GE6351 ESS Old Notes

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.
ne
GE6351 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
GE 6351- Environmental Science and Engineering
Class/ Sem: II EEE / III Sem
Unit I Environment, Ecosystems and Biodiversity 12

Definition, scope and importance of Risk and hazards; Chemical hazards, Physical hazards,Biological
hazards in the environment – concept of an ecosystem – structure and function of an ecosystem –
producers, consumers and decomposers-Oxygen cycle and Nitrogen cycle – energy flow in the
ecosystem – ecological succession processes – Introduction, types, characteristic features, structure
and function of the (a) forest ecosystem (b) grassland ecosystem (c) desert ecosystem (d) aquatic
ecosystems (ponds, streams, lakes, rivers, oceans, estuaries) – Introduction to biodiversity definition:
genetic, species and ecosystem diversity – biogeographical classification of India – value of
biodiversity: consumptive use, productive use, social, ethical, aesthetic and option values –
Biodiversity at global, national and local levels – India as a mega-diversity nation – hot-spots of
ww
biodiversity – threats to biodiversity: habitat loss, poaching of wildlife, man-wildlife conflicts –
endangered and endemic species of India – conservation of biodiversity: In-situ and ex-situ
w.E
conservation of biodiversity. Field study of common plants, insects, birds Field study of simple
ecosystems – pond, river, hill slopes, etc.
Unit II
asy
Environmental Pollution
Definition – causes, effects and control measures of: (a) Air pollution (Atmospheric chemistry-
Chemical composition of the atmosphere; Chemical and photochemical reactions in the atmosphere -
10
E
formation of smog, PAN, acid rain, oxygen and ozone chemistry;- Mitigation procedures- Control of
ngi
particulate and gaseous emission, Control of SO2, NOX, CO and HC) (b) Water pollution : Physical
and chemical properties of terrestrial and marine water and their environmental significance; Water
nee
quality parameters – physical, chemical and biological; absorption of heavy metals - Water treatment
processes. (c) Soil pollution - soil waste management: causes, effects and control measures of
municipal solid wastes – (d) Marine pollution (e) Noise pollution (f) Thermal pollution (g) Nuclear
rin
hazards–role of an individual in prevention of pollution – pollution case studies – Field study of local
polluted site – Urban / Rural / Industrial / Agricultural.
Unit III Natural Resources

g.n 10
e
Forest resources: Use and over-exploitation, deforestation, case studies- timber extraction, mining,
dams and their effects on forests and tribal people – Water resources: Use and overutilization of
surface and ground water, dams-benefits and problems – Mineral resources: Use and exploitation,
environmental effects of extracting and using mineral resources, case studies – Food resources: World
food problems, changes caused by agriculture and overgrazing, effects of modern agriculture,
fertilizer-pesticide problems, water logging, salinity, case studies – Energy resources: Growing energy
needs, renewable and non renewable energy sources, use of alternate energy sources. Energy
Conversion processes – Biogas – production and uses, anaerobic digestion; case studies – Land
resources: Land as a resource, land degradation, man induced landslides, soil erosion and
desertification – role of an individual in conservation of natural resources – Equitable use of resources
for sustainable lifestyles. Introduction to Environmental Biochemistry: Proteins –Biochemical
degradation of pollutants, Bioconversion of pollutants. Field study of local area to document
environmental assets –river/forest/grassland/hill/mountain.
SCE Page 3 of 95 DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL
Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.ne

Unit IV Social Issues And The Environment 7

From unsustainable to sustainable development – urban problems related to energy – water
conservation, rain water harvesting, watershed management – resettlement and rehabilitation of
people; its problems and concerns, case studies – role of non-governmental organization
environmental ethics: Issues and possible solutions – 12 Principles of green chemistry- nuclear
accidents and holocaust, case studies. – wasteland reclamation – consumerism and waste products –
environment production act – Air act – Water act – Wildlife protection act – Forest conservation act –
The Biomedical Waste (Management and Handling) Rules; 1998 and amendments- scheme of labeling
of environmentally friendly products (Ecomark). Enforcement machinery involved in environmental
legislation- central and state pollution control boards- disaster management: floods, earthquake,
cyclone and landslides. Public awareness.
Unit V Human Population and the Environment 6

Population growth, variation among nations – population explosion – family welfare programme –
environment and human health – human rights – value education – HIV / AIDS – women and child
ww
welfare –Environmental impact analysis (EIA)- -GIS-remote sensing-role of information technology
in environment and human health – Case studies.
w.E
Total: 45 Periods
Text Books:
1. Gilbert M.Masters, ‘Introduction to Environmental Engineering and Science’, 2nd
asy
Edition, Pearson Education 2004.
2. Benny Joseph, ‘Environmental Science and Engineering’, Tata Mc Graw-Hill, New Delhi,
2006.
References:
E ngi
1. R.K. Trivedi, “Handbook of Environmental Laws, Rules, Guidelines, Compliances and
Standard”, Vol. I and II, Enviro Media.
nee
2. Cunningham, W.P. Cooper, T.H. Gorhani, ‘Environmental Encyclopedia’,Jaico
Publ.,House, Mumbai, 2001.
3. Dharmendra S. Sengar, ‘Environmental law’, Prentice Hall of India PVT LTD,
New Delhi,
rin
g.n
e

LIST OF CONTENTS
PAGE
S.NO CONTENT
NO
UNIT I
ENVIRONMENT, ECOSYSTEMS AND BIODIVERSITY
1.1 INTRODUCTION 9
1.2 DEFINITIONS 9
1.3 SCOPE 10
1.4 NEED FOR PUBLIC AWARENESS 10
1.5 CONCEPT OF ECOLOGY AND ECOSYSTEM 11
ww 1.6
1.7
TYPES OF ECO SYSTEM
STRUCTURE OR COMPONENTS OF ECOSYSTEM

11
11
1.8 w.E
FOREST ECOSYSTEM (TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEM) 12
1.9
asy
GRASSLAND ECOSYSTEM (TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEM) 15
1.10
1.11 E
DESERT ECOSYSTEM
AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS
ngi
16
18
1.12 ENERGY FLOW IN ECOSYSTEM

nee 21
rin
1.13 FOOD CHAIN 22
g.n
1.14 FOOD WEB 22
1.15 ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS 23
1.16
1.17
NUTRIENT CYCLES
ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION
e 24
28
1.18 BIODIVERSITY 29
1.19 HOT- SPOTS OF BIODIVERSITY 30
1.20 THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY 31
1.21 POACHING OF WILDLIFE 31
1.22 MAN – WILDLIFE CONFLICTS 31

1.23 ENDANGERED SPECIES 31
1.24 CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY 32

UNIT II
ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION
2.1 INTRODUCTION 35
2.2 AIR POLLUTION 35
2.3 WATER POLLUTION 36
2.4 SOIL POLLUTION 36
ww 2.5
2.6
MARINE POLLUTION
NOISE POLLUTION
37
38
2.7
w.E
THERMAL POLLUTION 39
2.8
2.9 asy
NUCLEAR HAZARDS
SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

39
40
2.10
E
DISASTER MANAGEMENT
ngi 41
nee
2.11 FLOODS 41
2.12 CYCLONES 42
2.13 LAND SLIDES
rin 43
2.14
2.15
EARTH QUAKES
TSUNAMI g.n 44
44
3.1 NATURAL RESOURCES

UNIT III
NATURAL RESOURCES e 47
3.2 FOREST RESOURCES 47
3.3 OVER EXPLOITATION OF FORESTS 48
3.4 DEFORESTATION 48
3.5 CASE STUDIES 49
3.6 TIMBER EXTRACTION 50
3.7 MINING 50

DAMS AND THEIR EFFECTS ON FORESTS AND TRIBAL

3.8 51
PEOPLE
3.9 WATER RESOURCES 52
3.10 OVER UTILIZATION OF SURFACE AND GROUND WATER 53
3.11 FLOODS AND DROUGHT 54
3.12 CONFLICTS OVER WATER 55
3.13 BIG-DAMS –BENEFITS AND PROBLEMS 55
3.14 MINERAL RESOURCES 56
3.15 FOOD RESOURCES 57
3.16 ENERGY RESOURCES 62
ww 3.17 WIND ENERGY 65

3.18
3.19 w.E
OCEAN ENERGY
BIOMASS ENERGY
66
69
3.20
3.21
asy
NON-RENEABLE ENERGY SOURCES
NUCLEAR ENERGY
70
71
3.22
3.23
E
LAND RESOURCES ngi
USES OF ALTERNATE (RENEWABLE) ENERGY SOURCES 72
73
3.24 DESERTIFICATION
nee 77
3.25 LANDSLIDES
rin
CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES - ROLE OF AN
77
3.26
INDIVIDUAL
g.n
EQUITABLE USE OF RESOURCES FOR SUSTAINABLE LIFE
78
3.27
STYLE
UNIT IV
SOCIAL ISSUES AND THE ENVIRONMENT
e 79
4.1 OBJECTIVES 82
4.2 WATER CONSERVATION 82
4.3 WATER SHED MANAGEMENT 84
4.4 RESETTLEMENT AND REHABILITATION OF PEOPLE 84
4.5 CLIMATE 85
4.6 ACID RAIN 86
4.7 OZONE LAYER DEPLETION 88

4.8 NUCLEAR ACCIDENTS AND HOLOCAUST 89

4.9 WASTE LAND RECLAMATION 91
4.10 SOURCES OF WASTES 92
ENVIRONMENTAL LEGISLATION AND LAWS – IMPORTANT
4.11 92
PROTECTION ACTS
ISSUES INVOLVED IN ENFORCEMENT OF
4.12 93
ENVIRONMENTAL LEGISLATION
4.13 PUBLIC AWARENESS 94
UNIT V
HUMAN POPULATION AND THE ENVIRONMENT
5.1 OBJECTIVES 98
ww 5.2
5.3
FAMILY WELFARE PROGRAMME
FAMILY PLANNING PROGRAMME
99
99
5.4
w.E
ENVIRONMENT AND HUMAN HEALTH 99
5.5
5.6 asy
HUMAN RIGHTS
VALUE EDUCATION
99
99
5.7
5.8
E
HIV /AIDS
WOMANS AND CHILD WELFARE
ngi
100
102
5.9
nee
ROLE OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY IN ENVIRONMENT
ROLE OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY IN HUMAN
103
rin
5.10 106
HEALTH
g.n
e
UNIT 1 ENVIRONMENT, ECOSYSTEMS AND BIODIVERSITY

1.1. INTRODUCTION
Environment
French word
Environ (Surroundings)
eats nourishment
E.g.: COW PLANTS SOIL
Dead animals Dead Plants Nourishing matter
ww Dead bodies
w.E
1.2 DEFINITIONS
asy
 Environment is derived from the French word Environ which means to encircle or
surround.
 Environment is sum total of water, air, and land, inter-relationships among themselves
E
and also with the human beings, other living organisms and property. The above
ngi
definition given in Environment Act, 1986 clearly indicates that environment includes
all the physical and biological surroundings and their interactions.
nee
rin
g.n
e

ww
w.E
asy Fig 1.1. Types of Environment
1.3. SCOPE
E ngi
Scope of environmental science is broad. Some of the aspects of scope of environmental
science are:
nee
 Studying the interrelationships among biotic and abiotic components for sustainable
human ecosystem,
rin
 Carrying out impact analysis and environmental auditing for the further catastrophic
activities,
g.n
 Developing and curbing the pollution from existing and new industries,
 Stopping the use of biological and nuclear weapons for destruction of human race,
 Managing the unpredictable disasters and so on.
e
There are some major issues like global warming, depletion of ozone layer, dwindling forests and
energy resources, loss of global biodiversity etc., that are going to affect the mankind as a whole and
for that we have to think globally.
1.4 NEED FOR PUBLIC AWARENESS

 Public awareness very essential to help understand pros and cons of environmental
problems.
 The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development held in Rio de
Janerio in 1992 and popularly known as Earth summit followed by the world summit
on sustainable Development in 2002, have highlighted key issues of global
environmental concern.

 Environmental pollution cannot be removed by laws alone.

 The proper implementation and especially public participation are important aspects.
 Public participation is possible only when the public is aware about the ecological and
environmental issues.
 A drive by the government to ban the littering of polythene cannot be successful until
the public understands the environmental implications of the same.
 The public has to be educated about the fact that if we are degrading our environment
we are actually harming ourselves.
1.5 CONCEPT OF ECOLOGY AND ECOSYSTEM

1.5.1 Ecology
Study of the distribution and abundance of organisms, the flows of energy and materials between
abiotic and biotic components of ecosystems.
ww
1.5.2 Ecosystem
The living things in a given area, non-living chemical and physical factors of their environment,
w.E
linked together through nutrient cycle and energy flow.
asy
E Types of Ecosystem
ngi
Natural
nee
Artificial/Man-made
Terrestrial Aquatic rin

Marine Fresh water g.n
Lotic -river, stream or spring.
e
Lentic -lake, pond or swamp.
Fig 1.2 Types of Ecosystem
1.7 STRUCTURE OR COMPONENTS OF ECOSYSTEM

1.7.1 Ecosystem Structure
The living components of an ecosystem
• The roles of organisms in an ecosystem:

• Producer (autotrophy): make food; plants, algae

• Consumer (heterotrophy): eat other organisms
• Decomposer: eat dead organic matter; bacteria and fungi
1.7.2 Classes of Consumers
Herbivore – primary consumer – eats plants
Carnivores – secondary – meat eaters; eat herbivores
Tertiary – feed on carnivores
Omnivores – eat plants/animals.
1.7.3 Role of Organisms
Scavengers – feed on dead organisms (vultures, flies, crows, lobsters)
ww
Detritus feeders – organisms that extract nutrients from fragments of dead organisms into more
simple organic waste (termites, earthworms, crabs)
w.E
Decomposers – organisms that digest parts of the dead organisms into simplest chemicals (bacteria,
fungi)
asy
E ngi
nee
rin
g.n
Fig. 1.3 Role of organisms
1.8 FOREST ECOSYSTEM (TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEM)

e
1.8.1 Introduction
 A forest is an area with a high density of trees.
 World’s total land area is 13,076 million hectares - (Source: FAO; 1989)
 Of which total forests account for about 31% of the world’s land area.
 In India, the forest cover is roughly 19% of the total land area.
 The forest ecosystems are of great concern from the environmental point of view.
 It provides numerous environmental services like;

 Nutrient cycling,
 Maintaining biodiversity
 Providing wildlife habitat
 Affecting rainfall patterns
 Regulating stream flow
 Storing water
 Reducing flooding
 Preventing soil erosion
 Reclaiming degraded land & many more….
 Apart from environmental values, forest ecosystems have some traditional values as well.
 Examples are:
ww  Fire Wood & Timber.
w.E  Fruits.
 Gums.
 Herbs & drugs.
asy
1.8.2 Structure and Function of Forest Ecosystem
E
I. Biotic components
ngi
 The various biotic components, representatives from the three functional groups, of a
forest ecosystem are:
1) Producer Organisms
 In a forest, the producers are mainly trees.
nee
rin
 Trees are of different kinds depending upon the type of forest developed in that climate.
g.n
 Apart from trees, climbers, epiphytes, shrubs and ground vegetation.
 Dominant species of trees in major types of forest ecosystems are:
2) Consumers
e
 Tectona grandis, Acer, Betula, Picea, Pine, Cedrus.
 In a forest, consumers are of three main types;

a) Primary Consumers
 These are Herbivores which feed directly on producers.
Eg:
 Ants, Beetles, Bugs, spiders etc. feeding on tree leaves.
 Larger animals such as Elephants, Deer, giraffe etc. grazing on shoots
and/or fruits of trees.
b) Secondary Consumers

 These are carnivores and feed on primary consumers.

