cross secti on an d appropri ate bu ckl i n g cu rves, al tern ati ve 1 .

50
0 I S0 I S0 1 0721 -1 :1 997(E)

A. 8. 4. 4. 2 Alternative 2:

The buckling strength f, may be obtained from a single mean-value-curve, e. g. based on the

expression

f c
-=e
-r1 2 for h 5 h,

fY

f
c=, for h > h,
f, :2

The values of K, 1 7 and A, should be given in national standards.

This alternative mean-value curve may necessitate a redefiniation of the resistance

factors, see 6. 5, as com pared to Alternative 1, given in A. 8. 4. 4. 1 . All relevant effects

may, however, be adequadely taken into account by an appropriate choice of the

resistance factor and the values:

K = 0.41 9

q = 0. 877

= 1 .5
4

A-8. 4. 4. 3 The determination of f, for m em bers with a cross section of class 4 mu st include the

effects of local buckling.

This can be obtained by replacing the actual yield strength f, with a reduced yield

strength which is equal to the lowest local plate buckling strength f, , of the

cross-section. The buckling strength f, for such a m em ber m ay then be calculated

according to either of the two alternatives given in A. 8. 4. 4. 1 and A. 8. 4. 4. 2, only with f,

replaced by f, , , and the buckling resistance of the m em ber m ay be obtained as if its

cross-section is of class 3.

Alternatively, the determination of f, for a m em ber with a cross-section of class 4 m ay be

handled by adopting the concept of a reduced effective cross-section, which includes all

relevant effects, and is obtained from experiments and/or numerical simulations. I t can

generally be expressed as a function of the effective cross-section and the buckling

param eters of the m em ber. The buckling resistance of the m em ber m ay finally be

calculated as if its cross section is of class 3.

A. 8. 4. 4. 4 For cold form ed sections, neither normalized nor stress relieved, the residual stresses and

the variation of material properti es due to cold form ing will affect the buckling resistance

of such m em bers. As given in Fig. A. 8. 4. 4. b, buckling curve c should be adopted for

m em bers with cold form ed hollow sections, provided the determination of f, is based on

stub column testing.

A. 8. 4. 4. 5 For L-sections buckling curve b should be adopted, unless the m em bers is hot-dip

galvanized, in which case the buckling curve a m ay be adopted.

For a m em ber with an L-section, connected in one leg only, the support conditions will

affect its buckling resistance. This may beLaken into account by adopting yhe concept

of replacing the actual relative slender_ness h. (based on the minimum radius gf gyration)

with an effective relative slenderness A, , which may be calculated according to the

following:

51
IS0 1 0721 4:1 997(E) 0 IS0

a) The angle is connected with one bolt at each end:

;, = 0.60 + 0.57j: if XS1 .41

Ye= 1 if x > 1 .41

b) The angle is connected with two bolts of welded, and the adjacent chords are not
loaded to their full capacity:

1, = 0.60 + 0.57; a L1 .41

I;, = 0.35 + 0.751 If 1 .41 L3.5

A.8.4.5’ Compression
.-_-_-_--.------- members
____ subjected to moments
-----.---.-.
Examples of interaction equations considered to meet the requirements of 8.4.5 are given
in A.8.4.5.1 and A.8.4.5.2.

A.8.4.5.1 Alternative 1:

1 + $My+Ney + kzMz+Nez i ,
Nal MdY M dr

where:

I
y and z indicate the strong and the weak axis of the cross-section, respectively.

the lesser of N,, and N,, if lateral torsional buckling is prevented.

N, =
N, if lateral torsional buckling is not prevented.

N =Y For cross-sections of class 1 , 2 or 3, see Clause A.8.4.3.

=
NC2 For cross-sections of class 4, the concept of a reduced effective
cross-section, according to clause A.8.4.4.3, should be adopted.

According to-Clause 8.2.1 and A.8.2.1 .4 if lateral torsional buckling is

prevented.
M,, = I According to Clause 8.5.2 and A.8.5.3 if lateral torsional buckling is not
prevented.

M,, = According to clause 8.2.1 and A.8.2.1 .4

1 - ~,N/(y,N,,) I 1 .5 if lateral torsional buckling is prevented

k, =
1 - p,N/(y,N,) s 1 .O if lateral torsional buckling is not prevented

k = 1 - pzN/(~N,,l I 1 ,5

A, (2w,-4) + (W,, - W,)/W, I 0.9 for Class 1 and 2 sections

P’v = I
A, (2w,-4) s 0.9 for Class 3 and 4 sections

A, (2w,-4) + (W,, - W,)/W, s 0.9 for Class 1 and 2 sections

P, =
iz (2w,-4) s 0.9 for Class 3 and 4 sections
52
0 IS0 IS0 1 0721 4:1 997(E)

Pl = 0.1 5 (A,w,- 1 ) 5 0.9

w,, w, = See Fig. A.8.4.5.1 .

Not applicable (i.e equal to zero) for cross-sections of class 1 ,2 and 3.
e,, e2 = I
For cross-sections of Class 4 e, and e, are the shift of relevant neutral axis
according to an effective cross-sectional calculation due to uniform
compression, see Clause A.8.4.4.3.

Moment diagram cs
End moments alone:

M L&=1 .8-.0.7 ye
UCM
-1 rqJrl
Transverse loads alone:
ILL\L XLL 4
00 = 1 .3

\1
wa = 1 .4
p?iyyrq

Combined end moments MCI

and transverse loads: UMO =uM +3 &h-UM)
A,M where
M Q = /max M/ due to
M transverse load alone
YM

/max M/ for moment

UTM diagrams without
change of sign
AM

YM /max M/+/min M/
for moment diagrams
: with change of sign

Fig. A.8.4.5.7 Moment coefficient, w.

53
IS0 1 0721 -1 :1 997(E) 0 IS0

A-8.4.5.2 Alternative 2:
Members other than Class 1 sections of l-shaped members, subjected to bonding
moments and an axial compressive force may be checked by the interaction formulae
a1 Cross-sectional resistance

b) Overall member resistance

Pz% z-31 .0
+ M&(1 - +,
Ez
except when M, = 0, take N, = N,,

c), Lateral torsional buckling

* + PyMy + PA 5 1 .0
NC2 %,,U - +I M&l - A)
43
EY
with
PY 2 1 .0
1 -- NN
EY

Class 1 .sections of l-shaped members subjected to bending moments and an axial

compressive force may be checked by the interaction formulae
a) Cross-sectional resistance
N + 0.85MY + 0.80M, ~ , *
N, by -K- -

b) Overall member resistance

except when M, = 0 take N, = N,,

54
0 IS0 IS0 1 0721 4:1 997(E)

c) Lateral torsional buckling resistance, if applicable

N PyMy PZM, 5 1 .0
K+
Md’ - $) + M,(l - +)
EY EZ
with

Py
2 1 .0
l--/-
EY

N, M,, M, are the design values of the action effects and M,, M, include 2nd-order
translation moments if applicable.

N,, = f,A,h,
NcY, N,, are based on L/i, and L/i, respectively and include y factors.

N,,, N, are Euler buckling loads based on L/i, and L/i, respectively.

Mdy, M,, are the relevant cross-sectional moment resistances depending on the section
classification.

M,, is the lateral torsional buckling resistance based on the moment diagram that exists
{i.e. includes non-uniform moment effects).

Unless a more accurate analysis is carried out the equivalent moment, flYMY or&M,, shall
be taken as:

a) For members subject to end moments only:

PM = &M = 0.6 M, - 0.4M, 2 0.4 M,

where M, is the larger end moment and M, is the smaller end moment at the opposite
end of the unbraced length and is taken as positive for double curvature and negative
for single curvature.

b) For members subject to moments due to transverse load only:

PM = fl,,M, = M,

where M, is the maximum moment due to transverse load in the unbraced length.

c) For members subject to both end moments and transverse loads, where M, and M,
are as defined in a and b above

(i) /3M = &M + &,M, = P,M + M,

when M, and M, cause curvature in the same direction,

(ii) /TM = &M = 0.6M, - 0.4M,

when M, and M, cause curvature in opposite directions and 1 MO/ 5 i M, I,

(iii) BM = /M,I -P,\M,I

when M, and M, cause curvature in opposite directions and 1 M,[ > I M, I

55
I S0 1 0721 4:1 997(E) 0 I S0

A. 8. 4. 6 Buckling of built-up m em bers

Built-up m em bers with principal axis (y) equal to the principal axis (y) . of the individual

m em bers, see Fig. A. 8. 4. 6. a, shall be checked for buckling about this axis according to

A. 8. 4. 1 - A. 8. 4. 5.

A-8. 4. 6. 2 Built-up m em bers for which none of the principal axes (y or z1 coincide with the principal

axis of the individual m em bers, m ay be checked for buckling about the principal axis

according to A. 8. 4. 1 - A. 8. 4. 5, provided A is replaced by Ai.

- -
n
cross section -

rry.2-i
Cross section
y-y z-z
-

0 2

2 2

- -

Fig. A. 8. 4. 6. a Coefficient n for various built-up sections

For batten columns A, is given by

where n is given in Fig. A. 8. 4. 6. a.

A is the slenderness of the entire m em ber and A, is the slenderness of an individual

m em ber about its principal axis, i. e. the 0-q axis in Fig. A. 8. 4. 6. a.

@= 1 for welded or slip-critical connections,

9 = 1 .3 for riveted or ream ed bolt connections.

For other bolted connections larger values are to be used.

A, = s, /i , , where s, is the center spacing of the reinforcing plates, but not m ore than the

clearance between them plus 1 00 m m , see Fig. A. 8. 4. 6. b.