Eg: Birds, Lizards, Frogs, Snakes and Foxes.
c) Tertiary Consumers
 These are secondary carnivores and feed on secondary consumers
 These include top carnivores like Lion, Tiger.
3) Decomposers
 These include wide variety of saprotrophic micro- organism like;
 Bacteria (Bacillus Sp., Clostridium sp., pseudomonas.
 Fungi (Aspergillus sp., Ganoderma sp., Fusarium.
 Actinomycetes (Streptomyces).
 They attract the dead or decayed bodies of organisms & thus decomposition takes place.
ww  Therefore, nutrients are released for reuse.
w.E
II. Abiotic components
 These include basic inorganic & organic compounds present in the soil & atmosphere.
 In addition dead organic debris is also found littered in forests.
asy
E ngi
nee
rin
g.n
e
Fig.1.4 Forest Ecosystem

1.9 GRASSLAND ECOSYSTEM (TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEM)

1.9.1 Introduction
 Grasslands (also called Greenswards) are areas where the vegetation is dominated
by grasses and other herbaceous (non-woody) plants.
 Grasslands occupy about 24% of the earth’s surface.
 Grasslands occur in regions too dry for forests and too moist for deserts
 The annual rainfall ranges between 25- 75 cm, Usually seasonal
 The principal grasslands include:
 Prairies (Canada, USA),Pampas (South America),Steppes (Europe & Asia)
Veldts (Africa)
 The highest abundance & greatest diversity of large mammals are found in these ecosystems.
ww  The dominant animal species include

 Wild horses, asses & antelope of Eurasia,
w.E  Herds of Bison of America; and

 The antelope & other large herbivores of Africa.
asy
1.9.2 Structure and functions of Grassland Ecosystems
E
ngi
 In grassland, producers are mainly grasses; though, a few herbs & shrubs also contribute to
primary production of biomass.
 Some of the most common species of grasses are: nee
rin
 Brachiaria sp., Cynodon sp., Desmodium sp., Digitaria sp.
2) Consumers
 In a grassland, consumers are of three main types; g.n
a) Primary Consumers
e
 The primary consumers are herbivores feeding directly on grasses. These are grazing animals
such as
 Cows, Buffaloes, Sheep, Goats, Deer, Rabbits etc.
 Besides them, numerous species of insects, termites, etc are also
present.
b) Secondary Consumers
 These are carnivores that feed on primary consumers (Herbivores)
 These include;-Frogs, Snakes, Lizards, Birds, Foxes, Jackals etc.
c) Tertiary Consumers
 These include hawks etc. which feed on secondary consumers.

3) Decomposers
 These include wide variety of saprotrophic micro- organism like: Bacteria; Fungi;
Actinomycetes
 They attract the dead or decayed bodies of organisms & thus decomposition takes place.
 Therefore, nutrients are released for reuse by producers.
 These include basic inorganic & organic compounds present in the soil & aerial environment.
 The essential elements like C, H, N, O, P, S etc. are supplied by water, nitrogen, nitrates,
sulphates, phosphates present in soil & atmosphere.
ww
w.E
asy
E ngi
nee
rin
g.n
Fig.1.5 Grassland Ecosystem e
1.10 DESERT ECOSYSTEM
1.10.1 Introduction
 A desert is a landscape or region that receives almost no precipitation.
 Deserts are defined as areas with an average annual precipitation of less than 250 millimeters
per year.
 It occupies about 17% of the earth’s surface.
 Deserts are characterized by hot days & cold nights.
 The deserts of the world are mainly located in the

South- western United States, Mexico, North

America, Asia (Thar, Gobi, Tibet) & west Asia.
 Deserts are characterized by scanty flora & fauna.
 Soils of deserts often have abundant nutrients but little or no organic matter.
1.10.2 Sturucture and Functions of Desert Ecosystms
 In a desert, producers are mainly shrubs/bushes; some grasses & a few trees.
 Dominant plant species include: Succulents (water - retaining plants adapted to arid climate
or soil conditions) & hardy grasses.
 Besides some lower plants such as lichens & xerophytic mosses are also present.
ww 2) Consumer Organisms
These include animals such as insects, reptiles which are capable of living in xeric conditions
w.E
 Besides some nocturnal rodents, birds & some mammalians like camel etc are also found.
3) Decomposers
asy
Due to poor vegetation with very low amount of dead organic matter, decomposers are poor in
desert ecosystem.
E
 The common decomposers are some bacteria & fungi, most of which are thermophillic.
II. Abiotic components ngi
nee
Due to high temperature & very low rainfall, the organic substances are poorly present in the soil.
rin
g.n
e

ww
w.E
asy
E ngi
1.11 AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS nee
Fig. 1.6 Forest Ecosystem
1.11.1 Introduction
rin
g.n
 Aquatic ecosystems deal with biotic community present in water bodies.
 In terrestrial ecosystem, carbon dioxide & oxygen are present in gaseous form whereas in
aquatic ecosystem, these are available in dissolved state.
e
 Depending upon the quality and nature of water, the aquatic ecosystem are categorized into:
 Freshwater Ecosystem and
 Marine Ecosystem.
1.11.2 Freshwater Ecosystems
 Freshwater ecosystems cover 0.8% of the Earth's surface and contain 0.009% of its total water.
 Freshwater ecosystems contain 41% of the world's known fish species.
 Aquatic ecosystems perform many important environmental functions. For example:
 They recycle nutrients, purify water, attenuate floods, recharge ground water and
provide habitats for wildlife.

 Aquatic ecosystems are also used for human recreation, and are very important to
the tourism industry, especially in coastal region.
 There are three basic types of freshwater ecosystems:
 Lentic: slow-moving water, including Pools, Ponds, and Lakes.
 Lotic: rapidly-moving water, for example Streams and Rivers.
 Wetlands: areas where the soil is saturated with water or inundated for at least
part of the time
1.11.3 Lakes & pond Ecosystem
 A pond is a place where living organisms not only live but interact with biotic & abiotic
components.
 Ponds are often exposed to tremendous anthropogenic pressure which significantly affects the
system.
ww  Lakes are usually big standing freshwater bodies.

 They have a shallow water zone called Littoral zone; an open water zone where effective
w.E
penetration of solar light takes place, called limnetic zone and a deep water zone where light
penetration is negligible, called Profoundal zone.
asy
E
 It includes submerged, free floating and amphibious macrophytes (like; Hydrilla, Utricularia,
ngi
Wolfia, Azolla, Typha etc.) and minute floating and suspended lower phytoplanktons (like;
Ulothrix, Spirogyra, Oedogonium etc.)
2) Consumer Organisms
nee
a) Primary consumers:These are zooplanktons (ciliates, flagellates, other protozoan, small
crustaceans) and benthos.
rin
g.n
b) Secondary consumers: These are carnivores like insects and fishes feeding on herbivores
c) Tertiary consumers: These are the large fishes feeding on small fishes.
II. Abiotic component e

3) Decomposers Micro – organisms like bacteria, fungi and actinomyctes.
 These are the inorganic as well as organic substances present in the bottom soil or dissolved in
water. In addition, to the minerals, some dead organic matter is also present.

ww
w.E
1.11.4 Marine or Ocean Ecosystem
Fig.1.7 Zonation in a lake ecosystem
asy
 Marine ecosystems are among the Earth's aquatic ecosystems. They include: Oceans,
Estuaries and Lagoons, Mangroves and Coral reefs, the Deep sea and the Sea floor.
E
 These are the gigantic reservoirs of water covering approximately 71% of
ngi
the Earth's surface (an area of some 361 million square kilometers).
 These ecosystems are different from freshwater ecosystem mainly because of its salty water.
nee
 The salt concentration in an open sea is usually 3.5% (35 parts per thousand (ppt)). Dominant
ions are sodium & chloride.
rin
 Average temperature of Marine ecosystem is 2-3 degree centigrade, devoid of light.
I. Biotic components g.n

e
1) Producers It includes phytoplanktons (diatoms, dinoflagillates), large seaweeds (mainly algae like
chlorophyceae, phaeophyceae & rhodophyceae; angiosperms like Ruppia, Zostera, posidonia ), and
mangrove vegetation (like Rhizophora, Carapa etc.)
2) Consumers
a) Primary consumers: These are herbivores and feed directly on producers (Crustaceans, Mollusks,
fish etc.)
b) Secondary consumers: These are carnivorous fishes (Herring, Sahd and Mackerel)
c) Tertiary consumers: These are top carnivorous fishes (Cod, Haddock, etc.)
3) Decomposers These are micro – organisms like bacteria, fungi
 High Na, Ca, Mg and K salt concentration, variable dissolved oxygen content, light &
temperature make a unique physiochemical conditions in marine water.

Fig.1.8 Ocean Ecosystem

 1.12 ENERGY FLOW IN ECOSYSTEM
ww All organisms must obtain a supply of energy and nutrients from their environment in order to
survive.
w.E
 The transformations of energy in an ecosystem begin first with the input of energy from the
sun.
asy
 Because, it is the first step in the production of energy for living things, it is called “Primary
production”.
E
 Photosynthesis -- Chemical reaction where green plants use water & carbon dioxide to store
the sun’s energy in glucose.
 ENERGY is stored in glucose. ngi
 Glucose is stored as starch in plants
nee
 The majority of autotrophs are photoautotrophs that harness the energy of the sun and pass
rin
some of this energy onto consumers through feeding pathways.
 The energy contained within producers and consumers is ultimately passed to the decomposers
g.n
that are responsible for the constant recycling of nutrients.
 Thus, there is a one-way flow of energy through the biotic community and a cycling of
e
nutrients between the biotic and abiotic components of the ecosystem
 Energy flow cannot occur in reverse direction.
 Starts from autotrophs (the producer level, i.e., first trophic level) to Heterotrophs including
plant eaters or Herbivores (second trophic level) and so on.
 The amount of energy decreases with successive trophic levels.
 Only About 1% of energy from the sun is used by green plants & rest remains unutilized.
 Similarly, there is loss of energy in each trophic level.
 The transfer of food energy between the organisms in an ecosystem can be tracked by
constructing food chains, food webs, pyramids of numbers, biomass and energy and energy
flow diagrams.

Fig.1.9 Energy Flow
ww
1.13 FOOD CHAIN
 A food chain may be defined as, “the transfer of energy and nutrients through a series of
organisms with repeated process of eating and being eaten”.
w.E
 In an ecosystem, all the organisms are linked together with one another by food relationship.
 Each organism living or dead is potential food for some other organism.
asy
E ngi
nee
rin
g.n
e
Fig.1.10 Food Chain

1.14 FOOD WEB
 Under natural conditions, the linear arrangement of food chains hardly occurs & these remains
connected interconnected with each other through different types of organisms.

 Interlocking pattern of several interlinked food chains is termed as FOOD WEB.
ww
w.E
asy
E ngi
nee
Fig.1.11 Food web in grassland ecosystem
1.15 ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS
rin
 An”Ecological pyramid” is a graphical representation that shows the relative amounts of
g.n
energy or matter contained within each tropic level in a food chain or food web.
 An ecological pyramid shows the relationship between consumers and producers at different
tropic levels in an ecosystem
 There are three ecological pyramids recognized by ecologists:
e
1.15.1 Pyramid of Numbers
 Shows the relative number of individual organisms at each tropic level.

1.15.2 Pyramid of Biomass

 A pyramid of biomass represents the total dry mass (in grams per square meter of area) of all
the organisms in each tropic level at a particular time.
ww
w.E
asy
E
1.15.3 Pyramid of Energy
ngi
 A pyramid of biomass represents the rate of energy flow and/or productivity at successive
tropic levels. The pyramids of energy are always upright.
nee
rin
g.n
e
1.16 NUTRIENT CYCLES
 Nutrient cycles involve storage and transfer of nutrients through different components of the
ecosystem, so that the nutrients are repeadly used.
 The cyclic movements of chemical elements of the biosphere between the organisms and
environment are referred as “BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES”
Gaseous cycle: Those elements in which the reservoir is the air or the oceans (via evaporation).
Gaseous cycles include those of Carbon, Nitrogen, Oxygen, Carbon, and Water.

Sedimentary cycle: Those elements which are received from the Earth’s crust. Sedimentary cycles
include those of iron, calcium, phosphorus, and other more earth bound elements.
1.16.1 NITROGEN CYCLE
 Nitrogen is crucial for all organisms
 Nucleic acids
 Proteins
 Chlorophyll
 Nitrogen- 78% in Atmosphere
 N2 is very stable and must be broken apart by organisms, combined with other atoms into a
usable form.
 Nitogen cycle completes in 5 steps:
ww
1) Nitrogen Fixation
Conversion of N2 → NH3
w.E
 Combustion, volcanic action, Lightning, Industrial processes (making fertilizer). Bacteria
(Azotobactor, Clostridium, Nostoc etc.)
asy
2) Nitrification
Conversion of NH3 → NO3
3) Assimilation E
Soil bacteria convert in a two step process.
ngi
nee
Roots absorb NH3, NH4, or NO3 and incorporate them into nucleic acids and protein.
4) Ammonification
rin
Amino acids and nucleotides are broken down into waste products NH3 or NH4
5) Denitrification
g.n
The reduction of NO3 to N2 .Denitrifying bacteria return some of the nitrogen to the
atmosphere

Wet & dry

Atmospheric Nitrogen deposition
Nitrogen fixation by free
living & symbiotic Denitrification
microbes. Pseudomonas
Consumers Plants
ww Detritus Litter fall
Uptake
w.E
Ammonification
Heterotrophs
Soil ammonia asy

Nitrosomonas Soil nitrite
Nitrification
Nitrobacter Soil nitrate
E ngi
Fig.1.12 Nitrogen Cycle
1.16.2 CARBON CYCLE

 Carbon enters plants, etc., as CO2
nee

rin
Bacteria process carbon in a fashion that allows it to be recycled.

g.n
Obtain energy from the molecules, and convert carbohydrates to carbon dioxide as a
result of respiration.
molecules) e
 Photosynthesis removes carbon from the abiotic environment (fixes carbon into organic
 Carbon moves through food chain through consumption of one organisms by another
 Cellular respiration, combustion, and erosion of limestone return carbon to the atmosphere,
water and abiotic environment.

RESPIRATION
AIR CO2 PLANTS
DEATH FOOD WOOD FOSSIL FUEL
RESPIRATION ANIMAL
ww BURNING
w.E COMBUSTION
Fig.1.13. Carbon Cycle
asy
carbon directly E
The source of atmospheric carbon dioxide is variable but only plants can utilize atmospheric
ngi
1.16.3 PHOSPHOROUS CYCLE
 The only cycle that does not have a gaseous state nee
rin
 Inorganic phosphate PO43- is released from rocks and sediments through the action of erosion.
g.n
 Soil PO43- is absorbed by plants and incorporated into nucleic acids, phospholipids and ATP.
 Animals obtain most of their PO43- by consumption of other animals and from water.
 PO43- is released to the soil again by decomposers.
• Dissolved PO43- gets absorbed by algae and aquatic plants e
• Decomposers break down waste and returns PO43- to sediments on the seabed.
• Some returns to terrestrial environment through geologic processes and via seabirds. Guano

Parental Rock
Bacteria
Soluble PO43- in soil. Insoluble phosphate
(orthophosphates)
Plants (Roots)
ww Animals Death
w.E
Bacterial
asy
Decomposition
Bone/ Teeth
E ngi
Fig.1.14 Phosphorus Cycle
Decomposition
1.17 ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION

nee
 Ecological succession is defined as, “A change in the community in which new populations of
organisms gradually replace existing ones”.
rin
 There are two types of ecological succession:
1) Primary Succession g.n
e
 Occurs where there is no soil, e.g. after a volcanic eruption or a glacial retreat.
 “Pioneer organisms”
 Simple plants first – no or shallow roots.
 Gradual influx of more complicated and larger plants as the habitat changes
 Unfavorable for life at first.
 Ends with a “climax community” – ecosystem stays constant, provided there are no changes in
abiotic influences.
2) Secondary Succession
 Community development in the areas that were previously occupied by a other community.
 Occurs after a disturbance. E.g., loss of trees after disease, Fire or wind, deforestation etc.