For laced columns g, is given by

For welded and slip critical connections, V = 1 .l .

For riveted or ream ed bolt lacing, W = 1 . 2.

56
ok30 I S0 1 0721 4:1 997(E)

For batten and laced columns with A > 50, it is required that AI < 0. 5 A.

For built up m em bers with individual m em ber spacing corresponding to the gusset

thickness, see Fig. A. 8. 4. 6. a. ,Ii = q . A when the m em ber, aside from its battens or

lacing, has riveted, ream ed bolted or welded interm ediate ties spaced no m ore than 1 5i,

apart.

Y 1

T-
I
I I
I I
I
7
I
-
I

I
I
I I
I I
I I
I I 5
I I
I
I t

I
I I
I I
I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I I

+-

Fig. A. 8. 4. 6. b Spacing of built up m em bers

A. 8. 4. 6. 3 The m em bers (main m em bers and battens or lacing) shall be designed for the notional

shear force

v, = l. 2V 2 0. 01 2 JY A,
Yr

and the bending m om ent due to Vi in the main m em ber and the batfens.

A, is the total cross sectional area of the m em ber and V is the external shear force.

For simplicity Vi may be taken as constant along the m em ber. Alternatively, the effects

of its variation may be considered by m ore accu rate calculations.

A. 8. 5 Torsional and lateral torsional buckling

A. 8. 5. 3 Buckling strength f, , and f, ,

-. -

The torsional and the lateral torsional buckling resistance of m em bers m ay be handled

similarly to the m ore simple case of compressi on m em bers, i. e. the elastic buckling

strength resultants and the material strength are employed to express the resistance of the

m em ber.

The buckling strength for torsional or flexural-torsional buckling, f, , m ay be taken from

8. 4. 4 and A. 8. 4. 4. 1 , applying

- curve a for rolled sections, and

- curve c for welded sections.

The buckling strength for lateral torsional buckling of m em bers with cross sections of class

1, 2 or 3 may be taken as

57
 IS0 1 0721 -1 :1 997(E) 0 IS0

f CL =fyU + 1,
-20 1
-t/n

where n = 2 for hot rolled and lightly welded sections, n = 1 .5 for other welded
sections, and where A, is defined in A.8.5.3.2.
For welded sections with flame cut flanges n = 1 .5 may be conservative.
A.8.5.3.1 The relative slenderness parameter for torsional buckling is given by

where N, = f;A, and N, is the elastic torsional or flexural-torsional buckling force.

The elastic flexural-torsional buckling force N, is generally given by the solution of the
following cubic equation
PJEx - *ET)(*Ey - *d*Ez - NET) ip’ - y,’ N&N,, - NET) - <N&(N, - NET) = 0
where
NEY, N, are the effective elastic buckling forces for buckling about the y- and z-axis,
respectively, see 8.4.1 .
y., z, are the shear centre coordinates with respect to the centroid of the cross-section

ip’ = (lY + lJ/A is the polar radius of gyration

*E%= (GI, + T) / ip’ is the torsional buckling force

is the effective elastic torsional buckling length.

For doubly symmetric cross-sections yI = z, = 0, and then N, = N,
(provided N, < NEv and NE,).
For singly symmetric cross-sections, e.g. with y, = 0, the elastic flexural-torsipnal
buckling force is given by

A.8.5.3.2 The relative slenderness parameter for lateral torsional buckling is given by

iL=d--M,MEL
where M, = f, W and M,, is the elastic lateral torsional buckling moment.
For beams with doubly symmetric cross-sections and with actions in the shear center,
M,, is given by
58
0 IS0 IS0 1 0721 4:1 997(E)

where @ depends on the actions and the support conditions of the member,
see Fig. A.8.5.3.2.b.

For beams with monosymmetric cross-sections, i.e. sections with weak axis symmetry,
and with actions outside the shear center, M,, is given by

where c, is a cross sectional parameter given by

$ry fJ, z (y2+z2) dA - 22,

X
and a is the distance between the cross-sectional center of gravity and the point of
action, see Fig. A.8.5.3.2.a.

Point of action

Center of qravity
Y

Fig. A.8.5.3.2.a Cross-sectional definitions.

cp ELl.2 ql = 1 .35 9 - Lo 9 = 1 .77 9 - L77+ 0.772

Fig. A.8.5.3.2.b - @-values for some common cases.

59
IS0 1 0721 =1 :1 997(E) 0 IS0

A.8.5.3.3 For a member with a cross-section of class 4 the local buckling effects may be handled
by replacing the actual yield strength f, with a reduced yield strength which is equal to
the lowest local plate bucklinQ strength f,, of the cross section. The torsional and the
lateral torsional buckling resistance of the member may then be calculated according to
the recommendations for class 3 sections, only with f, replaced by f,,. The elastic local
buckling strength f,, may be obtained from A.8.6.2.
The torsional and the lateral torsional buckling resistance of a member with a
cross-section of class 4 may also be obtained by employing the concept of a reduced
effective cross-section, i.e. the gross section resistance is reduced by a factor k such
that the torsional buckling resistance may be expressed as
N Td = J% f, A,/Y,
and the lateral torsional buckling resistance may be expressed as
M, = KL f, w/Y,

where the reduction factors K~ and K, are obtained from experiments and/or numerical
simulations. They can generally be expressed as functions of the effective cross-section
and the buckling parameters of the member.
A.8.5.3.4 The inelastic lateral torsional buckling resistance of columns and beams may be
determined from inelastic lateral torsional buckling curves and that of beam-columns from
interaction equations based on such curves as are given in national standards. Such
curves shall provide sufficiently good statistical correlation with experimental results or
numerical simulations so that resistance factors can be evaluated.

A.8.5.4 Bracing of beams, girders and trusses

A.8.5.4.1 Lateral bracing for beams and columns shall be capable of maintaining the laterally braced
members in the laterally deflected position when the members are subject to their
maximum factored forces. The stiffness of bracing members shall be sufficient to restrict
the growth of out-of-plane deflections at the braced locations to a value consistent with
that used in the analysis. The strength of bracing members shall be sufficient to
maintain equilibrium.
In lieu of more detailed calculations the lateral bracing shall have a resistance of at least
1 % of the compressive force (in a column or in the compression flange of a beam) but
not less than
F ,,,,,, = 0.005 _fr A0
Yr
where & = gross area of the column or compression flange.

A.8.5.4.2 The initial out-of-straightness of a set of n columns or beams used to calculate the forces
developed in the lateral bracing shall be taken as

6” = (0.2 + :,a,

where 6, = out-of-straightness for a single member.

60
0 I S0 I S0 1 0721 -1 :1 997(E)

For bracing a single m em ber at midlength and growth of out-of-plane deflections is

limited to the initial out-of-plane imperfection, the extensional stiffness of the bracing

m em ber shall in general not be less than 4N /L, where N is the com pressive force in the

m em ber and L is the half-length of the m em ber.

Wh ere a line of bracing provides lateral support to a series of columns or beam s the

force-deform ati on characteristics of the bracing shall be taken into account.

A. 8. 6 Bucklina of nlates

A. 8. 6. 1 General

This section covers the buckling resistance of rectan-

gular thin plates with small initial geom etri c i mperfections. The plates are assu med to be

su bjected to in-plane forces only, i. e. normal and shear stresses. The ultimate capacity

will for slender plates occur after the plate has buckled and its deform ations are much

larger than the plate thickness, i. e. the plate has reached its post critical range.

Wi th such deformations of the plate, the in-plane stresses will be concentrated towards

the supported plate edges. The resistance of the plate may then be determi ned by

introducincj an effective width or an effective area of the plate.

Alternatively, the resistance m ay be calculated by using the average stress which the

plate actually can sustain at its ultimate limit state.

The formulae given in A. 8. 6. 2 - A. 8. 6. 5 are empirical and are the results of extensive

test prog ram s. The formulae give the ultimate load which the plate can sustain, and

there are no such unmobilized reserves in its capacity as m ay be obtained from a theory

of small deformations.

A. 8. 6. 2 Plates su bjected to uniaxial force or in-plane m om en t

----- ______--_-. __ _-. -.

A. 8. 6. 2. 1 The resistance of the plate will be a function of the m aterial strength f, and the relative

slenderness defined by

with u , =kae=k

The coefficient k depends on the stress distribution and the support conditions whether

free, simply supported or restrained. k is given in Pig. A. 8. 6. 2. 1 . a for the m ost com m on

cases of axial force and m om en t.

61
IS0 1 0721 4:1 997(E)

W'PORT CONOlTIChfS:
- Ffee edge
----
- ;,;wJs;wrted

12
k
IO
3 %6

’ I ’ I ’ 3 2,1II,854
3 4 5
u =a/h a -a/b

Fig. A.8.6.2.1 .a Coefficient k

t1 0”
it

Fig. A.8.6.2.1 .b

62
0 I S0 I S0 1 0721 4: 1 997(E)

0, 8

0, 6

04

0. 2
73 b

0 I

Fi g . A. 8. 6. 2. 1 .c

Tabl e A. 8. 6. 2. 1 Effecti ve wi dth b, an d cri ti cal stress f, , for fati g u e l oadi n g for

rectan g u l ar pl ates su bj ect to u ni axi at pl an e stress

Pl ate su pported at 4 or 3 ed g es an d f, , for pl ate su bj ect to fati g u e

preven ted from l ateral bu ckl i n g

f
A, be
-=- 1 when “, , s 0. 71 -9 .= 1 when $ s 0. 71

A b
fY

43 be 1
-= - ? (1 . 00 - -&) ! %1 . 5-1 h p

A
fY &f
b hP ’ P

when 0. 71 s hp s 5. 0 0. 71 s xp 5 J ”i

f, = 1

fy 7

*e be
-=-
is given as ou rve a $f! is gi ven as cu rve b
A b
Y

in Fi g . A. 8. 6. 3. l . c in Fi g . A. 8. 6. 3. 1 .c

63
I S0 1 0721 -1 :1 997(E) 0 I S0

The edge of the plate shall be considered free or simply su pported, unless it can be

dem onstrated that its edge is effectively restrained or fixed.

Plates su bjected to repetitive actions should be checked with respect to possible fatigue

effects (see Chapter 1 0) if the actions cause the plate to enter the post-critical buckling

stage and “breathing” occu rs. This m ay be avoided in the design by adopting the

b-curve in Fig. A. 8. 6. 2. 1 c/Table A. 8. 6. 2. 1 , which represents the linear elastic buckling

curve. I ts . position m ay, however, be affected by geom etri cal i mperfections.

In Fig. A. 8. 6. 2. 1 . c and Table A. 8. 6. 2. 1 formulae are given for the effective width b, and

the critical stress f, , for fatigue loading.

The load case m ay be axial force or bending m om en t. Combinations of axial force and

m om en t are handled in A. 8. 6. 4.

The effective area of a plate will be A, = t b, concentrated along the supported edges as

shown in Fig. A. 8. 6. 2. 1 . b.

Plates supported at 4 edges, of which two are parallel to the stress direction will have

two effective zones, one at each edge parallel to the stress direction.

Plates supported at 3 edges and with the fourth edge free and parallel to the stress

direction, will have only one effective zone adjacent to its supported edge. Such plates

m u st be prevented from lateral buckling.

I f the section is part of a strut or column, the slenderness g of the column m ay be

calculated for the gross-secti on.

The axial com pressive (cross-sectional) resistance of a m em ber is given by

N , : :?m
- fy- A, or N, = l-f;A
Yr Yr

where f, , is the lowest plate buckling strength.

A. 8. 6. 2. 2 Moment resistance of webs

The effective height h, of a web in com pression or bendin’g is calculated according to the

. formu lae given in Table A. 8. 6. 2. 1 or the curves of Fig. A-8. 6. 2. 1 . c, by replacing b, /b

with h, /h, , where h, is the com pressed part of the web calculated according to Navier’s

hypothesis, see Fig. A. 8. 6. 2. 2. The buckling coefficient k shall, however, be calculated

for the entire web or for the appropri ate parts of the web between longitudinal sti ffeners.

Fig. A. 8. 6. 2. 2

64
0 I S0 I S0 1 0721 -l :1 997(E)

A. 8. 6. 2. 3 The minimum thickness of a web is given by

which will prevent the compressi on flange of a straight beam to buckle into the web. h is

the height of the web, or the distance from the flange to the nearest longitudinal

stiffener. I f the beam is curved in the web-plane, a m ore comprehensive investigation

should be carried out.

A. 8. 6. 2. 4 For webs with axial force and non-uniform bending m om en t, the critical cross section to

be checked is located either at 0. 4a or at 0. 4b from the end of the panel, see

Fig. A. 8. 6. 2. 4.

0. 4 a

0. 4 b

, kl

Ml

N-
cl
VI

Fig. A. 8. 6. 2. 4 Control section of web.

A. 8. 6. 3 Shear resistance of webs

------. ---I -.

A. 8. 6. 3. 1 The shear resistance of webs may either be calculated according to 8. 6. 3. 2 and

A. 8. 6. 3. 2 or according to. a well-establiched tension field m odel.

Generally, the tension field m odel can be based on the assumption that the ultimatf shear

resistance is evaluated from a co-operative action between

- a simple shear field mechanism, and

- a tension field mechanism

The two mechanisms m ay be evaluated independently of each other, and the shear

resistance of the panel is the su m of the shezr forces which can be obtained for each of

the two m echanisms. H owever, the calculations of the shear forces which can be

obtained for each of the two m echanisms mu st be limited by their joint effect, as

discribed below.

The shear force which can be obtained from the simple shear field mechanism (i. e. purely

shear) , should, under these assumptions, be limited by elastic shear buckling and by the

shear yield stress of the web.

The shear force which can be obtained from the tension field mechanism should be

limited by the yield strength of the web m aterial. H owever, this m echanism m ay also

include the effects of

65
I S0 1 0721 4:1 997(E) 0 I S0

a fram e mechanism,

in which case the shear force resistance will also be limited by the plastic resistance of

the adjoining flanges and stiffeners.

The stress calculations in the web, and the plastic resistance calculations of the flanges

and stiffeners m ust include all relevant effects from the co-operative mechanisms, and

also the effects of other possible external forces (M and N).

Wel ds m u st be designed to resist all the relevant stresses which are introduced into them

by the co-operative action of the mechanisms.

End panels m u st be given special attenti on, as the sti ffn ess of the end sti ffen er wi ll

affect the tension field behaviour of the panel. The end stiffener m ust be designed to

resi st all forces which are introduced into it due to the co-operative actions of the

mechanisms.

The recom mendations given in A-8. 6. 4 and A. 8. 6. 5 are applicable only if A. 8. 6. 3. 2 is

applied to calculate the shear resistance of the web.

A. 8. 6. 3. 2 The m ethod given below is an empirical method which gives the ultimate shear resistance

of a web.

The ultimate shear resistance of webs may be expressed as a function of-the materi al

strength and the relative web slenderness, A, ,

The su pport con di ti on s shall always be assu med simply supported, and k. is given by

k=5. 34+4(i ) 2 for a;rh

b = 5. 34 + 4 (i) 2 + 4. 00 for a i h

where a is the distance between transverse stiffeners.

The resistance of a web also depends on the flexural stiffness in the web plane of its

stiffeners. See 8. 6. 5 and A. 8. 6. 5.

In table A. 8. 6. 3. 2 form ulae are given for the ultimate shear strength of a web, r, , as a

function of A, and the aspect rati o CY= a/h. The shear yield stress

The formu lae of Table A. 8. 6. 3. 2 are all empirical and based on extensive test results.

Rigid end stiffeners are defined in A. 8. 6. 5. 5.

The ultimate shear resistance of the web is given by

66
0 I S0 I S0 1 0721 -l : 1 997(E)

Tabl e A. 8. 6. 3. 2. U l ti m ate sh ear stren g th

We b with ri g i d en d sti ffen er We b with fl exi bl e en d sti ffen er

Tc 0. 76 =C

- = 1 for i, i - = 1 for xr, 5 0. 76

1 -0. 024(4-r~ ) ~
TY =Y

TC 0. 76 =c
-=_ -= ! &J ! z
+ 0. 024(4-a) 2

TY A, =Y +J

0. 76
for < 1 ,s 1 . 22
for 0. 76 < y, s 3. 8
l -0. 01 24(4-a) ’

TC
-=-
l S2 + 0. 024(4-a) 2

h , +l . 22
=Y

for 1 . 22 < $ 5 3. 8

For a > 4, a = 4 sh ou l d be u sed in th e form u l as in Tabl e A. 8. 6. 3. 2.

We bs su bj ected to repeti ti ve sh ear acti on sh ou l d be ch ecked wi th respect to possi bl e

fati g u e effects (see ch apter 1 0) if th e acti on cau se th e pl ate to en ter th e post-cri ti cal

bu ckl i n g stag e an d “breath i n g ” occu rs. This m ay be avoi ded in th e desi g n by ad opti n g

th e fol l owi ng :

T’ = 1 for ip < 0. 76

fY

TC 0. 76
-xv for 0. 76 -z h p 2 1 . 41

=Y b

TC 1 . 08
-=-
for 1 . 41 < hp 5 3. 8
-2

sY
%

A. 8. 6. 4 A com bi n ati on of forces

----. -. --_. --_--- __ . . - . - __--

A. 8. 6. 4. 1 A com bi n ati on of axial force an d m om en t m ay be h an dl ed by ch ecki n g th e su m of th e

uniaxial stresses ag ai n st th e appropri ate bu ckl i n g stren g th s accord i n g to A. 8. 6. 2 for each

part of th e cross-secti on , in which case th e el asti c bu ckl i n g coeffi ci en t k m u st be

cal cu l ated for th e com bi n ed uniaxial stress di stri bu ti on .

If th e m e m be r is an l -secti on su bj ected to a com bi n ati on of axial force, stron g axi s

m om en t an d sh ear, th e web of th e cross-secti on m ay be ch ecked by th e i n teracti on

form u l a

N
N, + (X) 2 + (+ ) 2 i 1

rd rd

in which al l term s exclusivel y refer to th e web, an d N rd , M,, an d V, , are cal cu l ated in

accord an ce with A. 8. 6. 2 an d A-8. 6. 3. 2, i.e

67
IS0 1 072%1 ,:1 997(E) 0 IS0

N, = 3 A,
YI

M, = frw e
Yr

If the panel have axial forces in two directions (x and yl, the first term of this equation
may be replaced by
3 +- Nz
Nyd NZd
A separate control of the flanges may be carried out by checking the stresses against the
appropriate buckling strength given in A.8.6.2.
Alternatively, a tension field theory comprising the entire cross-section may be adopted.
For a member with an l-section subjected to a combination of strong axis moment and
shear, the following empirical interaction formulae may be adopted

0.73 g- + 0.46 + s 1
rd rd

.in which all terms refer to the entire cross-section, and M,, and V,, are calculated in
accordance with A.8.6.2 and A.8.6.3.2.