 Conditions are favorable for as soil and nutrients are already present.
 More rapid than primary succession.
Primary Succession Vs Secondary Succession
Primary Secondary
 No soil.  Soil already exists.

 Pioneer species.  Seeds have suitable soil conditions.
 Weathering & decomposition  Occurs much faster.
 Humus and sand increase over time.  Climax community.
 End = Climax community.
ww
1.18 BIODIVERSITY
w.E
 Biodiversity is the variety and differences among living organisms from all sources, including
terrestrial, marine, and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they
are a part.
asy
 It is virtually synonymous with “Life on earth”.
 Biologists most often define "biological diversity" or "biodiversity" as the "totality of genes,
E
species, and ecosystems of a region".
ngi
 The biodiversity found on Earth today consists of many millions of distinct biological species,
which is the product of nearly 3.5 billion years of evolution.
1.18.1 Levels of Biodiversity
nee
rin
1) Genetic diversity
 It is a level of biodiversity that refers to the total number of genetic characteristics in the
genetic makeup of a species.
g.n
 It is distinguished from genetic variability, which describes the tendency of genetic
characteristics to vary.
2) Species diversity
 It refers to the variety of species within a region.
e
 Species diversity is an index that incorporates the number of species in an area and also their
relative abundance.
 It is generally a much more useful value than species richness.
3) Community and Ecosystem diversity
 Ecosystem diversity refers to the diversity of a place at the level of ecosystems. This has 3
perspective:
 Alpha Diversity: Within community diversity. Alpha diversity refers to the diversity of
organisms sharing the same Community/Habitat.

 Beta Diversity: Between community diversity. It refers to the diversity of organisms sharing
two habitats.
 Gamma Diversity: Diversity of the habitat over the total landscape or geographical area is
called gamma diversity.
1.18.2 Values of Biodiversity
Food: About 80,000 edible plants and about 90% of present day food crops have been
domesticated from wild.
Drugs & Medicines: About 75% of world’s population depends on plants or plant extracts.
Fuel: Forests have been used since ages for fuel wood. Fossil fuels are also products of
Biodiversity.
Social Value: Many of the plants like Tulsi, Lotus, Peepal etc are considered holy and sacred.
 About 2.1 million species have been identified till date, while many more species are believed
ww to exist.
 According to UNEP estimate, approximately 9.0 – 52 million of species exist on Earth
w.E
 India’s position is 10th in the world & 4th in Asia in terms of Plant diversity.
1.19 HOT- SPOTS OF BIODIVERSITY
asy
 A biodiversity hotspot is a biogeographic region with a significant reservoir of biodiversity that
is threatened with destruction.
E
 An area is designated as a hot spot when it contains at least 0.5% of plant species as endemic.
ngi
 There are 25 such hot spots of biodiversity on a global level, out of which two are present in
India.
nee
 These are: Indo- Burma (earlier The Eastern Himalayas) ,The western Ghats & Sri Lanka..
rin
 These hot spots covering less than 2% of the world’s land area are found to have about 50% of
the terrestrial biodiversity.
1.19.1 Criteria for determining hot-spots
g.n
 No. of Endemic Species i.e. the species which are found no where else.
 Degree of threat, which is measured in terms of Habitat loss.
E.g. Indo- Burma (Eastern Himalayas) Hotspot
e
 The hotspot includes all of Cambodia, Vietnam & Laos, and nearly the entire areas of
Thailand, Myanmar & Bhutan as well as part of Nepal, far eastern India and extreme southern
China.
 In addition, it covers several offshore Islands including Mainan Islands in the south China Sea
and Andaman & Nicobar Islands in Indian Ocean.
 Indo-Burma is one of the most threatened biodiversity hotspots, due to the rate of resource
exploitation and habitat loss.
E.g. Western Ghats and Sri Lanka
 Western Ghats and Sri Lanka, also known as the “Sahyadri Hills” encompasses the montane
forests in the southwestern parts of India and on the neighboring Islands of Sri Lanka.

 The entire extent of hotspot was originally about 1,82,500 square kms, but due to tremendous
population pressure, now only 12,445 square Km or 6.8% is in pristine condition.
 The important populations include Asian elephant, Indian tigers and the endangered lion tailed
macaque.
1.20 THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY
 Extinction is a natural event and, from a geological perspective, routine.
 In last century, human impact has been so severe that thousands of species and varieties are
becoming extinct annually.
 Some of the main causes are:
 Habitat loss, degradation, fragmentation.
 Habitat loss & degradation are major causes of species extinction, affecting 89% of all
threatened birds, 83% of mammals & 91% of all threatened plants assessed globally (IUCN,
ww 2000)
 The main causes of habitat are agriculture activities, Mining, development of human
w.E
settlement, industry etc.
 According to ICUN, UNEP report, more than 50% of wildlife habitat has been destroyed in 49
asy
out of 61 old world tropical countries.
1.21 POACHING OF WILDLIFE
E
 Poaching is another threat that has emerged in recent decades as one of the primary reason for
decline in number of species.
ngi
 Wildlife is sold and traded in many countries for live specimens, folk medicines, furs, Skin,
nee
and other products such as Ivory, horns etc amounting to millions of dollars.
1.22 MAN – WILDLIFE CONFLICTS
rin
 The conflict between man and wildlife started with the evolution of man, but intensity
increased due to the activities of modern man
g.n
 Due to the lack of stable food and disruption of movement, wild animals came out of forest
1.22.1 Introduction of Exotic species e

area and attack the agricultural field and humans and in turn got killed by the humans.
 Organisms introduced into habitats where they are not native are termed as exotics.
 They can be thought of as Biological Pollutants and are considered to be among the most
damaging agents of habitat alteration and degradation the world.
1.22.2 Climate change
A changing global climate threatens species and ecosystems.
 The distribution of species (biogeography) is largely determined by climate.
 Climate change may simply shift these distributions but, for a number of reasons, plants and
animals may not be able to adjust.

1.23 ENDANGERED SPECIES

 According to The International Union of Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources
(IUCN), the species that considered in imminent danger of extinction and whose survival is
unlikely, if factors causing their decline continue to operate.
 Out of about 47,000 species of plants in our country, 7000 are endemic
 India contains 172 species of animals considered globally threatened by IUCN, or 2.9% of the
world’s total number of threatened species.
 These include 53 species of mammals, 69 birds, 23 reptiles and 3 amphibians
 As many as 3,000- 4,000 higher plants may be under high degree of threat in India
 Thus Indian subcontinent has about 62% endemic flora, restricted mainly to Himalayas, khasi
Hills & Western Ghats.
 Sapria himalayana, Uvaria lurida, Napenthes khasians etc. are some endemic flora of our
ww country.
 A large number out of a total of 81,000 species of animals in our country is endemic. About
w.E
62% amphibians and 50% lizards are endemic to western Ghats.
 Golden monkey, Niligiri Langur, Indian Wolf, Red Fox, Himalayan Brown Bear, Great Indian
asy
One Horned Rhinoceros, White Winged Wood Duck, Black Necked Crane, Indian Pea Fowl,
Gharial, Indian egg eating Snake, Indian Salamandar etc. are some examples of endemic
animal species of India.
E
1.24 CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY
ngi
 The convention on Biological Diversity held in June, 1992 stressed the need of the
earth.
nee
conservation of Biodiversity for sustainable development and perpetuation of human beings on
 Conservation is defined as “ the management of human use of the biosphere so that it may
rin
yield the greatest sustainable benefit to the present generation while maintaining its potential to
meet the needs and aspirations of the future generations”.
g.n
 The two basic approaches to wildlife conservation in protected habitats are:
1.24.1 In- situ conservation e

1) In- situ conservation 2) Ex- situ conservation.
 It simply means conservation of species in its natural ecosystem or even in man made
ecosystems.
 This strategy emphasizes protection of total ecosystem through a network of “protected area”.
 Protected Areas: an area of land and/or sea specially dedicated to the protection and
maintenance of biological diversity and managed through legal effective means.
 There are different categories of protected areas which are managed with different objectives.
These include; Biosphere reserves, National parks, Wild Life Sanctuaries etc.
 At present we have 11 major biosphere reserves, 80 National parks, 420 wildlife sanctuaries in
our country covering 4% of the geographic area.
 The JIM CORBETT National Park was 1st national park established in India.

What is Difference among Biosphere reserves, National parks, Wild Life Sanctuaries ?
Examples of Biosphere reserves of India:
1. Nilgiri- 5,520 sq.km
2. Nanda Devi- 5,860.69 sq. km
3. Manas – 2837 sq. km
4. Gulf of Mannar – 10,500 sq. km
5. Great Nicobar – 885 sq. km
6. Panchmarhi – 4,926.28 Sq Km
Examples of some National park in India
1. Kaziranga- Assam, Gir National Park- Gujarat, Periyar – Kerala, Sariska – Rajasthan
ww
Examples of some Wild Life Sanctuaries of India:
1. Ghana Bird sanctuaries
w.E
2. Hazaribagh sanctuaries
3. Abohar wild life sanctuaries
asy
4. Jaldapara wild life sanctuaries
5. Mudamalai wild life sanctuaries
E
1.24.2 Ex- situ conservation
ngi
 It is defined as “the conservation of component of biological diversity (Sample of genetic
diversity, particularly of endangered species) outside their natural habitats”.
nee
 It involves maintenance and breeding of endangered plant and animal species under partially or
wholly controlled conditions. E.g. Zoos, Botanical Gardens, Aquaria, Nurseries, DNA bank,
Seed bank, Gene bank etc.
rin
 There are more than 1500 Botanical gardens in the world containing more than 80,000 species.
g.n
 There are more than 800 zoos around the world with about 3,000 species of mammals, birds,
reptiles and amphibians.

ww
w.E
asy
E ngi
nee
rin
g.n
e

UNIT 2 ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Environmental pollution can be defined as “the unfavorable alteration of our surroundings”
2.1.1 Types of pollutants
1. Bio degradable pollutants - decompose rapidly by natural processes.

2. Non- degradable pollutants - do not decompose or slowly decompose in the environment.
2.1.2 Classification of Pollution

 Air pollution
 Water pollution
ww 


Soil pollution
Marine pollution
w.E
Noise pollution
 Thermal pollution and
 Nuclear hazards
asy
2.2 AIR POLLUTION
The presence of one or more contaminants like dust, smoke, mist and odor in the atmosphere
E
which are injurious to human beings, plants and animals.
2.2.1 Sources of air pollution ngi

nee
Natural pollution - volcanic eruptions, forest fires, biological decay.
Man – made activities – Thermal power plants, agricultural activities.
2.2.2 Classification rin

 g.n
Primary pollutant – these are those emitted directly in the atmosphere in harmful form

like CO, NO.
e
Secondary pollutant – these may react with one another or with the basic components
of air to form new pollutants.
2.2.3 Control Measures

1. Source control
 Use only unleaded petrol
 Use petroleum products and other fuels that have low sulphur and ash content
 Plant trees along busy streets because they remove particulates and carbon monoxide
and absorb noise.
 Industries and waste disposal sites should be situated outside the city centre.
 Use catalytic converters to help control the emissions of carbon monoxide and
hydrocarbons.

2. Control measures in Industrial centers

 Emission rates should be restricted to permissible levels
 Incorporation of air pollution control equipments in the design of the plant lay out.
2.3 WATER POLLUTION

o It may be defined as “the alteration in physical, chemical and biological
characteristics of water which may cause harmful effects on human and aquatic
life.
2.3.1 Types, effects and sources of water pollution
1. Infectious agents: Bacteria, viruses, protozoa and parasitic worms.

Sources: Human and animal wastes.
Effects: Variety of diseases.
ww 2. Oxygen demanding wastes: Animal manure and plant debris that can be decomposed by
aerobic bacteria.
w.E
Sources: Sewage, paper mills, and food processing facilities.
Effects: Wastes can degrade quality by depleting water of dissolved oxygen.
asy
3. In organic Chemicals: Water soluble inorganic chemicals. Compounds of toxic metals
such as lead, arsenic and selenium. Salts such as Nacl in ocean water.
Effects: Genetic mutations, birth defects and certain cancers.
E
4. Thermal pollution (Heat)
Example: Excessive heat. ngi
5. Human source
nee
 Water cooling of electric power plants and some types of industrial plants. Almost
2.3.2 Effects rin

all of all water withdrawn in United States for cooling electric power plants.
g.n
 Lowers dissolved oxygen levels and makes aquatic organisms more vulnerable to
disease and toxic chemicals
e
 When a power plant first opens or shuts down for repair, fish and other organisms
adapted to a particular temperature range can be killed b the abrupt change in water
temperature known as thermal shock.
2.3.3 Control measures of water pollution
 The administration of water pollution should be in the hands of state or central

government.
 Industrial plants should be based on recycling operations, because it will not only stop
the discharge of industrial wastes into natural water sources but by products can be
extracted from the wastes.
 Plants, trees and forests control pollution and they acts as natural air conditioners.
 Highly qualified and experienced persons should be consulted from time to time for
effective control of water pollution.
 Basic and applied research in pubic health engineering should be encouraged.