A.8.6~4.2 Local buckling or crippling of web

This problem concerns mainly crane girders, where heavy wheel loads may produce
crippling and yielding in the web just beneath the wheel load. The result may be
extensive damage to the upper part of the web. (See also chapter 1 0, Fatigue).
The crippling resistance of an unstiffened web subjec-
ted to a concentrated load P, as illustrated in Fig. A.8.6.4.2, may be calculated by
P,=frta for dass 1 sections
Yr

Pd545@E
YI
for class 2, ,3 or 4 sections
where
a = a,.+.2 a2 + 5 (tf + r1
0 IS0 IS0 1 0721 -l :1 997(E)

if P is located at a distance less than h from the end of the unstiffened web.

a = a, + a, + t, + r 5 500&h

if P is located at a distance less than h form the end of the unstiffened web.

Fig. A.8.6.4.2

The web must also fulfil the requirements given in A.8.6.2.3.

A combined stress situation may be checked by simple theory of elasticity and the
Huber-Hencky-von Mises yield criterion given in A.7.3.2. The local maximum stress in
the web due to P (located farther than h from the end of the member) may be calculated
by

ay = &

where
L, = 1 .2 [ a, + 2 ( a2 + t, + r ) 3 or
L, = 1 .4 t, ( b/t,., )ln
whichever is the smallest, and b is the width of the flange, see Fia. A.8.6.4.2.

For slender webs loaded from both sides the local buckling resistance may also have to
be checked. This may be done by considering the web as a fictitious column with a
width equal to its height. If P is located nearer than h from the unstiffened end of a
web, this width should be reduced accordingly. Buckling curve c may be applied.

69
I S0 1 0721 4:1 997(E) 0 I S0

A. 8. 6. 5 Webs or panels subdivided by stiffeners

_I __--m . _--- . ---s--m .

A. 8. 6. 5. 1 One or m ore stiffeners will increase the Strength of the web or panel. The full effect will

be obtained when the stiffeners behave as straight edges of the subdivided plate or web,

and the ultimate plate resistance can be obtained before any significant buckling

deformati ons of the stiffeners occu r.

Fig. A. 8. 6. 5. 1 . a shows som e of the m ost com monly used open stiffeners.

Two fillet welds m ay give som e restraining effect and accordingly improve the capacity.

Fig. A. 8. 6. 5. 1 . b illustrates som e of the m ore com m on torsional stiffeners. The effect of

such stiffeners will be an effective restraint of the plate edges, and considerably

increasing the resistance of the plate.

The m om en t of inertia for a stiffener is calculated with respect to the centre-line of the

web, i. e. the z-axix as indicated in Fig. A. 8. 6. 5. 1 . c.

Fig. A. 8. 6. 5. 1 . a Examples of open stiffeners

3
‘z =>
Fig. A. 8. 6. 5. 1 . b Examples of closed stiffeners

z n
Z n z

i i -i i
z n i i
Z n

70 Fig. 8. 6. 5. 1 . c Types of stiffeners

0 I S0 I S0 1 0721 4:1 997(E)

A. 8. 6. 5. 2 For transverse stiffeners of plate girder webs, the m om en t of inertia I , and the area A, of

the stiffener should fulfil the fotlowing requirements:

I, 2 a c [ 2. 5 (i) 2 - 21 L 0. 5 a c

where

1 , O for double sided stiffeners

@ = ( 1 ,8 for single angle stiffeners

2, 4 for single plate stiffeners

v = ratio of yield strength of web plate to the yield Strength of stiffener

a = aspect ratio = a/h

xP = the relative web slenderness (see A. 8. 6. 3. 2) .

The length of the transverse stiffener is the distance h between the flanges.

In general any vertical stiffener m ay be cut off and unattached to the web for a distance

less than or equal to 6t, . , , and if possible larger than 4~ . See Fig. A. 8. 6. 5. 5.

A. 8. 6. 5. 3 I f the longitudinal stiffener is supposed to form a rigid su pport for the adjacent plates, it

shall at least have a m om en t of inertia which fulfils the requirement

I, :: 0, l h@,

where

C, = 8 + 60 2

The effective area A, , of the longitudinal stiffener m ay be calculated as given in A. 8. 2

and A. 8. 6. 2. The stiffener itself should, when possible, at least have width/thickness” -

ratios as required for calss 2 sections. The stiffener with the adjoining parts of the web

m ay be calculated as a column, as indicated in chapter 8. 4. The buckling length of this

column is the distance between the transverse stiffeners or between points where deflec-

tion is prevented, unless m ore exact calculations are m ade.

The axial load in the column will be the su m of the forces due to the stresses in the

stiffener itself and the stresses in half the width of the adjoining panels.

Longitudinal continuous stiffeners m ay be calculated as centrally loaded. Non-continuous

sti ffeners, e. g. stiffeners which are termi nated at each transverse stiffener, shall be

calculated as excentrically loaded, the axial load acting in the middle plane of the web.

A. 8. 6. 5. 5 End stiffener

If the web is calculated by an post-critical m ethod as given in A. 8. 6. 3. 2, the end

stiffener should be flexurally rigid, and it should be designed for

71
IS0 1 0721 4:1 997(E) 0 IS0

- an axial force equal to the entire support force acting on an equivalent column
length of 0.75 h, and

- a horizontal force (due to the tension field action), see Fig. A.8.6.5.5,

H, = h t, (rc - 0.79 $62

P

where

T, and A, are given in A.8.6.3.2, and H, is located 0.25h from the top flange.

Alternatively, the end panel should be designed such that

a or h 5 t [ 0.2V/(EAJ ]-ors

where

a is the distance between the end stiffener and the first transverse stiffener. This will
ensure an adequate anchorage panel for the tension field.

a) Calculation model for end stiffeners

b) Examples of end panel stiffeners

Fig. A.8.6.5.5 End panel stiffeners

72
0 IS0 IS0 1 0721 -1 :1 997(E)

A.8.8 Bolted connections

A.8.8.2 Bolting details
____.e.-..--..-----
A.8.8.2.1 Spacing of bolts
The bolt pitch (distance parallel to the direction of the action) shall preferably be three
times the nominal diameter of the hole, but not less than 2.5 hole diameters. The pitch
shall assure adequate strength and take fabrication and erection procedures into
consideration. The maximum bolt pitch of the inner bolt rows parallel1 and transverse to
the action of the force may be increased by 1 00 % in members with tension action.
The minimum edge distance at right angles to the direction of the action and measured
from the centre-line of the hole to the edge of the plate shall not be less than 1 .5 times
the nominal diameter of the hole. The minimum edge distance may be reduced to 1 .2
times the nominal diameter of the hole, provided appropriate strength calculations are
made.
The minimum end distance in the direction of the action and measured from the
centre-line of the bolt to the end of the plate or member shall not be less than 1 .2 times
the hole diameter for compression or tension members.
The maximum edge or end distance shall be the lesser of 1 2 times the thickness of the
outside connected part or 1 50 mm, or as governed by local buckling or corrosion
protection requirements.
In the case of unsymmetrical and unsymmetrically connected members (such as angles),
appropriate considerations must be made to determine the strength of the connection, in
addition to fulfilling the spacing requirements mentioned above.
A.8.8.2.2 Holes
For normal bolts there will be a clearance as the hole diameter will be up to 3 mm greater
than the bolt diameter. The clearance is necessary for a convenient erection of the
structure. The use of slotted or oversize holes are dictated by equivalent considerations.
Joints using oversize or slotted holes shall meet the following requirement:
a) Oversize holes shall not be used in bearing-type connections but may be used in any
or all plies of slip-critical connections. Oversize holes shall not be more than 4 mm
larger than the bolt diameter for bolt diameters up to 22 mm, not more than 6 mm
larger than the bolt diameter for bolts of 24 mm in diameter, and not more than 8 mm
larger than the bolt diameter for bolts of 27 mm or of larger diameters.
b) Short slotted holes are those 2 mm wider than the bolt diameter with a slot length not
exceeding the oversize diameter provisions (8.8.2.2.a) by more than 2 mm. They
may be used in any or all plies of slip-critical connections or in bearing-type
connections. In slip-critical connections the slots may be orientated at any direction
with respect to the direction of the actions. In bearing-type connections, the long
direction of the slots shall be perpendicular to the direction of the action.
c) Long slotted holes are those 2 mm wider than the bolt diameters and with a length
larger than prescribed for short slotted holes but not more than 2.5 times the bolt
diameter. They may be used in only one ply at adjacent parts of a faying surface, in
slip-critical or bearing-type connections. In slip-critical connections, they may be used
without regard to the direction of the actions, but there shall be provided one-third
additional bolts in excess of the number of bolts required to satisfy 8.8.3 and A.8.8.3.
In bearing-type connections, the long direction of the slot shall be perpendicular to the
direction of the action.
73
 0 I S0
I S0 1 0721 -1 :1 997(E)

A-8. 8. 2. 3 H igh-strength bolts

As a general rule a high-strength bolt subject to repetetive tensile loading should be

preloaded. In connections where prying forces will occu r, see Fig. A-8. 8. 2. 3, this

effect shall be included in the calculations.

1 1

Fig. A. 8. 8. 2. 3

A. 8. 8. 3 9tZtgth of connections with bolts and rivets

-

A. 8. 8. 3. 1 Bolts in tension

The tensile force resistance of bolts is given by

where

A = nominal stress area of the threaded part

l P.

f ”
= specified ultimate tensile strength of the bolt m ateri al

Y, 5 = resistance factor for the connection.

The effect of prying forces, . if any, shall be included in the external tensile force.

A. 8. 8. 3. 2 Bolted joints su bjected to shear forces.

A. 8. 8. 3. 2. 1 Bolts in bearing and shear type connections

Bolts are su bjected to shear by the bearing of the connected parts against the bolt
shank. The resistance of the connection will therefore be governed either by the

shear resistance of the bolts or by the bearing resistance of the connected parts.

a) The shear resistance of a bolt in a bearing-type connection is given by

F, = K

where:

K = 0. 6 for 8. 8 and 1 0. 9 bolts when shear occurs in the unthreaded area, 0. 5 when

shear occu rs in the threaded area

74
0 IS0 IS0 1 072+1 :1 997(E)

A, = effective shear area of bolt, including the effect of possible threads

f ” = specified ultimate tensile strength of bolt material

Y,c = resistance factor for the connection

For connections with a spacing larger than 1 5 d between the first and last bolt,
see A.8.8.6.

b) The bearing resistance per bolt, equal to or greater than the bearing strength of the
plates adjacent to the bolt, is given by

F, = a f, t d I yrc

where:

d = bolt diameter,

t = sum of plate thicknesses loaded in the same direction as the bearing stress,

and where o is the relation between the bearing strength and the ultimate strength of
the member material: u is a function of the distance e from the center of the last bolt
to the edge of the plate in the force direction, and a function of the distance between
the bolts measured in the force direction (pitch).

For members subjected to tensile action

a = 1 .5 -2 e 2 1 .2 d) s 3.0
d(

For compression members: u = 3.0

c). Bolts in a bearing type connection may be subject to combined tension and shear.
In this case, the following interaction equation may be applied:

($2 + (;)2 < 1

1 ”
where:

T = tensile force in the bolt

F, = tensile resistance of bolt, see A-8.8.3.1

V = shear force on the bolt for the shear plane

F, = shear resistance of the bolt, see A.8.8.3.2 above, calculated for the shear
plane.

A.8.8.3.2.2 Bolts in slip critical connections

The resistance to slip provided by a high-strength bolt may be taken as:

F, = m z F, ?-
YrC
where:

FD = specified preloading force

y,, = slip resistance factor 75

I S0 1 0721 =1 :1 997(E) 0 I S0

m = number of faying surfaces

P = slip coefficient, see A. 8. 8. 4

if slip occurs the connection shall be considered as bearing-type connection,

see A-8. 8. 3. 2. 1 .

Bolts in a slip critical connection may be su bjected to tension in addition to the shear.

In this case, the slip resistance is given by:

F, = m p (Fp - 0. 8 F, ) k

where:

F, is the tensile force pr. bolt due to external actions and possible prying forces.

A. 8. 8. 4 Slip coefficients
----

The slip coefficient strongly depends on the surface treatm ent. The effectiveness of

spraymetalized su rfaces depends on the spraying process, and the values of m controlled

accordingly. The slip coefficient also depends on the type of action, and its variation

with ti m e. Representative short term values of m are given in Table A. 8. 8. 4.

Table A. 8. 8. 4. Short term values of the slip coefficient

Steel su rface treatm ent Slip coefficient

(shot-t term ) p

For weathered steel clear of all mill scale and with

any loose rust rem oved 0. 40

For su rfaces blasted with shot or grit and with any

loose rust rem oved 0. 50

Tightly adhering clean mill scale, except for

quenched and tem pered steels 0. 33

H ot dip’zinc metalized 0. 1 8

H ot dip zinc metalized and lightly blasted,

thickness > 50pm m 0. 40

Spraymetalized with zinc, thickness > 50 prnm 0. 40

Spraymetalized with aluminium,

thickness > 50pm m 0. 55

Painted with zincsilicate coat, thickness < 60 pmrn 0. 50

Painted with zinc dust coat, thickness < 60 pmrn 0. 35

Alternatively, the slip coefficient for specific coating system s may be established by

relevant tests or taken from national standards.

For structures in which slip into bearing under long term sustained loads would be

detrimental, design recomm endations should be found from long term tests or in the

appropriate national standards. I f slip will occur for such a connection, its resistance

should be calculated according to the recomm endati ons given for bearing type

connections, see A. 8. 8. 3;2. 1 .

76
0 I S0 I S0 1 0721 4:1 997(E)

A. 8. 6. 6 length of connection
. .. . --. _---_. _.-.- . - ---___

When the spacing between the first and the last bolt in a connection is larger than 1 5d,

where d is the bolt di am eter, the resistance of the connection should be reduced by a

factor /I which is given in Fig. A. 8. 8. 6.

H owever, this reduction does not apply for uniform distribution of forces over the

connection length, e. g. for the transfer of shear forces from the web of a beam or

column to the flange, nor does it apply to slip calculations of slip-critical connections.

L
B = l . o75- -3[3fl d

1 .0

08

0. 6

0. 4

002

15 d 65 d

Fig. A. 8. 8. 6 Reduction of capacity in long connections

A. 8. 9 Wel ded connections

A. 6. 9. 2 General reauirements

The weld material should match the material in the structure.

A. 8. 9. 4 Design assumptions
---- -_-

For the calculation of weld sizes, a simplified stress distribution within the welds in the

joint is normally assu m ed. Since the actual elastic distribution of forces between welds

is highly indeterminate, such assumptions have been found acceptable and satisfactory

for design practi ce, and rely on the dem onstrated capacity of welds to redistribute

stresses by plastic yielding. However, care. m u st be taken in providing the necessary

capability as well as the sufficient freedom of constraints in the configuration of the

joi nts to permi t such yielding and the resulting deform ations to occur.

A. 8. 9. 5 Design provisions
-

A. 8. 9. 5. 2 The resistance of a com plete penetration groove weld in a butt joint should be the

resistance of the weaker m em ber.

Partial penetration groove welds should be calculated as fillet welds.

The resistance of a com plete penetration groove weld in a Tee joint should be the

resistance of the stem .

The resistance of a partial penetration groove weld should be calculated in the sam e

manner as that for fillet welds in the sam e joint.

 I S0 1 0721 -1 :1 997(E)
0 I S0

A-8. 9. 6 Groove welds in butt and tee joints

_-_-. . _----_-_I __. -

A-8. 9. 6. 2 For T-joints with partial penetration groove welds, see Figs. A. 8. 9. 6. 2 and 8. 9. 7. 1 0, the

resistance may be calculated by handling the joint as one with fillet welds.

I I

Fig. A. 8. 96. 2

A. 8. 9. 7 Fillet welds

A. 8. 9. 7. 1 The fillet weld m ay be controlled by calculation of forces in the different cross sections

A, B and C, as illustrated in Fig. A-8. 9. 7. 1 , where the relevant stress components are

shown for section A only.

The relevant stresses may be expressed by the following components:

41 - normal stress parallel to the axis of the weld

01 - normal stress perpendicular to the plane of the weld throat containing the axis

of the weld

AI - shear stress parallel to the axis of the weld

Tl - shear stress in the plane of the. throat perpendicular to the axis of the weld

The normal stress com ponent parallel to the axis of the weld, ~1 , m ay in resistance

calculations of the weld be om i tted, as it is accom odated by the base materi al.

. -. _.
. /‘I
P’ i
C

Fig. A. 8. 9. 7. 1

78
0 IS0 IS0 1 0721 4:1 997(E)

The resistance may be checked by

F < 0.6 & A,

r
where
f, = the ultimate tensile strength on the failure plane, i.e. on section A f, is the tensile
strength of the weld metal and on sections B and C f, is the tensile strength of the
base metal.
A,,, = the appropriate effective area on section A, B or C
0.8 for f, = 360 N/mm’
j3 = { 0.85 for f, = 430 N/mm’
0.9 for f, = 51 0 N/mm’
For section A the resistance may alternatively be checked by

where
01 , TI and T 1 1 are the stress components on the effective area, due to the external
design force F.

A.8.9.7.2 Single fillet welds are unable to take moments about their longitudinal axis.

A.1 0 FATIGUE
A.lO.l Scope
A. 1 0.1 .3 .-_-____
Situations in which no---fatigue assessment
---_____.-- ----__-____--is required
No fatigue assessment is-required when one of the following conditions is satisfied:
- If, whatever the constructional detail, no nominal stress range multiplied by the
factor y, exceeds 26/y, (N/mm?).’
- If, for a particular detail, for which a constant amplitude limit is defined, no stress
range (either nominal or geometric) multiplied by the factor y, exceeds the constant
amplitude fatigue limit divided by the factor y,.
- If, whatever the detail, the number of stress cycles is less than:

2.1 06 * ( 36 I3
Yr ’ Yf * ‘OE
where
Ao,, the equivalent nominal stress range, is in N/mm2.

79
IS0 1 0721 -I :I 997(E) 0 IS0

A.1 02 Fatiaue assessment procedures

A. 1 0.2.1 Fatigue assessment
--- based on nominal stress range

A.1 0.2.1 .1 The number of cycles N, to failure for a given stress

range depends on the detail category, and may for the normal stress range Au be
calculated as:
- if y - Aui > AuD then Ni = 2.1 06 ( Au& * Au, I3
- if Au, > y * Aui > Au, then Ni = 2.1 06 ( Au& * Aui I6
- if y - Aui c Au, then Ni = EO
with y = y, - y,
Alternatively, the fatigue assessment may be based on an equivalent constant amplitude
stress range calculation, in accordance with the Palmgren-Miner rule of cumulative
damage.
For normal stresses the fatigue assessment may thus be expressed by

where

Au, is the equivalent constant amplitude stress range.