2.4 SOIL POLLUTION

It may be defined as “the contamination of soul by human and natural activities which may
cause harmful effects on living beings”.
2.4.1 Types
1. Industrial wastes
Sources and effects: Pulp and paper mills, chemical industries, oil refineries, sugar factories. These
pollutants affect and alter the chemical and biological properties of soil. As a result, hazardous
chemicals can enter into human food chain from the soil; disturb the bio chemical process and finally
lead to serious effects.
2. Urban wastes
Sources and effects: Plastics, Glasses, metallic cans, fibers, papers, rubbers, street sweepings, and
other discarded manufactured products. These are also dangerous.
ww
2. Agricultural practices
w.E
Sources and effects: Huge quantities of fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides, and weedicides are added to
increase the crop yield. Apart from these farm wastes, manure, slurry, are reported to cause soil
pollution.
asy
4. Radioactive pollutants
Sources and effects: These are resulting from explosions of nuclear dust and radio active wastes
E
penetrate the soil and accumulate there by creating land pollution.
5. Biological agents ngi

nee
Sources and effects: Soil gets large quantities of human, animal and birds excreta which constitute
the major source of land pollution by biological agents.
2.4.2 Control measures of soil pollution

rin
The pressure on intensification of farm activities increases for two reasons


Population growth
g.n



Forestry and farm practices
Proper dumping of unwanted materials
Production of natural fertilizers
e
Decrease of the available farm land due to urbanization
 Proper Hygienic condition

 Public awareness
 Recycling and Reuse of wastes
 Ban on Toxic chemicals.
2.5 MARINE POLLUTION
It may be defined as “the discharge of waste substances into the sea resulting in harm to living
resources hazards to human health, hindrance to fishery and impairment of quality for use of sea
water”.
Source of marine pollution

The coastal zones contain rich heritage, coral reefs, wetlands, and sea grass beds.
2.5.1 Effects of marine pollutants

 The presence of heavy metals and organic pollutants cause more damage in birds as
thinning of eggshell and tissue damage of egg.
 Oil spilling causes abnormally low body temperature in birds resulting in hypothermia.
 Oil films are able to retard significantly the rate of oxygen uptake by water.
2.5.2 Control measures of marine pollution
 Plants for conserving marine biodiversity must be taken into account of human needs.
 People should be educated about marine ecosystems and the benefits offered by them.
 Local communities must be involved in protecting and managing their coastal
resources. Social and economic incentives must be offered for conserving and
sustainable use of marine resources.
ww  Governments must manage their own water while extending cooperation to the
neighboring states.
w.E
2.6 NOISE POLLUTION
It may be defined as “the unwanted, unpleasant or disagreeable sound that causes discomfort
asy
for all living beings”
2.6.1 Types of noise
E
 Industrial noise
 Transport noise
 Neighborhood noise ngi
2.6.2 Effects of Noise pollution
 nee
This affects human health, comfort and efficiency.

 rin
It causes muscles to contract leading to nervous breakdown, tension.
It affects health efficiency and behavior.

g.n
In addition to serious loss of hearing due to excessive noise, impulsive noise also
causes psychological and pathological disorders.
 Brain is also adversely affected by loud and sudden noise as that of jet and aero plane
noise.
2.6.3 Control and preventing measures

e
 Source control – acoustic treatment to machine surface, design changes, limiting the
operational timings.
 Transmission path intervention- the source inside a sound insulating enclosure,
construction of a noise barrier or provision of sound absorbing materials.
 Oiling – Proper oiling will reduce the noise from the machines.

2.7 THERMAL POLLUTION
It may be defined as the “addition of excess of undesirable heat to water that makes it harmful
to man, animal or aquatic life or otherwise causes significant departures from the normal activities of
aquatic communities in water”
2.7.1 Sources of thermal pollution
 Nuclear power plants

 Coal fired power plants
 Industrial effluents
 Domestic sewage
 Hydro – electric power.
2.7.2 Effects of thermal pollution
ww 

Reduction in dissolved oxygen
w.E



Increase in Toxicity
Interference with biological activities
Interference with reproduction

asy
Direct mortality
Food storage for fish.
E
2.7.3 Control measures of thermal pollution
ngi
 Cooling towers - This is used as a coolant wet cooling tower, dry cooling tower.
 Cooling ponds and spray ponds.
nee
 Artificial lakes – The heated effluents can be discharged into the lake at one end and
the water for cooling purposes from the other end.
2.8 NUCLEAR HAZARDS rin

g.n
The radiation hazard in the environment comes from ultraviolet, visible, cosmic rays and micro
wave radiation which produces genetic mutation in man.
2.8.1 Sources of Nuclear Hazards e

Natural Sources – This is in space which emits cosmic rays.
Man made Sources – (Anthropogenic sources) these are nuclear power plants, X-rays, nuclear
accidents, nuclear bombs, diagnostic kits.
2.8.2 Effects of Nuclear Hazards
 Exposure of the brain and central nervous system ot high doses of radiation causes
delirium, convulsions and death within hours or days.
 The use of eye is vulnerable to radiation. As its cell die, they become opaque forming
cataracts that impair sight.

 Acute radiation sickness is marked by vomiting; bleeding of gums and in severe cases
mouth ulcers.
 Nausea and vomiting often begin a few hours after the gastrointestinal tract is exposed.
Infection of the intestinal wall can kill weeks afterwards.
 Unborn children are vulnerable to brain damage or mental retardation, especially if
irradiation occurs during formation of the central nervous system in early pregnancy.
2.8.3 Control measures
Nuclear devices should never be exploded in air.

In nuclear reactors, closed cycle coolant system with gaseous coolant may be used to
prevent extraneous activation products.
Containments may also be employed to decrease the radio active emissions.
Extreme care should be exercised in the disposal of industrial wastes contaminated with
radio nuclides.
ww Use of high chimneys and ventilations at the working place where radioactive
contamination is high. It seems to be an effective way for dispersing pollutants.
w.E
2.9 SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
wastes.
asy
Management of solid waste is very important in order to minimize the adverse effects of solid
2.9.1 Types of solid wastes

1. Urban wastes
Sources E ngi
 Domestic wastes – Food waste, Cloth, Waste paper.
 Commercial wastes – Packing material, cans, bottles, polythene.
 Construction Wastes – Wood, concrete debris.
nee
 Bio medical wastes – Anatomical wastes, infectious wastes.
2. Industrial wastes rin

Sources
 Nuclear power plants – generates radioactive wastes
g.n
 Thermal power plants – produces fly ash in large quantities
2. Chemical industries
Produces large quantities of hazardous and toxic materials
e
2.9.2 Steps involved in solid waste management
 Reduce, Reuse and Recycle of materials – raw materials re usage should be reduced,
reuse of waste materials should be reduced and recycling of the discarded materials into
new useful products should also be reduced.
 Discarding wastes
 Land fill: Solid wastes are placed in sanitary landfill system in alternate layers of 80 cm
thick refuse, covered with selected earth fill of 20cm thickness
 Incineration: It is a hygienic way of disposing the solid waste. It is a thermal process
and is very effective for detoxification of all combustible pathogens

 Composting: It is another popular method practiced in many cities in our country. In

this method, bulk organic waste is converted into fertilizing manure by biological
action.
2.9.3 Role of an individual in prevention of pollution

 Plant more trees
 Help more in pollution prevention than pollution control
 Use water, energy and other resources efficiently
 Purchase recyclable, recycled and environmentally safe products
 Reduce deforestation
 Remove NO from motor vehicular exhaust
 Use of eco friendly products.
2.9.4 Case studies
ww  Effluents treatment at MRL, Chennai

 The Bhopal gas tragedy
 Arsenic pollution in ground water
w.E
 Soft drink bottling unit
 Mercury wastes
 Palar river pollution
asy
 The miniamatta epidemic (marine pollution)
E
2.10 DISASTER MANAGEMENT
Hazard
ngi
It is a perceived natural event which threatens both life and property.
Disaster
 A disaster is the realization of this hazard

nee
rin
 It is defined as the geological process and it is an event concentrated in time and space
in which a society or subdivision of a society undergoes severe danger and causes loss
Types
of its members and physical property.
g.n
e
Natural disasters – refers to those disasters that are generated by natural phenomena.
Man made disasters – refers to the disasters resulting from man made hazards.
2.11 FLOODS
Whenever the magnitude of water flow exceeds the carrying capacity of the channel within its
banks the excess of water overflows on the surroundings causes floods.
2.11.1 Causes of floods
 Heavy rain, rainfall during cyclone causes floods

 Sudden snow melt also raises the quantity of water in streams and causes flood
 Sudden and excess release of impounded water behind dams

 Clearing of forests for agriculture has also increased severity of floods.
2.11.2 Flood Management
Encroachment of flood ways should be banned.

Building walls prevent spilling out the flood water over flood plains.
Diverting excess water through channels or canals to areas like lake, rivers
where water is not sufficient.
 Optical and microwave data from IRS is also used for flood management.
 Flood forecasts and flood warning are also given by the central water commission.
2.12 CYCLONES
It is a meteorological process, intense depressions forming over the open oceans and moving
towards the land.
ww
Cyclone is measured by Saffir-Simpson scale.
w.E
asy
E ngi
nee
rin
2.12.1 Effect g.n
Fig.2.1 Saffir –Simpson scale
roads, transport, could be heavy. e

 The damage depends on the intensity of cyclone the damage to human life, crops,
 Cyclone occurrence slows down the developmental activities of the area.

Table 2.1 Classification of cyclones based on their speed

ww
w.E
asy
E
2.12.2 Cyclone management
ngi
 Satellite images are used by meteorological departments for forecasting the weather
nee
conditions which reveal the strength and intensity of the storm.
 Radar system is used to detect the cyclone and is being used for cyclone warning.
2.12.3 Case studies

Cyclone in Orissa – 1999 rin
g.n
 Two cyclones in Orissa occurred on 18th and 29th October 1999.In the coastal area of
Orissa, a powerful cyclone storm hit with a wind velocity of about 260 km/hr. Nearly
14-30 districts of Orissa were in severe damage.
e
 It has been reported that nearly 15 millions of people were affected and 90-95% of the
crop yield was affected. About 11,500 local schools have been damaged.
2.13 LAND SLIDES
The movement of earthy materials like coherent rock, mud, soil and debris from higher to
lower region to gravitational pull is called land slides.
2.12.1 Causes
 Movement of heavy vehicles on the unstable sloppy regions.
 Earthquake, shocks, vibrations and cyclone.
2.12.2 Effects of landslides
1. Block roads and diverts the passage.
2. Soil erosion increases.
2. Causes damages to houses, crops and live stock.

2.14 EARTH QUAKES

An earthquake is a sudden vibration caused on earth surface with the sudden release of
tremendous energy stored in rocks under the earth’s crust.
2.14.1 Causes
1. Disequilibrium in any part of the earth crust
2. Underground nuclear testing
2. Decrease of underground water level.
2.14.2 Severity of an earthquake: Generally it is measured by its magnitude on Richter scale.
Richter Scale Severity of earthquake
Less than 4 Insignificant
4- 4.9 Minor
5- 5.9 Damaging
6- 6.9 Destructive
ww 7- 7.9
More than 8
Major
Great
w.E
2.14.3 Effect
 Damage the settlements and transport systems



asy
Collapses houses and their structures
Deformation of ground surface
E
Tsunami
2.14.4 Earthquake Management ngi

 Constructing earthquake resistant building
 Wooden houses are preferred
nee
rin
 Seismic hazard map should give the information about the magnitude of intensity of
anticipated earthquakes.
g.n
2.15 TSUNAMI
e
A tsunami is a large wave that is generated in a water body when the seafloor is deformed by
seismic activity. This activity displaces the overlying water in the ocean.
2.15.1 Causes of tsunami

 Seismic activities like earthquakes, landslides, volcanic eruptions, explosions, can
generate tsunami.
 Deformation of the sea floor due to the movement of plates.

ww Fig.2.3 Formation of Tsunami
w.E
2.15.2 Concept of Tsunami
A tsunami is not a single wave but a series of waves like the ordinary waves which we see on
seas.
asy
E
2.15.3 Effects on Tsunami
 Tsunami attacks mostly the coastlines, causing devastating property, damage and loss
of life.
ngi
 Tsunami can kill lot of human beings, livestock’s.
nee
 Tsunami may also spread lot of water borne diseases.
2.15.4 Tsunami Management
rin
 Earthquakes under the water are monitored by sensors on the floor of the sea.
 The sensors send the information of floating buoys on the surface, whenever they detect
any changes in pressure of the sea.
g.n
 The information is then relayed to satellites, which passes it on to the earth stations.
precautions.
2.15.5 Case studies

e
 Finally the country make the people alert through the media to take all necessary
Tsunami- Japan 2011, India 2004.

UNIT 3 NATURAL RESOURCES

Natural resources (economically referred to as land or raw materials) occur naturally within
environments that exist relatively undisturbed by mankind, in a natural form.
3.2 FOREST RESOURCES

3.2.1Commercial uses
Man depends heavily on a larger number of plant and animal products from forests for his daily needs.
The chief product that forests supply is wood, which is used as fuel, raw material for various industries
as pulp, paper, newsprint, board, timber for furniture items, other uses as in packing articles, matches,
ww
sports goods etc.
Indian forests also supply minor products like gums, resins, dyes, tannins, fibers, etc.
Many of the plants are utilized in preparing medicines and drugs; Total worth of which is estimated to
w.E
be more than $300 billion per year.
Many forests lands are used for mining, agriculture, grazing, and recreation and for development of
dams.
asy
Depending upon the climate conditions, forest may be classified as:
E
Tropical Rain Forests: They are evergreen broadleaf forests found near the equator. They are
ngi
characterized by high temperature, high humidity and high rainfall, all of which favor the growth of
trees.
Tropical deciduous forests: They are found a little away from the equator and are characterized by a
nee
warm climate the year round. Rain occurs only during monsoon.
Tropical scrub forests: They are found in areas where the day season is even longer.
rin
Temperate rain forests: They are found in temperate areas with adequate rainfall. These are
dominated by trees like pines, firs, redwoods etc.
g.n
Temperate deciduous forests: They are found in areas with moderate temperatures.
Evergreen coniferous forests (Boreal Forests): They are found just south of arctic tundra. Here
winters are long, cold and dry. Sunlight is available for a few hours only.
3.2.2 Ecological uses e

The ecological services provided by our forests may be summed up as follows:
Production of Oxygen: The main green house gas carbon dioxide is absorbed by the forests as a raw
material for photo synthesis. Thus forest canopy acts as a sink for carbon dioxide thereby reducing the
problem of global warming caused by green house gas CO2
Wild life habitat: Forests are the homes of millions of wild animals and plants. About 7 million
species are found in the tropical forests alone.
Regulation of hydrological Cycle: Forested watersheds act like giant sponges, absorbing the rainfall,
slowing down the runoff. They control climate through transpiration of water and seed clouding.
Soil Conservation: Forests bind the soil particles tightly in their roots and prevent soil erosion. They
also act as wind breakers.
Pollution moderators: Forests can absorb many toxic gases and can help in keeping the air pure and
in preventing noise pollution.

3.3 Over Exploitation of Forests

Man depends heavily on forests for food, medicine, shelter, wood and fuel.
With growing civilization the demands for raw material like timber, pulp, minerals, fuel wood etc. shot
up resulting in large scale logging, mining, road-building and clearing of forests.
Our forests contribute substantially to the national economy.
The international timber trade alone is worth over US $ 40 billion per year.
The devasting effects of deforestation in India include soil, water and wind erosion, estimated to cost
over 16,400 cores every year.
ww
w.E Fig.3.1 Over Exploitation of Forests
asy
E
Deforestation means destruction of forests.
ngi
The total forests area of the world in 1900 was estimated to be 7,000 million hectares which was
reduced to 2890 million ha in 1975 fell down to just 2,300 million ha by 2000.
countries.
nee
Deforestation rate is relatively less in temperature countries, but it is very alarming in tropical
Deforestation is a continuous process in India where about 3.3 hectares of forest land has been lost.
rin
The per capita availability of forest in India is 0.08 hectares per person which is much lower than the
world average of 0.8 hectares.
The presence of waste land is a sign of deforestation in India.
g.n
3.4.1 Causes of Deforestation
Major causes of deforestation are listed below:

e
Development projects
Shifting cultivation
Fuel requirements cutting and burning
Construction of dams
Growing food needs.