Au, is the fatigue strength, which depends on the detail category and the total number
of stress cycles during the required design life.
A conservative assumption may be adopted in evaluating Au, and Au, in using a fatigue
strength curve of unique slope constant m = 3.
More generally, Au, and Au, may be calculated taking into account the double sloped
fatigue strength curve and the cut-off limit, se Fig. 3.1 at end of chapter 3.1 .
A.l’O.2.2 Fatigue assessment based on a geometric stress range
The geometric stress (or the stress concentration factor applied on the nominal stress
range) may be determined from parametric formulae within their domains of validity, a
finite element analyses or an experimental model. The fatigue assessment based on
geometric stress range is to be handled similarly to the procedures given in 1 0.2-l
replacing, where appropriate, the nominal stress range by the geometric stress range.
Reference fatigue strength curves to be used jointly with the geometric stress range
concept are defined in A.1 0.5.2.

A.1 0.3 Fatinue loadinq

The fatigue loading may comprise different loading events which are defined by complete
loading sequences of the structure, each characterized by their relative frequency of
occurrence as well as their magnitude and geometrical position.
In the absence of more accurate information, dynamic amplification fact&s may be used
to modify the stresses obtained from a static analysis.
The effect of a loading event is best described by its stress history which is the stress
variation at a given point in the structure during the loading event.
80
0 I S0 I S0 1 072+1 :1 997(E)

Measured stress histories m ay not accurately reflect the future fatigue loading. In som e

structures, for example bri dges and cranes, the load m odel used to describe the fatigue

loading should, as such, be able to take into account the possible changes in usage, such

as the growth of traffi c, changes in the loading rate, etc.

Simplified design calculations may be based on an equivalent fatigue loading,

representing the fatigue effects of all loading events. The equivalent fatigue loading m ay

vary with the dimension and location of the structural element.

A. 1 0. 4 Fatiaue stress soectra

A. 1 0. 4. 2 Design stress range spectru m

__---. - _--_-. __-___--_-----.

The design stress range spectru m for a typical detail or structural element may be derived

from the stress history obtained by adequ ate experiments and/or by numerical

evaluations according to the theory of elasticity.

The Rainflow or the Reservoir stress cycle counting m ethod, in conjunction with the

Palmgren-Miner su mmation, is appropriate for many applications. The reservoir stress

cycle counting m ethod is illustrated in fig. A. 1 0. 4. 2.

A. 1 0. 5 Fatiaue strenath

The fatigue strength curves to be used in the fatigue assessm ent procedures are given

according to the following classification of structural details:

- Nominal stress range procedures for

+ classified details for non-hollow sections

+ classified details for hollow sections, and hollow section joints in lattice girders.

- Geom etri c stress range procedure.

For the constructional details listed in Tables A. 1 0. 5. 1 . 1 . c to g, A. 1 0. 5. 1 . 2. d and e the

classification has been establised on, the basis of stresses along the direction indicated by

the arrow for potential cracks on the su rface of the parent m etal, or for the case of weld

throat cracking, on the stress calculated in the weld throat. The stresses are obtained

from classical strength of m aterials elastic theory using the gross or net section of the

loaded m em ber, as appropri ate. The stress thus calculated corresponds to details tested

under simple loading configurations giving rise to a principal stress, generally parallel or

alm ost parallel to the direction of the arrow used in the classification of constructional

details, adjacent to the potential crack location. ’ N ote that the crack is located in a plane

normal to this stress range direction. For these details the calculated stress is called the

nominal stress, and the associated stress range for fatigue assessm ent, the nominal

stress range.

The fabrication requirements for fatigue detail classifications are given under the heading

“Requ irements” of Table A. 1 0. 5. 1 .l and in I S0 Standard on “Fabrication and Erection”.

I f the requirement for the actual details are not m et in the finished structu re, the use of

the fatigue strength curves associ ated with those details m ay be inappropriate, in which

case, a fatigue assessm ent m u st be carried out by suitable adaptation of these rules.

Test data for som e details do not fit the fatigue strength curves given in Figure

A. 1 0. 5. 1 .l . a. In order to be sure to avoid any non-conservative conditions, such details

(identified by an asteri sk in the tables) are located in a detail category one step lower

than their fatigue strength at 2. 1 O6 cycles would have required. An alternative

assessm ent would be to increase the classification of such details by one detail category

provided that the constant amplitude fatigue limit is defined as the fatigue strength at

1 0’ cycles for m = 3, se Fig. A. 1 0. 5. a.

81
 0 I S0
I S0 1 0721 4:1 997(E)

step 1:

B&eT%ne the stress

history for the load
even t.
I dentify the largest b Ti m e
peak B.

steJ l 2: B B
a)I
k&the part of the
stress hi story on the
left of B to the end
of the load even t.
i. e. linkOCA-E3> to C.

step 3:

FiliChe resultlnjj
"reservoi r" with water".
The greatest depth Is
the major stress cycle.
I . e. Aa1 occu rs once.

SLqAi
Drain on the greatest
depth. and find the new
maximum depth. ~62

This Is the second

largest stress cycle.

Stel5 (and onwards>: d

------------a--

Repeat step 4untll all'

the "water" Is drained.

Stress-range spectru m:
--------- -- -------

The resu l ts of the cycle

counting procedu re may be
arranged in a stress-
range spectru m.
w
111 Cycl es

Fig. A. 1 0. 4. 2 The reservoir stress cycle counting method

82
0 IS0 IS0 1 0721 +1 997(E)

- Basic SN-curve

Alternative classification
(increased by one category)

Number of cycles, N

Fig. A.1 0.5.a

The requirements for the inspection of welded joints subject to fatigue should be in
accordance with national standards, or the IS0 Standard on Fabrication and Erection.
Depending on the inspection scheme adopted, it may be necessary to identify certain
critical joints on the design drawings and to elaborate on the procedures required for
these joints.

In order that the appropriate degree of inspection may be applied to the various parts of
the structure in accordance with the IS0 “Fabrication and Erection” specification
Appendix D, it is necessary to identify all joints where the stress spectrum is such that a
detail category greater than 56 is required by these rules. In each case the joint should
be identified on the detail drawing with the required “Fat” inspection category and stress
direction, as illustrated on Fig. A.1 0.5.b. The required “Fat” inspection category number
is the reference strength -Au, for the lowest fatigue strength curve for which the damage
summation is less than 1 ,O (see 1 0.2.1 .l 1 .

L
T

FAT '71
I,- FAT 90:
IlIIIIlll
Illllllll~~llrllllllllllllllllllllllllllil IIIT VIII

--z FAT 1 1 2
FJT9$
Jll~lllll~ ~~ll~l~l~l~llllllllIllllllllllU
I”” b”I

Fig. A.1 0.5.b

I S0 1 0721 -l :1 997(E) 0 I S0

I t is important that the value of the reference strength for the maximum perm i tted

detail category according to the classification tables in A. 1 0. 5. 1 is not used for the

“Fat” number (unless it happens to be the sam e as the required “Fat” inspection

category) , otherwise unnecessary fabrication and inspection costs are likely to ari se.

Two or three “Fat” inspection categori es m ay need to be called up at a joi nt if cycles

stressing is severe in m ore than one direction.

A. 1 0. 5. 1 Definition of fatigue strength ‘curves for classified constructional --- details

---- ----

A. lO. 5. 1 .l Fatigue strength curves for non-hollow sections are defined as follows:

Classification of detail categori es:

a) Typical constructional details for non-hollow sections are classified into 5

categories considering particularities in geometry and fabrication procedu res:

- Non-welded details

- Welded built-up sections

- Transverse butt welds

- Welded attachm ents (non-load-carrying welds)

- Welded joi nts (load-carrying welds)

b) Fatigue strength curves for nominal normal stress range:

The fatigue strength curves for a number of typical detail categories are given in

Figure A. 1 0. 5. 1 .l . a for nominal normal stress range.

The constant amplitude fatigue limit corresponds to the fatigue strength for

N = 5 * 1 06.

The cu t-off limit corresponds to the fatigue strength for N = lo*. Stress ranges

below the value corresponding to the cut-off m ay be neglected.

The associated classification of various typical detail categori es is given in the

iables A. 1 0. 5. 1 . 1 . c to g, The arrow in the different figures in the tables indicates

the location and direction of the stresses for which the stress ranges are to be

calculated.

The corresponding values for a numerical representation of the curves are

presented in Table A. 1 0. 5. 1 .l . a.

c) Fatigue strength curves for nominal shear stress ranges:

The fatigue strength curves for nominal shear stress ranges are defined in Figure

A. 1 0. 5. 1 .l . b and have a single slope constant of m = 5. Category 1 00 is for

parent m ateri al, full penetration butt welds and for bolts of bearing type in shear.

Category 80 is for fillet welds and for partial penetration butt welds in shear.

Calculations should be perform ed in a similar manner to those applied for nominal

normal stress ranges. The cut-off limit remains at 1 O8 cycles. No constant amplitude

fatigue limit should be assu m ed.

The corresponding values for a numerical calculation of the fatigue strength are given

in Table A. 1 0. 5. 1 . 1 . b.

84
 I s01 0721 -1 :1 997(E)
0 I S0

Stress range ACT

(N /m m 2,

Tplitude

1 00
limit

50

70
1 5 1, 5 1 2
I LET-=
I I
5 1 5
I

1
m

IO4 I O5 I O6 1 0’ IO8

Number of cycles N

Figure A. 1 0. 5. 1 . 1 .a Fatigue strength curves for normal Stress ranges

I S0 1 0721 -l :1 997(E) 0 I S0

Table A. I O. 5. 1 .l Numeric31 values of fatigue Strength curves for normal stress ranges

Detail category Constant Cut-off limit

log a amplitude (N=1 081

Au, fatigue limit

(N /m m 21 (N 5 5. 1 06) N25. 1 0”) (N =5. 1 06) Au,

m =3 m =5 Au, (N /m m ’ ) (N /m m 21

1 60 1 2. 901 1 7. 036 II7 64

1 40 1 2. 751 1 6. 786 1 04 57

1 25 1 2. 601 1 6. 536 93 51

112 1 2. 451 1 6. 286 83 45

1 00 1 2. 301 1 6. 036 74 40

90 1 2. 1 51 1 5. 786 66 36

80 1 2. 001 1 5. 536 59 32

71 1 1 . 851 1 5. 286 52 29

63 1 I . 701 1 5. 036 46 26

56 1 1 . 551 1 4. 786 41 23

50 I I . 401 1 4. 536 37 20

45 1 I . 251 1 4. 286 33 I8

40 1 1 . 1 01 1 4. 036 39 16

36 1 0. 951 1 3. 786 26 I4

Table A. I O. 5. 1 .I .b Numerical values for fatigue strength curves for shear stress ranges

T
Detail category log a Cut-off limit

m =5

AT, (N /m m ’ ) (N < 1 0’) (N < 1 0’)

AT, (N /m m ’)

1 00 1 6. 301 46

80’ 1 5. 801 36

86
0 I S0 I S0 1 0721 -I :1 997(E)

Stress range AT (N /m m ‘)
1 000

500

limit

N umber of cycl es

Figure A. 1 0. 5. 1 .l . b Fatigue strength curve for shear stress ranges

87
 I S0 1 0721 4:1 997(E) 0 I S0

88
0 I S0 I S0 1 0721 4:1 997(E)

d
m

I
\

Lo

8 II
c
E

89
I S0 1 0721 -l :1 997(E)
0 I S0 I S0 1 0721 -1 :1 997(E)
 0 I S0
I S0 1 0721 -l :1 997(E)

ii .

92
0 I S0 I S0 1 0721 -l :1 997(E)

93
I S0 1 0721 4:1 997(E) 0 I S0
0 I S0 I S0 1 0721 -l :1 997(E)

95
I S0 1 0721 -1 :1 997(E) 0 I S0

96
0 I S0 I S0 1 0721 4:1 997(E)
 I S0 1 0721 -1 :1 997(E) 0 I S0

98
0 I S0
I S0 1 0721 -1 :1 997(E)

A. 1 0. 5. 1 . 2 Fatigue strength curves for hollow sections and hollow section joint details are defined

as follows:

a) The fatigue strength curves to be used in conjunction with the hollow section

details shown in Table A. 1 0. 5. 1 . 2. d refer to those presented in Figure

A. 1 0. 5. 1 . 1 . a with a slope constant of m = 3 and 5.

b) The fatigue strength curves to be used in conjunction with the hollow section joint

details of lattice gi rders as shown in Table A. 1 0. 5. 1 . 2. e, are presented in Figure

A. 1 0. 5. 1 . 2. a, with a slope constant of m = 5.

Stress range Ao (N /m m 2’
/

Cu t-off

limit

N u m ber of cycl es N

Figure A. 1 0. 5. 1 . 2. a Fatigue strength curves for tubular lattice girder joints

99
I S0 1 0721 4:1 997(E) 0 I S0

cl The throat thickness of fillet welds shall not be less than the wall thickness of the

hollow section in the connected m em bers.

The corresponding values for numerical representation of the fatigue strength curves are

given in Table A. 1 0. 5. 1 . 2. a.

Table A. 1 0. 5. 1 . 1 . a Numerical values for fatigue

strength curves for lattice girder joints

Detail category I OQ a Cut-off limit

m= 5 N = lo*

Au, (N /m m ’) IN < lo*) Aa, (N /m m 21

90 1 6. 051 41

71 1 5. 551 32

56 1 5. 051 26

50 1 4. 801 23

45 1 4. 551 20

36 1 4. 051 16

The m em ber forces maybe analyzed neglecting the effect of eccentricities and joint

stiffness, ’ assuming hinged connections, provided that the effects of local bending

m om ents on the stress ranges are considered. In the absence of more accurate stress
analysis and modelling of the joint, this effect may be taken into account by multiplying the

stress ranges due to axial m em ber forces by the coefficients defined hereafter (for

clarification of the terminology used, see Table A. 1 0. 5. 1 . 2. e) .

For lattice girder joints with circular hollow sections these coefficients are given in

Table A. 1 0. 5-l . 2. b.

Table A. 1 0. 5. 1 . 2. b Coefficients to account for secondary bending

m om ents in circular hollow section joi nts

Type of joint Chords Verticals Diagonals

‘gap K we 1 .5 1 .o 1 .3

joints

N type 1 .5 1 .8 1 .4

overlap K type 1 .5 1 .o 1 .2

joints

N we 1 .5 1 . 65 1 . 25

For lattice girder joints with rectangular hollow sections these coefficients are given in

Table A. 1 0. 5. 1 . 2. ~

Table A. 1 0. 5. 1 . 2. ~ Coefficients to account for secondary bending

m om en ts in rectangular hollow section joints

Type of joint Chords Verticals Diagonals

QaP K we 1 .5 1 .0 1 .5

joints

N we 1 .5 2. 2 1 .6

overlap K type 1 .5 1 .o 1 .3
joints

N type 1 .5 2. 0 1 .4

1 00
0 IS0

IO
RI Fii I 0
K B
I S0 1 0721 4:1 997(E) 0 I S0

1 02
I S0 1 0721 -1 :1 997(E)
lS0 1 0721 -l :1 997(E)
0 IS0 IS0 1 0721 4:1 997(E)

A. 1 0.5.2 Definition of reference fatigue strength curves for non-classified details

Reference fatigue strength curves for constructional details not included in Tables
A.1 0.5.1 .l .c to g, and for hollow section members and tubular joints, provided that the
wall thickness is smaller than or equal to 1 2.5 mm, are given by:
a) For full penetrations welds:
- The Category 90, in Fig. A.1 0.5.1 .l .a, when both weld profile and admissible
defects acceptance criteria are fulfilled.
- The Category 71 , in Fig. A.1 0.5.1 .l .a, when only the admissible weld defect
acceptance criteria is fulfilled.
b) For partial penetration load carrying welds:
- The Category 36, in Fig. A.1 0.5.1 .l .a, or a fatigue strength curve obtained from
adequate fatigue test results.
A.1 0.6 Fatiaue strenath modifications
A.1 0.6.1 _I__-_.__.__-_
influence of mean__.--___
stress level in non-welded--------or stress relieved welded details
_____-___ -_-__--__
The influence of mean stress level in non-welded or stress relieved welded details may be
taken into account by multiplying the compression part of the stress range by a factor of
0.6. In other words, the effective stress range to be used in the fatigue assessment is
obtained by adding the part of the stress range in tension to 60% of the part of the
stress range in compression.
For non-welded details, or for stress relieved welded details, where the stress ranges are
entirely in the compression zone, the equivalent stress range may be reduced to 60% of
the total stress range.

A. 1 0.6.2. -.---_-.--._------_.--
Influence of thickness
The fatigue strength depends on the thickness of the parent metal in which a potential
crack may initiate and propagate. The variation of fatigue strength with thieckness
needs to be taken into account for thicknesses greater than 25 mm. Then the fatigue
strength may be reduced according to:
Ao,(t) = L&l [25/J o.26
The formula for the thickness effect should be limited to structural details (hollow and
non-hollow sections) where welds are transverse to the loading direction (normal stress
directions).
No corrections for thickness effect should be taken when this effect is already included in
the detail category in the classification tables.
A.1 0.7 Partial safetv factors
A.lO.7.3 Values of partial safety factors
For normal stuctural applications conforming with the requirements of this Chapter and
the quality requirements of the IS0 “Fabrication and Erection” specification, values of Y,
and y, equal to 1 .O may be used, unless otherwise stated in the national standard or
relevant loading specification.

1 05
I S0 1 0721 -l :1 997(E) 0 I S0

In special circumstances where one or m ore of the uncertainties listed in 1 0. 7. 1 and

1 0. 7. 2 are abnormally high or where an exceptional level of safety has to be assu red,

consideration may be given to the use of an appropri ate partial safety factor greater than

unity. In this case the value of the partial safety factor shall be agreed between the

client, the designer, the public authority and any other concerned party as appropriate.

Alternatively, consideration may be given by the interested parti es, to implementing

special in-service inspection procedures at regular intervals to monitor one or m ore of the

following as appropriate:

- The applied loading

- The stress response at critical details

- The identification of fatigue cracks

The cost of this option should be carefully considered, taking into account:

- The minimum frequency of inspection

- The extent of access required

- The need to rem ov. e cladding, protective coating, etc.

- The m ethods of non-destructive testing required

- The distruption to the operation of the facility

In considering these options account m ay also be taken of the criticality of the

components. A higher priority may be given to components where fatigue failure would

cause catastrophic failure of the structure.

Concerning the consequences of failure, two possible situations m ay arise as follows:

- “fai l-safe” structures, with reduced consequences of failure, i. e. the local failure of

a component does not result in catastrophic failure of the structure.

- non “fail-safe” structures, where local failure of a component leads rapidly to

catastrophic failure of the structure.