Fig . 3.2 Deforestation
3.4.1.1 Consequences of deforestation
Some of the effects of deforestation are listed below:
ww
a) Effect on climate
Global warming
w.E
Less rainfall
Hot climate.
asy
b) Effect on biodiversity
Loss of medicinal plants.
Loss of timber, fuel wood.
E
c) Effect on resources
Loss of land resource ngi
Loss of soil fertility
Soil erosion
Drastic changes in biogeochemical cycles nee
d) Effect on economy Increase rin
in medicinal values Demand of
industrial products. e) Effect g.n
on food
Loss of fruit production
Loss of root based foods. e
3.5 Case Studies
Desertification in hilly regions of the Himalayas:

Desertification in Himalayas, involving clearance of natural forests and plantation of
monocultures like Pinus roxburghi, Eucalyptus camadulensis etc., have upset the ecosystem by
changing various soil and biological properties.
The area is invaded by exotic weeds. These areas are not able to recover and are losing their fertility.
3.5. 3.5 Case Studies

Following the destruction of forest rain fall declined in Chhota Nagpur to such an extent that tea-
gardens also disappeared from the region.
Waning rain fall in Udhagamandalam
The rainfall pattern was found to fluctuate with wooded land area in the hills. When the Nilgiri
mountains had luxuriant forest cover annual rainfall used to be much higher.
3.6 TIMBER EXTRACTION
Logging for valuable timber such as teak and mahogany not only involves a few large trees per hectare
but about a dozen more trees since they are strongly interlocked with each other by vines etc.
Also road construction for making approach to the trees causes further damage to the forests.
In India, firewood demand would continue to rise in future mostly consumed in rural areas, where
ww
alternative sources of energy, are yet to reach.
w.E
asy
E ngi
Fig 3.3 Timber extraction in forest
3.7 MINING
nee
Fig 3.4 Timber Extraction in industry
rin
Mining is the process of removing deposits of ores from substantially very well below the ground
level.
Mining is carried out to remove several minerals including coal.
g.n
These mineral deposits invariably found in the forest region, and any operation of mining will
naturally affect the forests.
e
Mining from shallow deposits is done by surface mining while that from deep deposits is done by sub-
surface mining.
More than 80,000 ha of land of the country are presently under the stress of mining activities.

Fig 3.5 mining area

3.7.1 Effects of mining resources
Mining operation require removal of vegetation along with underlying soil mantle and overlying rock
masses. This results in destruction of landscape in the area.
Large scale of deforestation has been reported in Mussorie and Dehradun valley due to mining of
various areas.
Indiscriminate mining in Goa since 1961 has destroyed more than 50,000 ha of forest land.
Mining of radioactive mineral in Kerala, Tamilnadu and Karnataka are posing similar threats of
deforestation.
3.8 DAMS AND THEIR EFFECTS ON FORESTS AND TRIBAL PEOPLE
Big dams and river valley projects have multi-purpose uses and have been referred to as "Temples of
modern India”.
India has more than 1550 large dams, the maximum being in the state of Maharashtra (more than 600)
ww
followed by Gujarat (more than 250) and Madhya Pradesh (130).
The highest one is Tehri dam, on river Bhagirathi in Uttaranchal and the largest in terms of capacity is
w.E
Bhakra dam on river Sutlej.
Fig 3.6 Dams
asy
E ngi
nee
rin
3.8.1 Effects on Tribal people
g.n
The greatest social cost of big dam is the widespread displacement of local people.
India over the past 50 years can be as high as 20 millions. e

It is estimated that the number of people affected directly or indirectly by all big irrigation projects in
The Hirakud dam, one of the largest dams executed in fifties, has displaced more than 20,000 people
residing in 250 villages.
3.8.2 Effects on forests
Thousands of hectares of forests have been cleared for executing river valley projects which breaks the
natural ecological balance of the region. Floods, landslides become more prevalent in such areas.
Eg:
The Narmada sagar project alone has submerged 3.5 lakh hectares of best forest comprising of rich
teak and bamboo forests.
The Tehri dam submerged 1000 hectares of forest affecting about 430 species of plants according to
the survey carried out by the botanical survey of India.

3.9 WATER RESOURCES
Water is an important component of all living beings. Nearly 80% of earth’s surface is covered
by water.
3.9.1 Uses of Water
Due to its unique properties, water is of multiple uses for all living organisms.
Water is absolutely essential for life.
Most of the life processes take place in water contained in the body.
Uptake of nutrients, their distribution in the body, regulation of temperature, and removal of wastes
are all mediated through water.
Human beings depend on water for almost every developmental activity.
Water is used for drinking, irrigation, and transportation, washing and waste disposal for industries
and used as a coolant for thermal power plants.
ww
Water shaped the earth's surface and regulates our climate.
3.9.2 Hydrological cycle
w.E
3. Evaporation
2. Precipitation
3. Transpiration
Evaporation
asy
The transformation of water from liquid to gas phases as it moves from the ground or bodies of water
into the overlying atmosphere. The source of energy for evaporation is primarily solar radiation.
E
Evaporation often implicitly includes transpiration from plants, though together they are specifically
ngi
referred to as evapotranspiration. Total annual evaporation amounts to approximately 505,000 km3
(121,000 cu mi) of water, 434,000 km3 (104,000 cu mi) of which evaporates from the oceans.
Precipitation
nee
Condensed water vapor that falls to the Earth's surface .Most precipitation occurs as rain, but also
includes snow, hail, fog drip, graupel, and sleet. Approximately 505,000 km3 (121,000 cu mi) of water
rin
falls as precipitation each year, 398,000 km3 (95,000 cu mi) of it over the oceans.
Condensation
g.n
The transformation of water vapor to liquid water droplets in the air, creating clouds and fog.
Transpiration
e
The release of water vapor from plants and soil into the air. Water vapor is a gas that cannot be seen.
Snowmelt
The runoff produced by melting snow.
Runoff
The variety of ways by which water moves across the land. This includes both surface runoff and
channel runoff. As it flows, the water may seep into the ground, evaporate into the air, become stored
in lakes or reservoirs, or be extracted for agricultural or other human uses.
Infiltration
The flow of water from the ground surface into the ground. Once infiltrated, the water becomes soil
moisture or groundwater.
Subsurface Flow
The flow of water underground, in the vadose zone and aquifers. Subsurface water may return to the
surface (e.g. as a spring or by being pumped) or eventually seep into the oceans. Water returns to the
land surface at lower elevation than where it infiltrated, under the force of gravity or gravity induced

pressures. Groundwater tends to move slowly, and is replenished slowly, so it can remain in aquifers
for thousands of years.
Sublimation
The state change directly from solid water (snow or ice) to water vapor.
Flow chart
ww
w.E
asy
E
Fig 3.7 Water Cycle
ngi
3.10 OVER UTILIZATION OF SURFACE AND GROUND WATER
nee
With increasing human population and rapid development, the world water withdrawal demands have
rin
increased many folds and a large proportion of the water withdrawn is polluted due to anthropogenic
activities.
g.n
Out of the total water reserves of the world, about 97% is salty water and only 3% is fresh water.
Even this small fraction of fresh water is not available to us as most of it is locked up in polar ice caps
e
and just 0.003% is readily available to us in the form of ground water and surface water.
3.10.1 Effects of over exploitation of water
Subsidence: When ground water withdrawal is more than its recharge rate, the sediments in the
aquifer (a layer of rock that is highly permeable and contains water) get compacted, a phenomenon
knows as ground subsidence. It results in sinking of overlying land surface. Due to this structural
damage in buildings, fracture in pipes etc., occurs.
Lowering of water table: Mining of groundwater is done extensively for irrigating crop fields.
However, excessive mining would cause lowering of water table.
Water logging: When excessive irrigation is done with brackish water it raises the water table
gradually leading to water-logging and salinity problems.

3.11 FLOODS AND DROUGHT
Heavy rainfall often causes floods in the low-lying coastal areas.

Prolonged downpour can also cause the over-flowing of lakes and rivers resulting into floods.
When annual rainfall is below normal and less than evaporation, drought conditions are created.
ww
Fig.3.8 Drought
w.E
3.11.1 Causes of flood and drought
asy
Deforestation, overgrazing, mining, rapid industrialization, global warming etc., have contributed
largely to a sharp rise in the incidence of floods.
E
Deforestation leads to desertification and drought too. When the trees are cut, the soil is subject to
erosion by heavy rains, winds and sun.
ngi
The removal of thin top layer of soil takes away the nutrients and the soil becomes useless.
The eroded soils exhibit droughty tendency.
3.11.2 Preventive measures nee

rin
Clear knowledge in control of drought and desertification can be very useful for dealing with the
problem.
g.n
Carefully selected mixed cropping helps to optimize production and minimize the risks of crop
failures.
e
Social forestry and Wasteland development can prove quite effective to fight the problem, but it
should be based on proper understanding of ecological requirement and natural process.
3.12 CONFLICTS OVER WATER
Indispensability of water and its unequal distribution has often led to inter-state or international
disputes. Issues related to sharing of river water have been largely affecting our farmers and also
shaking our governments. Many countries are engaged in bitter rivalries over this precious resource.
For instance,
Argentina and Brazil, dispute each other's claims to the La Plata river,
India and Pakistan fight over the rights to water from the Indus,
Mexico and USA have come in conflict over the Colorado river,
India and Bangladesh are fighting for Bhrahmaputra river, and
Iran and Iraq contest for the water from Shatt-Al- Arab River.

ww
Fig.3.9 Conflicts of water
Within India, water conflicts are still being continues between the states.
For Eg.,
w.E
Sharing of Krishna water between Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh,
Sharing of Siruvani water between Tamilnadu and Kerala, and others.
asy
Sharing of Cauvery between Karnataka and Tamilnadu
On June 2,1990, the Cauvery Water dispute Tribunal was set up which through an interim award
directed Karnataka to ensure that 205 TMCF of water was made available in Tamil Nadu's Mettur dam
E
every year, till a settlement was reached.
ngi
In 1991-1992 due to good monsoon, there was no dispute. In 1995, the situation turned into a crisis
due to delayed rains and an expert Committee was set up to look into the matter which found that there
was a complex cropping pattern in Cauvery basin.
nee
Samba paddy in winter, Kuravai paddy in summer and some cash crops demanded intensive water;
thus aggravating the water crisis.
rin
Proper selection of crop varieties, optimum use of water, better rationing are suggested as some
measures to solve the problem
3.13 BIG-DAMS –BENEFITS AND PROBLEMS g.n

Now days they are mainly used for the hydropower production.
3.13.1 Benefits
e
Dams are built across the river in order to store water for drinking, agricultural, industrial purpose.
River valley projects with big dams play a key role in the development process due to their multiple
uses.
These dams aim at providing employment for tribal people and raising the standard and quality of life.
Dams can help in checking floods and generate electricity and reduce water and power shortage,
provide irrigation water to lower areas, provide drinking water in remote areas and promote
navigation, fishery.
3.13.2 Problems
The impacts of big dams can be upstream as well as downstream levels. The upstream problems
include the following:
Displacement of tribal people

Loss of forests, flora and fauna

Changes in fisheries
Saltation and sedimentation of reservoirs
Loss of non-forest land
Stagnation and water logging near reservoir
Breeding vectors and spread of vector –borne diseases
Reservoir induces seismicity causing earthquakes
Microclimatic changes
Growth of aquatic weeds
3.13.3 Downstream problems include the following
Water logging and salinity due to over irrigation
Microclimatic changes
Reduced water flow and slit deposition in river
Flash foods
Salt water intrusion at river mouth
ww
Loss of land fertility
Outbreak of vector-borne diseases like malaria.
w.E
3.14 MINERAL RESOURCES
Minerals are naturally occurring substances with definite chemical and physical properties.
3.14.1 Uses of minerals
asy
Mineral is an element or inorganic compound that occurs naturally. The main uses of minerals are as
follows:
E
Development of industrial plants and machinery
ngi
Generation of energy e.g. coal, lignite, uranium
Construction, housing, settlements
nee
Defense equipments- weapons, settlement
Transportation
Communication-telephone wires, cables, electronic devices
Medical system- particularly in Ayurvedic System
Formation of alloys for various purposes
rin
Agriculture- as fertilizers, seed dressings and fungicides
Jewellery- e.g. Gold, silver, platinum, diamond
g.n
Table 3.1 Distribution and uses of major reserves and metals
Metals Major world reserves Major uses

e
Aluminum Australia, Jamaica Packing food items, transportation,
utensils, electronics
Chromium CIS(The common For making high strength steel alloys,
wealth of Independent in textiles and tanning industries
states), South Africa
Copper U.S.A, Canada, CIS Electronic and electrical goods,
building, construction, vessels
Iron CIS, Canada, U.S.A Heavy machinery, steel production
transportation means.
Manganese South Africa, CIS For making high strength heat

resistant steel alloys

Platinum South Africa, CIS Use in automobiles, catalytic
converters, electronics, medical uses.
Gold South Africa, CIS, Ornaments, medical use, electronic
Canada use, in aerospace
Silver Canada, South Africa Photography, electronic jewellery.
Nickel CIS, Canada Chemical industry, steel alloys
Table 3.2 Major uses of some of the non metallic minerals

Non-metal mineral Major uses
Silicate minerals Sand and grovel for construction, bricks, paving

etc.
Limestone Used for concrete, building stone, used in
ww
agriculture for neutralizing acid soils, used in
cement industry
Gypsum Used in plaster wall-board, in agriculture
w.E
Potash, phosphorite
Sulphur pyrites
Used as fertilizers
Used in medicine, car battery, industry
asy
3.14.2 Environmental impacts of mineral extraction
Major mines which are known for causing severe problems are given below:
E
Jaduguda Uranium Mine, Jharkhand- exposing local people to radioactive hazards.
ngi
Jharia coal mines, Jharkhand- underground fire leading to land subsidence and forced displacement of
people.
hazard, Cr6+ being highly toxic and carcinogenic.

nee
Sukinda chromite mines, Orissa- Seeping of hexavalent chromium into river posing serious health
Kudremukh iron ore mine, Karnataka- causing river pollution and threat to biodiversity.
rin
East coast Bauxite mine, Orissa-Land encroachment and issue of rehabilitation unsettled.
North-Eastern Coal Fields, Assam-Very high sulphur contamination of groundwater.
g.n
3.14.3 Impacts of mining: Mining is done to extract minerals from deep deposits in soil.
Environmental damages caused by mining activities are as follows:
e
Devegetation and defacing of lands: Mining requires removal of vegetation along with underlying
soil mantle and overlying rock masses. This results in destruction of landscape in the area.
Subsidence of land: Subsidence of mining areas results in tilting of buildings, cracks in houses,
buckling of roads, bending of rail tracks and leaking of gas from cracked pipe lines leading to serious
disasters.
Groundwater contamination: Mining pollutes the groundwater. Sulphur, usually present as an
impurity in many ores is known to get converted into sulphuric acid through microbial action, thereby
making the water acidic.
Surface water pollution: The acid mine drainage often contaminates the nearby streams and lakes.
The acidic water, radioactive substances like uranium, heavy metals also contaminate the water bodies
and kill aquatic animals.

Air pollution: In order to separate and purify the metal from other impurities in the ore, smelting is
done which emits enormous quantities of air pollutants. Oxides of sulphur, arsenic, cadmium and lead
etc. shoot up in the atmosphere near the smelters and the public suffers from several health problems.
Occupational Health Hazards: Miners working in different type of mines suffer from asbestosis,
silicosis, black lung disease.
3.14.4 Remedial measures
Adopting eco-friendly mining technology

Utilization of low grade ores by using microbial – leaching technique. In this method, the ores are
inoculated with the desired strains of bacteria like Thiobacillus ferroxidans, which remove the
impurities and leave the pure mineral.
Re-vegetating mined areas with appropriate plants
Gradual restoration of flora
Prevention of toxic drainage discharge.
ww
3.14.5 Case studies
w.E
3. Mining and quarrying in Udaipur
Soap stones, building stone, and dolomite mines spread over 15,000 hectares in Udaipur have caused
asy
many adverse impacts on environment.
About 150 tons of explosives are used per month in blasting.
The Maton mines have badly polluted the Ahar river.
E
The hills around the mines are suffering from acute soil erosion.
ngi
The waste water flows towards a big tank of “Bag Dara".
Due to scarcity of water people are compelled to use this effluent for irrigation purpose.
nee
The animals like tiger, lion, deer, and birds have disappeared from the mining area.
2. Mining in Sariska and Tiger Reserve in Aravallis
rin
The Aravalli range is spread over about 692 Km in the North-west India covering Gujrat, Rajasthan,
Haryana, and Delhi.
The hill is rich in mineral resources.
g.n
Mining operations within and around the Sariska Tiger reserve has left many areas permanently
e
infertile and barren.
The precious wild life is under serious threat.
3.15 FOOD RESOURCES
3.15.1 World Food Problems
During the last 50 years world grain production has increased almost three times.
The per capita production is increased by about 50%.
At the same time population growth increased at such a rate in less developed countries.
Every 40 million people die of undernourishment and malnutrition.
This means that every year our food problem is killing as many people as were killed by the atomic
bomb dropped on Hiroshima during World War II.
This statistics emphasize the need to increase our food production, and also to control population
growth.
It is estimated that 300 millions are still undernourished.