1 06
0 IS0 IS0 1 0721 4:1 997(E)

Annex B
(informative)
Standards and Recommendations:

1. Specification for Structural Steel Buildings, Load and Resistance Factor Design.
AISC, 1 986
2. Manual on Stability of Steel Structures. ECCS, 1 976
3. European recommendations for Steel Construction. ECCS, 1 977
4. European recommendations for Steel Construction:
Buckling of Shells. ECCS, 3rd ed. 1 984
5. Ultimate limit state calculation of sway frames with rigid joints. ECCS, 1 984
6. Slip factors of connections with H.S.F.G. ECCS, 1 984
7. European recommendations for bolted connections in structural steel work.
ECCS 1 985
8. Recommendations for angles in lattice transmission towers ECCS, 1 985
9. Recommendations for the fatigue design of steel structures ECCS, 1 985
1 0. Behaviour and design of steel plated structures. ECCS, 1 986
11. Design of longitudinally stiffened webs and of stiffened compression flanges.
ECCS, 1 990
1 2. Practical analysis of single-storey frames. ECCS 1 990
1 3. ENV 1 993-l -1 (Eurocode 3): Design of Steel Structures, Part 1 .
General Rules and Rules for Buildings
1 4. ENV 1 993-l -1 (Eurocode 3): Design of Steel Structures, Part 1 . Annex A - Z
1 5. IS0 404 - Steel and steel products, General technical delivery requirements
1 6. IS0 1 052 - Steels for general engineering purposes.
1 7. IS0 2631 - Guide for the evaluation of human exposure to whole body vibration
1 8. IS0 4356 - Basis for the design of structures. Deformations of buildings at the
serviceability limit state
1 9. IS0 4950 - High yield strength flat steel products, Part 1 and 2
20. ISOlDlS 8930 - General principles on reliability for sturctures, List of equivalent terms

Reference publications, listed as connected with the various chapters

Chapters 5 & 6

1) IS0 2394. General principles for the verification of structures

21 lSO/TC 98. Revision of IS 2394
1 07
IS0 1 0721 4:1 997(E) 0 IS0

3) IABSE. Symposium: on concepts of safety of structures and methods of design.

London 1 969
41 Kuipers, J.: Structural Safety. Heron. No. 5. 1 968
Chapters 7 and A. 7

1) Huber-Mises- Hencky hypotesis.

First published by M.T: Huber, Technical Journal (in Polish: Czasopismo Techniczne) No.
22, Lw6w 1 904
21 Adams, P.F., Galambos, T.V.: Material considerations in Plastic Design. Publications Vol.
29-l 1 . IABSE. Zurich 1 969
31 Haaijer, G., Shilling, C., Carskaddan: Limit-state criteria for load -factor design design of
steel bridQes., Eng. Struct. 1 983
41 Dubas, P.: Reflexiones sur Certains Problems de Securite et de stabilite en Construction
Metallique Memoires C.E.R.E.S Avril 1 980
5j Yura, J.A. Galambos, T.V. and Ravindra, M.K,: The Bending Resistance of Steel Beams.
Proc. A.S.C.E. Strut. Sept. ‘1 978
Chapter 8 and A.8
1) Beer, H., Shulz, G.: Die Trag-last des Planmztig Mittig Gedriicten Stabs mit
Imperfectionen. VDI - Z 1 1 1 (1 969)
2) Maquoi, R., Rondal, J.: Formulation analytique des nouvelles courbes europennes de
flambement. Acier-Stahl-Steel. N .l , 1 978
3) Stability of Metal structures AISC EnQ.-Jour No 4. 81
41 Massonnet, C.E.: Forty years of research on beam-columns in steel. SM Archives Vol. 1 .
1 976
5) Engesser, F.: Knickfragen. Schw. Bauz. 1 895
61 Ronson, W. Uhlmann, W.: Zur Anpssung des Stabilitstsnachweis fur der Stahlbau,
H.6.81
71 Design Criteria for metal compression Members. 3. edition. Column Res. Council J.
Wiley & Sons
8) Bleich, F.: Buckling Strength of metal structures.
MC Graw-Hill ‘I 952
91 Dubas, P.: Ultimate Strength of Compression Members with Intermittent RiQid or Flexible
Lateral Supports. Stability of Steel Structures. Liege 1 977
1 0) Thimoshenko, S.P., Gere, J.H.: Theory of elastic stability. MC. Graw Hill 1 961
11) Chwalla, E.: Sitzungsber. Akad. wiss. Wien Ila. 1 944
1 2) Unold, G.: Stahlbau-Handbuch 1 949/50
131 Nylander, H.: Svenska Ing. Vetensk. Akad. Handlingar N.1 71 1 943. Stockholm
1 4) Thimoshenko, S.P.: Einige StabilitHtsprobleme der Elastisit%stheorie Repr. Z. Matem. und
Phys. 58. 1 981 .
108
0 I S0 I S0 1 0721 -1 :1 997(E)

1 5) Kitipornchai, S. , Trahair S. : Elast. Stab. of Tapered I. Beam s

A. A. C. E. ST 3 March 1 972

1 6) Vilnay, O. , Rockey, K. C. : A. Generalized Effective width Method for Plates Loaded in

com pressi on. J CSR. N o. 3. 1 981

1 7) Faulkner, D. : Compression Tests on welded Eccentrically Stiffened Plate Panels. Sym p. :

Steel Plated Structures London, 76

1 8) Wi nther, G. : Cold form ed, high-gage steel construction. Proc. ASCE Vol. 85.

St. 9. 1 959

1 9) U sami , T. : Post-Buckling of Plates in Compression and Bending. Proc. A. S. C. E.

N o. St. 3 March 1 982

20) Basler, K. : Strength of plate girders in shear. Proc. ASCE. St. 7 1 961

21 ) Gerard, G. , Becker, H.: H andbook of structural Stability I-VII N ACA Reports 1 957

22) Hsglund. T. : Design of thin plate I gi rders in shear and bending with special reference to

web buckling. Med 1 973 N 94. I nst. for Byggnadsstati k K. T. H . Stockholm

23) Fujii, T. : on an i mproved theory for Dr. Baslers theory. I ABSE. 8 congr. N. Y. 1 968

24) U sam i , T. , Fu ku moto, Y. : Local and overall buckling and Wel ded Box Columns. Proc.

A. S. C. E. N o. ST. 3 March 1 982

25) H orne, M. R. , Narayanan, R. : An approximate m ethod for the design of Stiffened steel

compression panels. Proc. I nst. C. EnQ. 1 975

26) Little, G. H . : Stiffened steel compression panels-theoretical failure analysis. Stru ct. Eng.

Dec. 1 976

27) Dwight, J . B, Little, G. H . : Stiffened steel com pression flanges - si mpler approach. Struct.

Eng. Dec. 1 976

28) Marsh, C. : Theoretical Model for Collapse of Shear Webs. Proc. of A. S. C. E.

N o. EM5, May 1 982

29) Nielsen, P. M. , Christensen, B. : Post Buckling Strength of Steel Plate Gi rders Subjected to
- . Shear. Bygn. Stat. Meddel. N o. 3. 1 982

30) Ravinger, J.: Girders with U nstiffened Slender Webs. J . C. S. R. Vol. 3. N o. 2, 1 983

31 ) Bergfelt, A. : Post buckling behaviour of webs under concentrated loads:I ABSE. 9 Congr.

Am st. 1 972

321 Graves Smith, T. R. , Gierlinski: Buckling of Stiffened Webs by Local Edge Load. Proc.

A. S. C. E. N o. St. 6 June 1 982

331 Roberts, T. M. : Slender Plate Gi rders Su bjected to Edge Loading. Proc. I nst. Civ. Engrs.

Part 2, 71 Sept. 1 981

34) Dubas, P. : Plattenform ige Elemente mit Verstarkungen in Einftihrungen in die N orm 51 A

1 61 (1 979) E. T. H . Zurich 1 979

35) Dubas P. : Plated structu res with closed-section Stiffeners. Conf. on Steel Plated

Structures, London 1 976

1 09
IS0 1 0721 -l :1 997(E) Q IS0

36) Kulak, G.L., Fisher, J.W., Struik, J.A.H.: Guide to design criteria for bolted and riveted
joints. J. Wiley & S., 2nd ed. 1 987
37) Godley, H.R., Neddham, F.H.: Comperative tests on 8.8 and HSFG bolts in tension and
shear. Strut. Eng. March 82. No. 3
381 Fisher, J.E., Beedle, L.S.: Criteria for designing bearing-type bolted joints. I.A.C.E. Proc.
1 968
391 Witteveen, J.,. Stark, J.W.B., Bijlaard, F.S.K.: Welded and Bolted Beam - Columns
Connections. Proc. A.S.C.E. No. St. 2, Febr. 1 982
40) Fischer, J.W., Yoshida, N.: Large bolted and riveted Shingle splices. A.S.C.E.
Proc. 1 970
41 1 Butler, L.J., Kulak, G.L.: Strength of fillet welds as a function oi direction of load. Weld.
Journ. 1 97 1
421 Houldcraft, P.T.: Welding Processes Brit. Weld. Res. Ass. Cambr. 1 967
43) Masubuchi, Koichi: Analysis of welded structures. Residual stresses, dirtortion and their
consequences. Pergamon Pr. 1 980
Chapter 9

1) IS0 4356: Bases for the design of structures - deformations of buildings at the
serviceability limit states.
I S0 1 0721 -I :1 997(E)

I CS 91 . 080. 1 0

Descriptors: steel constru ction, bu i ldi ngs, constru ction materials, stru ctu ral steels, design, stru ctu ral design, rules (instru ctions) .

Price based on 1 1 0 pages