3.15.2 Impacts of overgrazing and agriculture
3.15.2.1 Overgrazing
Overgrazing can limit livestock production. Over grazing occurs when too many animals graze for too
long and exceed the carrying capacity of a grass land area.
Impact of overgrazing
Land degradation: Overgrazing removes the grass cover. The humus content of the soil is decreased
and it leads to poor, dry, compacted soil.
Soil erosion: The soil roots are very good binders of soil. When the grasses are removed, the soil
becomes loose and susceptible to the action of wind and water.
Loss of useful species: Due to overgrazing the nutritious species like cenchrus, panicum etc. are
replaced by thorny plants like Parthenium, Xanthium etc. These species do not have a good capacity of
ww
binding the soil particles and, therefore, the soil becomes more prone to soil erosion.
w.E
3.15.2.2 Agriculture
Traditional Agriculture and its impacts
Usually involves a small plot
asy
Simple tools
Naturally available water
Organic fertilizer and a mix of crops
E
3.15.2.3 Main impacts
Deforestation
ngi
nee
Soil erosion
Depletion of nutrients
3.15.2.4 Modern Agriculture and its impacts

rin
It makes use of hybrid seeds of selected and single crop variety.
g.n
High-tech equipments, lots of energy subsidies in the form of fertilizers and, pesticides
Irrigation water
3.15.2.5 Main impacts

e
Impacts related to high yielding verities (HYV): The uses of HYVs encourage monoculture i.e. the
same genotype is grown over vast areas. In case of an attack by some pathogen, there is total
devastation of the crop by the disease due to exactly uniform conditions, which help in rapid spread of
the disease.
3.15.3 Fertilizer related problems
Micronutrient imbalance: Chemical fertilizers have nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium (N, P and
K) which are essential macronutrients. Excessive use of fertilizers cause micronutrient imbalance. For
example, excessive fertilizer use in Punjab and Haryana has caused deficiency of the micronutrient
Zinc in the soils, which is affecting productivity of the soil.
Nitrate Pollution: Nitrogenous fertilizers applied in the fields often leach deep into the soil and
ultimately contaminate the ground water. The nitrates get concentrated in the water and when their
concentration exceeds 25 mg/L, they become the cause of a serious health hazard called "Blue Baby

Syndrome" or methaemoglobinemia. This disease affects the infants to the maximum extent causing
even death.
ww
Fig.3.10 Blue baby syndrome
w.E
Eutrophication: A large proportion of nitrogen and phosphorus used in crop fields is washed off
along with runoff water and reach the water bodies causing over nourishment of the lakes, a process
known as Eutrophication. (Eu=more, tropic=nutrition). Due to Eutrophication the lakes get invaded
asy
by algal blooms. These algal species grow very fast by rapidly using up the nutrients. The algal species
quickly complete their life cycle and die thereby adding a lot of dead matter. The fishes are also killed
E
and there is lot of dead matter that starts getting decomposed. Oxygen is consumed in the process of
ngi
decomposition and very soon the water gets depleted of dissolved oxygen. This further affects aquatic
fauna and ultimately anaerobic conditions are created where only pathogenic anaerobic bacteria can
survive. Thus, due to excessive use of fertilizers in the agricultural fields the lake ecosystem gets
degraded.
nee
rin
g.n
e
Fig.3.11 Eutrophication

Pesticide related problems: Thousands of types of pesticides are used in agriculture. The first
generation pesticides include chemicals like sulphur, arsenic, lead or mercury to kill the pests. They
have number of side effects as discussed below:
Creating resistance in pests and producing new pests: About 20 species of pests are now known
which have become immune to all types of pesticides and are known as "Super pests".
Death of non-target organisms: Many insecticides not only kill the target species but also several
non-target species that are useful to us.
Biological magnification: Many of the pesticides are non-biodegradable and keep on accumulating in
the food chain, a process called biological magnification. This is very harmful.
ww
w.E
asy
E ngi
nee
rin
g.n
Fig.3.12 Biomagnification
e
Water Logging: Over irrigation of croplands by farmers for good growth of their crop usually leads to
water logging. Inadequate drainage caused excess water to accumulate underground and gradually
forms a continuous column with the water table. Under water-logged conditions, pore-spaces in the
soil get fully drenched with water and the soil- air gets depleted. The water table rises while the roots
of plants do not get adequate air for respiration, Mechanical strength of the soil declines, the crop
plants get lodged and crop yield falls. In Punjab and Haryana, extensive areas have become water-
logged due to adequate canal water supply or tube-well water. Preventing excessive irrigation, sub-
surface drainage technology and bio-drainage with trees like Eucalyptus are some of the remedial
measures to prevent water-logging.
Salinity Problem: At present one third of the total cultivable land area of the world is affected by
salts. Saline soils are characterized by the accumulation of soluble salts like sodium chloride, sodium
sulphate, calcium chloride, magnesium chloride etc. in the soil profile. Their electrical conductivity is

more than 4 ds/m. So dic soils have carbonates and bicarbonates of sodium, the pH usually exceed 8.0
and the exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP) is more than 15%.
3.15.3.1 Remedy
(i) The most common method for getting rid of salts is to flush them out by applying more good
quality water to such soils.
(ii) Another method is laying underground network of perforated drainage pipes for flushing out the
salts slowly.
3.15.4 Case studies
Salinity and water logging in Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan:

The first alarming report of salt-affected wasteland formation due to irrigation practices came from
Haryana in 1858.
Several villages in Panipat, and Delhi lying in Western Yamuna Canal were suffering from salinity
ww
problems.
The floods of 1947, 1950, 1952, 1954-55 in Punjab resulted in aggravated water logging with serious
w.E
drainage problems.
Introduction to canal irrigation in 3.3 m ha in Haryana resulted in raise in water table followed by
water-logging and salinity in many irrigated areas as a result of fall in crop productivity.
asy
Rajasthan too has suffered badly in this regard following the biggest irrigation project "Indhra Gandhi
Canal Project".
3.16.1 Definition E
3.16 ENERGY RESOURCES
ngi
Energy may be defined as, “any property, which can be converted into work.” (or)
nee
Energy is defined as, “the capacity to do work.”
Forms of energy, some of immediately used to do work; others require some process of transformation
Life is unthinkable without energy.
rin
All the developmental activities in the world are directly or indirectly dependent upon energy.
g.n
Energy production and energy utilization are the indicators of a country’s progress.
3.16.2 Development of energy

The first form of energy is the fire.
e
The early man discovered fire and used it for cooking and heating purposes
Wood is the main source of energy, which is later replaced by coal.
Coal is now being replaced by the oil and gas.
Now due to insufficient availability and price hike, people started of thinking and using several
alternative sources of energy.
Woodcoaloilalternate energy (solar, wind, tidal energy)
3.16.3 Growing energy Needs

Energy is essential to all human societies.
All industrial process like, mining, transport, living, heating and cooling in buildings, all require
energy.
With the demands of growing population, the world is facing further energy deficit,

Our life style is also changing from al simple way of life to luxurious life style. At present 95% of the
commercial energy is available only from the fossil fuels like coal, oil and natural gas, and are not
going to last for many years. It would be really ironic if fuel becomes more expensive than food.
3.16.4 Energy Distribution –World Scenario

U.S.A and Canada 5% of the world’s population- consume 25% of the available world’s energy
resources.
It has been observed, that in U.S.A and Canada an average person consumes 300 GJ (Giga Joules;
equal to 60 barrels of oil) per year.
But in poor countries like Bhutan, Nepal and Ethiopia, an average person consumes less than 1 GJ per
year.
So a person in a developed country consumes almost as much energy in a single day as one person
consumes in a whole year in a poor country.
From the above scenario it is clear that our life style and standard of living are closely related to
energy needs.
ww
3. Renewable energy resources (or) non-conventional energy resources
Natural resources can be regenerated continuously and are inexhaustible. They can be used again and
w.E
again in an endless manner.
Example: Wood, solar energy, wind energy, hydropower energy, etc.,
2. asy
Merits of renewable energy resources
3. Unlimited supply.
Provides energy security.
3.
4.
5.
E
Fits into sustainable development concept.
ngi
Reliable and the devices are modular in size.
Decentralized energy production.
nee
2. Non- Renewable energy resources (or) Conventional energy resources
Natural resources which cannot be regenerated once they are exhausted. They cannot be used again.
Example: Coal, petroleum, natural gas, and nuclear fuels.
rin
g.n
Even our renewable resources can become non-renewable if we exploit them to such extent their rate
of consumption exceeds their rate of regeneration.
e
Wood is renewable resources but not coal-why?
Wood is renewable resources because we can get new wood by growing sapling into a tree within 15-
20 years.
But the formation of coal from trees has taken million of years and cannot be regenerated in our life
time.
3.16.5 RENEWABLE ENERGY RESOURCES

Renewable resources are parts of our natural environment and form our eco-system
3.16.5.1 SOLAR ENERGY

The energy that we get directly from the sun is called solar energy.
The nuclear fusion reactions occurring inside the sun release enormous amount of energy in the form
of heat and light.
The solar energy received by the near earth space is approximately3.4 kJ/s/m2 known as solar constant.

3.16.5.2 Methods of Harvesting Solar Energy
3. Solar cells (or) photovoltaic cells (or) PV cells

Solar cells consist of a p-type semiconductor (such as Si doped with B) and n-type semi-conductor (Si
doped with P).
They are in close contact with each other.
When the solar rays fall on the top layer of p-type semi-conductor, the electrons from the valence band
get promoted to the conduction band and cross the p-n junction into n-type semi-conductor.
There by potential difference between two layers is created, which causes flow of electrons (ie.,an
electric current)
ww
w.E
asy
E ngi
nee
rin
g.n
Fig.3.13 Solar cell
Uses e
Used in calculators, electronic watches. Street lights, water pumps to run radios and TVs.
Solar Battery
When a large number of solar cells are connected in series it form a solar battery.
Solar battery produce more electricity which is enough to run water pump, to run street-light, etc.,
They are used in remote areas where conventional electricity supply is a problem.
2. Solar heat collectors
Solar heat collectors consists of natural materials like stones, bricks, (or) materials like glass, which
can absorb heat during the day time and release it slowly at night.

ww
w.E Fig. 3.14 Solar heat collector
Uses
asy
Used in cold places, where houses are kept in hot condition using solar heat collectors.
It consists of E
3. Solar water heater
ngi
An insulated box inside of which is painted with black paint.
nee
Provided with a glass lid to receive and store solar heat.
Inside the box it has black painted copper coil, through which cold water is allowed to flow in, which
gets heated up and flows out into a storage tank.
From the storage tank water is then supplied through pipes.
rin
3.17 WIND ENERGY
Definition g.n
Moving air is called wind.
Energy recovered from the force of the wind is called wind energy.
The energy possessed by wind is because of its high speed.
The wind energy is harnessed by making use of wind mills.
e
3.17.1 Harvesting of wind energy
3. Wind Mills
The strike of blowing wind on the blades of the wind mill makes it rotating continuously.
The rotational motion of the blade drives a number of machines like water pump, flour mills and
electric generators.

ww
w.E
2. Wind farms
Fig. 3.15 Wind mill
asy
When a large number of wind mills are installed and joined together in a definite pattern it forms a
wind farm.
Conditions
E
The wind farms produce a large amount of electricity.
ngi
The minimum speed required for satisfactory working of a wind generator is 15 km/hr.
Advantages
It does not cause any air pollution
It is very cheap. nee
3.18 OCEAN ENERGY
rin
g.n
It can be generated by following ways.
3. Tidal energy (or) Tidal power
e
Ocean tides, produced by gravitational forces of sun and moon, contain enormous amount of energy.
The “high tide” and “low tide” refer to the rise and fall of water in the oceans.
The tidal energy can be harnessed by constructing a tidal barrage.
During high tide, the sea-water is allowed to flow into the reservoir of the barrage and rotates the
turbine, which intern produces electricity by rotating the generators.
During low tide, when the sea level is low, the sea water stored in the barrage reservoir is allowed to
flow into the sea and again rotates the turbine.

ww
w.E
asy
Fig. 3.16 Tidal energy
E
2. Ocean thermal energy (OTE)
ngi
There is often large temperature difference between the surface level and deeper level of the tropical
oceans.
nee
This temperature difference can be utilized to generate electricity.
The energy available due to the difference in temperature of water is called ocean thermal energy.
rin
g.n
e
Fig. 3.17 Ocean thermal energy

Condition
The temperature difference should be of 200C or more is required between surface water and deeper
water.

Process
The warm surface water of ocean is used to boil a low boiling liquid like ammonia.
The high vapour pressure of the liquid, formed by boiling is then to turn the turbine of the generator
and generates electricity.
The cold water from the deeper ocean is pumped to cool and condense the vapour into liquid.
3. Geo-thermal Energy
3. Temperature of the earth increases at a rate of 20-750C per km, when we move down the earth
surface.
2. High temperature and high pressure steam fields exists below the earth’s surface in many
places.
3. The energy harnessed from the high temperature present inside the earth is called geothermal
energy.
3. Natural geysers
ww
In some places, the hot water (or) steam comes out of the ground through cracks naturally in the form
2. Artificial geysers
w.E
In some places, we can artificially drill a hole up to the hot region and by sending a pipe in it, we can
make the hot water or steam to rush out through the pipe with very high pressure.
Thus, the hot water (or) steam coming out from the natural (or) artificial geysers is allowed to rotate
asy
the turbine of a generator to produce electricity.
E ngi
nee
rin
g.n
e
Fig. 3.18 Geothermal energy

3.19 BIOMASS ENERGY

Biomass is the organic matter, produced by plants or animals, used as sources of energy.
Most of the biomass is burned directly for heating, cooling and industrial purposes.
Eg: Wood, crop residues, seeds, cattle dung, sewage, agricultural

wastes.
Biogas
Mixture of methane, carbondioxide, hydrogen sulphide, ete.
It contains about 65% of methane gas as a major constituent
Biogas is obtained by the anaerobic fermentation of animal dung or plant wastes in the presence of
water.
2. Bio fuels
Biofuels are the fuels, obtained by the fermentation of biomass.
Eg: Ethanol, Methanol
ww
(a)Ethanol
w.E
Ethanol can be easily produced from the sugarcane. Its calorific value is less when compared to
petrol, and produces much less heat than petrol.
(b)Methanol
asy
Methanol can be easily obtained from ethanol or sugar-containing plants.
Its calorific value is also too low when compared to gasoline and diesel.
(c)Gasohol
E
Gasohol is a mixture of ethanol+gasoline.
ngi
In India trial is being carried out to use Gasohol in cars and buses.
nee
Gasohol is common fuel in Brazil and Zimbabwe for running cars and buses.
Methanol is very useful since it burns at a lower temperature than gasoline or diesel. Due to its high
calorific value, hydrogen can serve as an excellent fuel.
Moreover it is non-polluting and can be easily produced.
rin
g.n
Presently H2 is used in the form of liquid hydrogen as a fuel in spaceships.
Hydrogen Fuel
e
Hydrogen can be produced by thermal dissociation or photolysis or electrolysis of water.
It possesses high calorific value.
It is non polluting, because the combustion product is water.
2H2+O2---->2H2O+150KJ

ww
w.E
Disadvantages of hydrogen fuel
Fig. 3.19 Hydrogen fuel cell
asy
Hydrogen is highly inflammable and explosive in nature
Safe handling is required
E
It is difficult to store and transport.
3.20 NON-RENEABLE ENERGY SOURCES

3.20.1 Coal ngi
nee
Coal is a solid fossil fuel formed in several stages as buried remains of land plants that lived 300-400
million years ago were subjected to intense heat and pressure over millions of years.
Various stages of coal
Wood Peat Lignite Bituminous coal
rin Anthracite
g.n
3. The carbon content of Anthracite is 90% and its calorific value is 8700 k.cal.
2. The carbon content of bituminous, lignite and peat are 80, 70 and 60% respectively
Disadvantages
3. When coal is burnt it produces CO2 causes global warming
e
3. India has about 5% of world’s coal. Indian coal is not good because of poor heat capacity.
2. Since coal contains impurities like S and N, it produces toxic gases during burning.
3.20.2 Petroleum
Petroleum or crude oil = hydrocarbons +small amount S, O, N.
Occurrence
The fossil fuel formed by the decomposition of dead animals and plants that were buried under lake
and ocean at high temperature and pressure for million years
Fractional distillation
Hydrocarbons are separated by fractioning the crude oil.
Petroleum World Scenario
3. 67% oil reserves.

2. 25% of the oil reserves in Saudi Arabia.

At the present rate of usage, the world’s crude oil reserves are expected to get exhausted in just 40
years.
3.20.3 LPG (Liquefied Petroleum Gas)
3. The petroleum gas, converted into liquid under high pressure as LPG
2. LPG is colorless and odorless gas.
3. During bottling some mercaptans is added, to detect leakage of LPG from the cylinder.
3.20.4 Natural Gas

3. Mixture of 50-90% methane and small amount of other hydrocarbons.
2. Its calorific value ranges from 12,000-14,000 k-cal/m3.
ww
w.E
asy
(i)Dry gas
E Fig. 3.20 Fractionating column
ngi
nee
If the natural gas contains lower hydrocarbons like methane and ethane, it is called dry gas.
(ii)Wet gas
If the natural gas contains higher hydrocarbons like propane, butane along with methane it is called
wet gas.
rin
Occurrence
g.n
Formed by the decomposition of dead animals and plants, those were buried under lake and ocean, at
e
high temperature and pressure for millions of years.
3.21 NUCLEAR ENERGY

Dr. H. Bhabha –father. India has 10 nuclear reactors, which produce 2% of India’s electricity.
3.23.1 Nuclear Fission

Heavier nucleus is split into lighter nuclei, on bombardment by fast moving neutrons, and a large
amount of energy is released.
Eg:
Fission of U235
When U235 nucleus is hit by a thermal neutron, it undergoes the following reaction with the release of
3 neutrons.
235 + 1 139 94 1
n 0
U92 0Ba 56 + Kr 36+ 3n + Energy

Each of the above 3 neutrons strikes another U235 nucleus causing (3x3) 9 subsequent reactions.
These 9 reactions further give rise to (3x9) 27 reactions.
This process of propagation of the reaction by multiplication in threes at each fission is called chain
reaction.
Fission reaction of U235 is given below.
92U
235
+0n1 → 36Kr
92
+ 56Ba
141
+ 3 0n1 + energy
ww
w.E
asy
E ngi
Fig. 3.21 Nuclear fission-chain reaction
nee
3.23.2 Nuclear fusion:
Lighter nucleuses are combined together at extremely high temperatures to form heavier nucleus and a
large amount of energy is released.
Eg:
rin
Fusion of H21 .Two hydrogen-2 (Deuterium) atoms may fuse to form helium at 1 billion0C with
the release of large amount of energy
g.n
Nuclear power of India
Tarapur(Maharashtra),
2
1H +1H
2
→ 2 1
3He +0n +energy
e
Ranapratap Sagar (Rajasthan)
Kalpakkam (Tamilnadu)
Narora (U.P).
3.22 USES OF ALTERNATE (RENEWABLE) ENERGY SOURCES

Why Alternate (Renewable) Energy Sources are required?
The importance of solar energy can be emphasized particularly in view of the fact that fossil fuels and
other conventional sources are not free from environmental implications.
least pollution, safety and security snags and are universally available have the best enhance of
large scale utilization in future

Hydro-electric power generation is expected to upset the ecological balance existing on earth
Besides space heating, hydel power plants critically pollute the aquatic and terrestrial biota.
Radioactive pollutants released from nuclear power plants are chronically hazardous.
The commissioning of boiling water power reactors (BWRS) have resulted in the critical accumulation
of large number of long lived radionuclides in water\
The dangerous radiowaste cannot be buried in land without the risk of polluting soil and
underground water.
Nor the waste can be dumped into the rivers without poisoning aquatic life and human beings as well
The burning of coal, oil, wood, dung cakes and petroleum products has well debated environmental
problems. The smoke so produced causes respiratory and digestive problems leading to lungs, stomach
and eye diseases.
The disposal of fly ash requires large ash ponds and may pose a severe problem considering the
limited availability of land. Thus the non-conventional sources of energy are needed.
Objectives
To provide more energy to meet the requirements of increasing population.
ww
To reduce environmental pollution
To reduce safety and security risks associated with the use of nuclear energy.
w.E
3.23 LAND RESOURCES
It provides food, fibre, wood, medicine and other biological materials
Soil is the mixture of inorganic materials (rocks and minerals) and organic materials (dead animals and
asy
plants).
Top soil is classified as renewable resources.
E
Uses of land resources
ngi
Land provide, food, wood, minerals, etc., for us
Land nurtures the plants and animals that provide our food and shelter.
nee
Land is used as watershed or reservoir
Land acts as a dust bin for most of the wastes, created by the modern society.
Land is used for construction of buildings, industries.
3.23.1 LAND DEGRADATION

rin
Process of degradation of soil or loss of fertility of the soil.
g.n
Harmful effects of land degradation
The soil texture and soil structure are deteriorated
Loss of soil fertility, due to loss of invaluable nutrients e
Increase in water logging, salinity, and alkalinity and acidity problems.
Loss of economic social and biodiversity.
Causes of land degradation

3. Population
Land resources degraded by over population &over exploitation.
2. Urbanization
Urbanization leads to deforestation, reduces the land
3. Fertilizers and pesticides
Increased applications of fertilizers and pesticides leads to pollution of land and water and soil
degradation.
4. Damage of top soil

Increase in food production generally leads to damage to top soil through nutrient depletion.
5. Water-logging
Soil erosion, salination and contamination of the soil with industrial wastes all cause land degradation.
6. Soil erosion
Soil erosion is the process of removal of superficial layer of the soil from one place to another.
Harmful effects of soil erosion
Soil fertility is lost because of loss of top soil layer.

Loss of its ability to hold water and sediment.
Sediment runoff can pollute water and kill aquatic life.
Types of soil erosion
(i)Normal erosion
ww
Gradual removal of top soil by the natural process.
The rate of erosion is slower.
w.E
(ii)Accelerated erosion
Caused by man-made activities
The rate of erosion is much faster than the rate of formation of soil.
asy
Man induced landslides
E
Various anthropogenic activities like hydroelectric projects, large dams, reservoirs, construction of
ngi
roads and railway lines, construction of buildings, mining etc are responsible for clearing of large
forested areas.
nee
Earlier there were few reports of landslides between Rishikesh and Byasi on Badrinath Highway area.
But, after the highway was constructed, 15 landslides occurred in a single year.
During the construction of roads, mining activities etc. huge portions of fragile mountainous areas are
rin
cut or destroyed by dynamite and thrown into adjacent valleys and streams.
These land masses weaken the already fragile mountain slopes and lead to landslides.
g.n
They also increase the turbidity of various nearby streams, thereby reducing their productivity.
Causes of soil erosion
(i)Water
e
Affects soil erosion in the form of rain, run-off, rapid flow, wave action.
Sheet erosion: When there is uniform removal of a thin layer of soil from a large surface area, it is
called sheet erosion.
Rill erosion: when there is rainfall and rapidly running water produces finger-shaped grooves or rills
over the area, it is called rill erosion.
Gully erosion: When the rainfall is very heavy, deeper cavities or gullies are formed, which may be U
or V shaped.
Slip erosion: This occurs due to heavy rainfall on slopes of hills and mountains.
Stream bank erosion: During the rainy season, when fast running streams take a turn in some other
direction, they cut the soil and make caves in the bank.
(ii)Wind
Wind is the important climatic agent, who carry away the fine particles of soil and creates soil erosion.
Saltation: This occurs under the influence of direct pressure of stormy wind and the soil particles of
1-3.5 mm diameter move up in vertical direction.

Suspension: Here fine soil particles (less than 1mm diameter) which are suspended on the air are
kicked up and taken away to distant places.
Surface creep: Here the large particles (5-10 mm diameter) creep over the soil surface along with
wind.
(iii)Biotic agents
Overgrazing, mining and deforestation are the major biotic agents, cause soil erosion.
Deforestation without reforestation, overgrazing by cattle, surface mining without land reclamation,
irrigation techniques that lead to salt build- up, water logged soil, make the top soil vulnerable to
erosion.
.
35% of world soil erosion is due to overgrazing.
30% of world soil erosion is due to deforestation.
(iv) Landslides
-Causes soil erosion.
ww
(v)Construction
-Construction of dams, buildings, roads removes the protective vegetal cover and leads to soil erosion.
.
w.E
Control of soil erosion (or) soil conservation practices
3. Conservational till farming (or) no-till-farming
asy
In tradition method, the land is ploughed and soil is broken up and leveled to make a planting surface.
This disturbs the soil and makes it susceptible to erosion
However, no-till-farming causes minimum disturbance to the top soil
E
Here the tilling machines make slits in the unploughed soil and inject seeds, fertilizers and water in the
ngi
slit. So the seed germinates and the crop grows.
2. Contour farming
nee
It involves planting crops in rows across the contour of gently sloped land.
Each row acts as a small dam to hold soil and to slow water runoff.
rin
g.n
e
Fig. 3.22 Contour farming
3. Terracing
It involves conversion of steep slopes into broad terraces, which run across the contour.
This retains water for crops and reduces soil erosion by controlling runoff.

ww Fig. 3.23 Terracing
w.E
4. Alley cropping (or) Agro forestry
It involves planting crops in strips or alleys between rows of trees of shrubs that can provide fruits
and fuel wood.
asy
Even when the crop is harvested, the soil will not be eroded because trees and shrubs still remain on
the soil and hold the soil particles.
E ngi
nee
rin
g.n
e
Fig. 3.24 Alley cropping
5. Wind breaks or shelter belts
The trees are planted in long rows along the boundary of cultivated lands, which block the wind and
reduce soil erosion.
Wind breaks help in retaining soil moisture, supply of some wood for fuel and provide habitats for
birds.

ww
3.24 DESERTIFICATION
Fig. 3.25 Wind breaks
w.E
Progressive destruction or degradation of arid or semiarid lands to desert.
Desertification leads to the conversion of range lands or irrigated croplands to desert.
Desertification is characterized by devegetation, depletion of ground water, salination and soil erosion.
asy
Harmful effect of desertification
E
Around 80% of the productive land in the arid and semi-regions are converted into desert.
ngi
Around 600 million people are threatened by desertification.
Causes of Desertification
(a)Deforestation
nee
The process of denuding and degrading a forest land initiates a desert.
rin
If there is no vegetation to hold back the rain water, soil cannot soak and groundwater level do not
increases.
g.n
This also increases, soil erosion, loss of fertility.
(b)Over grazing
The increase in cattle population heavily grazes the grass land or forests and as a result denudes the
land area.
e
The denuded land becomes dry, loose and more prone to soil erosion and leads to desert.
(c)Water management
Over utilization of ground water, particularly in the coastal regions, is resulting in saline water
intrusion into aquifers which is unfit for irrigation.
(d)Mining and quarrying
These activities are also responsible for loss of vegetal cover and denudation of extensive land area
leading to desertification.
(e)Climate change
Formation of deserts may also take place due to climate change, ie., failure of monsoon, frequent
droughts.
(f)Pollution
Excessive use of fertilizers and pesticides and disposal of toxic water into the land also leads to
desertification.

3.25 LANDSLIDES
Landslides are the downward and outward movement of a slope composed of earth materials such as
rock, soil, artificial fills. Other names of landslides are rockslide, debris slide, slump, earth flow and
soil creep.
Man induced landslides

During construction of roads and mining activities huge portions of fragile mountainous areas are
cut and thrown into adjacent areas and streams. These land masses weaken the already fragile
mountain slopes and lead to landslides called man induced landslides.
Causes of landslides
3. Removal of vegetation
In the sloppy area creates soil erosion, which leads to landslides.
2. Underground mining
Cause subsidence of the ground.
3. Transport
ww
Due to the movement of buses and trains in the unstable sloppy region cause landslides.
4. Addition of weight
w.E
Addition of extra weight (or) construction on the slope areas leads to landslide.
5. Ground water level
Over exploitation of ground water also leads to landslides.
asy
Harmful effect of landslides
Landslide increases the turbidity of nearby streams, thereby reducing their productivity.
Destruction of communication links.
E
Loss of habitat and biodiversity.
Loss of infrastructure and economic loss.
ngi
nee
3.26 CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES - ROLE OF AN INDIVIDUAL
Different natural resources like forests, water, soil, food, mineral and energy resources play a vital role
rin
in the development of a nation. While conservation efforts are underway at National as well as
International level, the individual efforts for conservation of natural resources can go a long way.
I. Conserve Water
g.n
e
Don't keep water taps running while brushing, shaving, washing or bathing.
Check for water leaks in pipes and toilets and repair them promptly. A small pin-hole sized leak will
lead to the wastage of 640 liters of water in a month.
Use drip irrigation and sprinkling irrigation to improve irrigation efficiency and reduce evaporation.
Install a small system to capture rain water and collect normally wasted used water from sinks, cloth-
washers, bathtubs etc. which can be used for watering the plants
Build rain water harvesting system in your house. Even the President of India is doing this.
II. Conserve energy
Turn off lights, fans and other appliances when not in use.
Obtain as much heat as possible from natural sources. Dry the clothes in sun instead of drier if it is a
sunny day.

Use solar cooker for cooking your food on sunny days which will be more nutritious and will cut
down on your LPG expenses.
Grow deciduous trees and climbers at proper places outside your home to cut off intense heat of
summers and get a cool breeze and shade. This will cut off your electricity charges on coolers and air-
conditioners.
Try riding bicycle or just walk down small distances instead of using your car or scooter.
III. Protect the soil
While constructing your house, don't uproot the trees as far as possible. Plant the disturbed areas with
a fast growing native ground cover.
Make compost from your kitchen waste and use it for your kitchen-garden or flower-pots.
Do not irrigate the plants using a strong flow of water, as it would wash off the soil.
If you own agricultural fields, do not over-irrigate your fields without proper drainage to prevent water
logging and salinisation.
ww
Use mixed cropping so that some specific soil nutrients do not get depleted.
w.E
IV. Promote Sustainable Agriculture
Do not waste food. Take as much as you can eat
asy
Reduce the use of pesticides.
Fertilize your crop primarily with organic fertilizers.
Eat local and seasonal vegetables. This saves lot of energy on transport, storage and preservation.
E
Control pests by a combination of cultivation and biological control methods.
ngi
3.27 EQUITABLE USE OF RESOURCES FOR SUSTAINABLE LIFE STYLE
nee
There is a big divide in the world as North and South, the more developed countries (MDC'S) and less
developed countries (LDC'S), the haves and the have nots.
rin
The MDC's have only 22% of world's population, but they use 88% of its natural resources, 73% of its
energy and command 85% of its income.
As the rich nations continue to grow, they will reach a limit.
g.n
If they have a growth rat of 10% every year, they will show 1024 times increase in the next 70 years.
e
Will this much of growth be sustainable? The answer is 'No' because many of our earth's resources are
limited and even the renewable resources will become unsustainable if their use exceeds their
regeneration.
Thus, the solution to this problem is to have more equitable distribution of resources and wealth.
We cannot expect the poor countries to stop growth in order to check pollution because development
brings employment and the main problem of these countries is to tackle poverty.
The poor in the LDC'S are at least able to sustain their life.
Unless they are provided with such basic resources, we cannot think of rooting out the problems
related to dirty, unhygienic, polluted, disease infested settlements of these people-which contribute to
unsustainability.
Thus, the two basic causes of unsustainability are over population in poor countries who have under
consumption of resources and over consumption of resources by the rich countries, which generate
wastes.
In order to achieve sustainable life styles it is desirable to achieve a more balanced and equitable
distribution of global resources and income to meet everyone's basic needs.

The rich countries will have to lower down their consumption levels while the bare minimum needs of
the poor have to be fulfilled by providing them resources.
A fairer sharing of resources will narrow down the gap between the rich and the poor and will lead to
sustainable development for all and not just for a privileged group.
ww
w.E
asy
E ngi
nee
rin
g.n
e

UNIT 4 SOCIAL ISSUES AND THE ENVIRONMENT
4.1 Objectives
Developing and modernizing the technologies without losing our sound traditional values and
practices is essential.
4.1.1 Sustainable development

Meeting the needs of the present, without compromising the ability of future generations, to
meet their own needs.
4.1.2 True sustainable development

Optimum use of natural resources with high degree of reusability, minimum wastage, least
generation of toxic byproducts and maximum productivity.
ww
4.1.3 Dimensions of sustainable development
Multi dimensional concept – derived from interactions between society, economy and
w.E
environment.
4.1.4 Aspects of sustainable development
asy  Inter-generational equity

 Intra-generational equity.
E
4.1.5 Approaches for sustainable development
ngi
 Developing appropriate technology - locally adaptable, eco-friendly, resource
efficient and culturally suitable.
nee
 Reduce, reuse, recycle [3R] approach – reduces waste generation and pollution
 Providing environmental education and awareness – changing attitude of the
people
rin
 Consumption of renewable resources – attain sustainability
g.n
 Conservation of non renewable resources – conserved by recycling and reusing
 Population control.
e
4.1.6 Urban problems related to energy
 Energy demanding activities
 Solution for urban energy problem.
4.2 WATER CONSERVATION

The process of saving water for future utilization.

ww
w.E
4.2.1 Need for water conservation
Fig.4.1 Rain Water Harvesting
 Changes in environmental factors
asy
 Better lifestyles
 Increase in population
E
 Deforestation
 Over exploitation of ground water
ngi
 Agricultural and industrial activities.
4.2.2 Strategies of water conservation

nee


Reducing evaporation losses
Reducing irrigation losses
rin



Re use of water
Preventing of wastage of water
Decreasing run-off losses g.n
 Avoid discharge of sewage.
4.2.3 Methods of water conservation

e
Rain water harvesting- A technique of capturing and storing of rain water for further
utilization.
4.2.4 Objectives of rain water harvesting

 Increasing demands
 Recharging the ground water
 Reducing the ground water
 Increase in hydro static pressure.

4.3 WATER SHED MANAGEMENT – The management of rainfall and resultant run-off.
4.3.1 Objectives
To minimize of risk of floods
For improving the economy
For developmental activities
To generate huge employment opportunities
To promote forestry
To protect soil from erosion.
4.3.2 Factors affecting watershed
o Unplanned land use
o Deforestation
o Droughty climates.
4.4 RESETTLEMENT AND REHABILITATION OF PEOPLE
ww
4.4.1 Causes
w.E


Due to Developmental activities
Due to Disaster

asy
Due to conservation initiatives.
4.4.2 Rehabilitation issues


E ngi
Displacement of tribal’s increases poverty
Breakup of families



Communal ownership of property
Vanishing social and cultural activities
Loss of identity between the people. nee
4.4.3 Case Studies rin
Sardar Sarovar Dam, the Theri dam Project, Pong Dam.
g.n
4.4.4 Environmental ethics
e
Refers to the issues, principles and guidelines relating to human interactions with their
environment.
4.4.5 Environmental problems
 Deforestation
 Population growth
 Pollution due to effluent and smoke
 Water scarcity
 Land degradation.
4.4.6 Solutions
 Reducing the energy sources
 Recycle and reuse of waste products

 Soil degradation
 Sustainable development
 Protection of Bio – diversity
 Reducing the population.
4.5 CLIMATE
The average weather of an area.
4.5.1 Causes of climate change
 Presence of green house gases

 Depletion of ozone gases.
4.5.2 Effect of climate change

 Migration of animals
 Upsetting the hydrological cycles results in floods and droughts
ww  Changes in global pattern of winds.
w.E
asy
E ngi
nee
rin
g.n
4.5.3 Green house effect
Fig.4.2 Climate Changes
e
The progressive warming of earth surface due to blanketing effect of man made CO2 in the
atmosphere.
Green house gases- causing global warming

CO2, CH4, N2O, CFCs.

ww Fig.4.3 Green House effect
w.E
4.5.4 Effect on global warming
 Sea level

 asy
Agriculture and forestry
Water resources

 E
Terrestrial ecosystems
Human health.
ngi
nee
4.5.5. Measures
 Reducing CO2 emission



Utilizing renewable resources
Plant more trees
rin
 Adopt sustainable agriculture.
g.n
e
4.6 ACID RAIN
The precipitation of CO2, SO2, and NO2 gases as pollutants in water.

ww
w.E
asy Fig.4.4 Acid Rain formation
E
4.6.1 Effects of acid rain
1. Human beings ngi

nee
 Destroy life – nervous, respiratory and digestive system
 Causes premature death from heart and lung disorders.
2. On Buildings
rin
Corrosion - Taj Mahal, houses, statues, bridges, metals.
3. On terrestrial and Lake Ecosystem
g.n
 Reduces rate of photosynthesis, growth of crops, Fish population.
 And bio mass production.
4.6.2 Control measures e

 Clean combustion technologies
 Using pollution control equipments
 Replacement of coal by natural gas
 Liming of lakes and soils.

4.7 OZONE LAYER DEPLETION

Ozone is formed in the stratosphere by photo - chemical reaction.
ww
w.E Fig.4.5 Depletion of Ozone layer
asy
4.7.1 Ozone depleting chemicals
Chloro Fluro carbon, Hydro chloro fluoro carbon, Bromo fluoroCarbon.
4.7.2 Effects

E ngi
On human health – Skin cancer, cataracts, allergies etc.



On aquatic systems- phyto plankton, fish
On materials- paints, plastics
nee
On climate – increasing the average temperature of the earth surface.
rin
g.n
e
Fig.4.6 Causes and Effects of O3 depletion

 Replacing CFCs
 Use of methyl bromide – crop fumigant.

4.8 NUCLEAR ACCIDENTS AND HOLOCAUST

The release of large amounts of nuclear energy and radioactive products into the atmosphere.
Nuclear energy was researched by man as an alternate source of energy compared to fossil
fuels. Although this did happen along with the benefits came its downfall. In the short history of
nuclear energy there has been a number of accidents that have surpassed any natural calamity. A single
nuclear accident causes loss of life, long term illness and destruction of property on a large scale.
Examples
1.THE CARELESS SITING OF INDUSTRIES- Bhopal gas tragedy
The careless siting of industries and relatively poor regulatory controls leads to ill
health in the.The Bhopal gas tragedy on December 2nd 1984, where Union Carbide's Plant
leaked 43 tons of Methyl Isocynate and other substances, used in the manufacture of pesticides
is one of the worst industrial accidents in the recent past. Of the 5,20,000 people who were
exposed to the gas - 8,000 died during the first week and another 8,000 later. The impact of the
ww survivors is visible even today.
w.E
asy
E ngi
nee
rin
Fig.4.7 Bhopal gas tragedy plant g.n
2. CHERNOBYL REACTOR INCIDENT
e
On April 25, 1986, Russian engineers and scientists begin preliminary tests on Chernobyl
power plant's 4th reactor. In order to control the experiment, the automatic control system was
shut down. After some work, stability was reached at very low power outputs. Unfortunately,
manual control of the water pressure wasn't maintained. The reactor began to create excess
heat. Without the automatic control, the control rods couldn't be reinserted in time; a deadly
chain reaction had begun. Within a matter of 3-4 seconds, the reactor went from 5% output to
100 times its normal level. The water in the reactor flash-boiled, creating an explosion that
leveled thousands of tons of concrete and steel, including the housing for the reactor. The
steam carried almost 70% of the nuclear material out of the reactor into the surrounding
environment. Several thousand volunteers died on the scene, and it is estimated that 7,000 to
10,000 volunteers died in total, considering short and long-term effects. Thousands of miles
from the scene, the birth defect rate became double the world average. It is also estimated that
150,000 were put at risk for thyroid cancer, and over 800,000 children were put at risk of

contracting leukemia. 2 million acres of land (1/5 of the usable farmland in the Ukraine) was,
and still is, completely unusable. It remains difficult to determine the scope of the disaster;
radiation resulting from the event was detected all over the globe. It is estimated that it may
cost up to $400 billion and will take up to 200 years to correct the damage done to the area, and
to compensate those affected by the meltdown.
ww
w.E
asy
4.8.1 Effects E
 Nuclear winter
Fig.4.8 Chernobyl Reactor
ngi
 Ignition of all combustible material
nee
rin
g.n
e
Fig.4.9 Effects of Nuclear Hazards


 Suitable precautions to avoid accident
 Constant monitoring of the radiation level
 Checks and control measures done by Atomic Energy Regulatory Board.
4.9 WASTE LAND RECLAMATION

Waste land: - The land which is not in use – unproductive, unfit for cultivation another
economic uses.
4.9.1Types of waste land
1. Uncultivable waste land

– Barren rocky areas, hilly slopes, sandy deserts.
2. Cultivable waste land
- degraded forest lands, gullied lands. Marsh lands, saline land etc.
ww
4.9.2 Causes for waste land formation
w.E



Soil Erosion, Deforestation, Water logging, Salinity.
Excessive use of pesticides.
asy
Construction of dams.
 Over-exploitation of natural resources.
 Sewage and industrial wastes.

 E
Mining
ngi
Growing demands for fuel, fodder wood and food causes degradation and loss of soil
productivity.
4.9.3 Objectives of waste land reclamation

nee
 To improve the physical structure and quality of the soil
 To prevent soil erosion
 To avoid over – exploitation of natural resourcesrin
 To conserve the biological resources.
g.n
4.9.4 Methods of waste land reclamation


Drainage
Leaching
e
 Irrigation practices
 Green manures and bio fertilizers
 Application of Gypsum
 Afforestation programmes
 Social forestry programmes.
4.9.5 Consumerisation of Waste products

 Consumerisation – Consumption of resources.
 Traditionally favorable rights of sellers
 Right to introduce product, price, Incentives
 Traditionally buyer rights

 Right to buy, right to expect the product to perform as claimed
4.9.6 Important information to be known by buyers
 About ingredients,
 Manufacturing dates,
 Expiry date, etc.
4.9.7 Objectives of Consumerisation
Improves rights and power of the buyers

Making the manufacturer liable
Reuse and recycle the product
Reclaiming useful parts
Reusable packing materials
Health and happiness.
ww
4.10 SOURCES OF WASTES
w.E
Glass, papers, garbage’s, food waste, automobile waste, dead animals etc.
4.10.1 E – Waste
asy
Computers, printers, mobile phones, Xerox machines, calculators etc.
4.10.2 Effects of wastes
E
o Dangerous to human life
o Degrade soil ngi
problems.
nee
o Cadmium in chips, Cathode ray tube, PVC causes cancer and other respiratory
o Non biodegradable plastics reduce toxic gases.
rin
4.10.3 Factors affecting consumerisation and generation of wastes
 People over – Population

 Consumption over – Population.
g.n
4.11 ENVIRONMENTAL LEGISLATION AND LAWS – IMPORTANT PROTECTION ACTS e
 Water Act 1974, 1978- An Act to provide for the levy and collection of water
consumed by persons carrying on certain industries and by local authorities, with a
view to augment the resources of the Central Board and the State Boards for the
prevention and control of water pollution constituted under the Water (Prevention and
Control of Pollution) Act, 1974.
 Water amendment Act 1987- As a result, some of the basic principles of water law
applicable today in India derive from irrigation acts. The early Northern India Canal
and Drainage Act, 1873 sought, for instance, to regulate irrigation, navigation and
drainage in Northern India.
o One of the long-term implications of this act was the introduction of the right of the
Government to ‘use and control for public purposes the water of all rivers and streams

flowing in natural channels, and of all lakes. The 1873 act refrained from asserting state
ownership over surface waters. Nevertheless, this act is a milestone since it asserted the
right of the Government to control water use for the benefit of the broader public.
o This was progressively strengthened. Thus, the Madhya Pradesh Irrigation Act, 1931
went much further and asserted direct state control over water: ‘All rights in the water
of any river, natural stream or natural drainage channel, natural lake or other natural
collection of water shall vest in the Government.
 Air Act 1981- An Act to provide for the prevention, control and abatement of air
pollution, for the establishment, with a view to carrying out the aforesaid purposes, of
Boards, for conferring on and assigning to such Boards powers and functions relating
thereto and for matters connected therewith.
 Whereas decisions were taken at the United Nations Conference on the Hum an
Environment held in Stockholm in June, 1972, in which India participated, to
ww take appropriate steps for the preservation of the natural resources of the earth
which, among other things, include the preservation of the quality of air and
w.E
control of air pollution; and whereas it is considered necessary to implement the
decisions aforesaid in so far as they relate to the preservation of the quality of
air and control of air pollution;

asy Be it enacted by Parliament in the Thirty-second Year of the Republic of India
 Wild life Act 1972-It refers to a sweeping package of legislation enacted in 1972 by the
E
Government of India. Before 1972, India only had five designated national parks.
ngi
Among other reforms, the Act established schedules of protected plant and animal
species; hunting or harvesting these species was largely outlawed. The Act provides for
nee
the protection of wild animals, birds and plants; and for matters connected therewith or
ancillary or incidental thereto. Formalization of national parks, wildlife sanctuaries,
conservation reserves and community reserves. Protection to habitat and wildlife within
rin
premises of such protected areas. Development of National Board for Wildlife and
State Boards for Wildlife for identification of future protected areas. Up to April 2010
g.n
there have been 16 convictions under this act relating to the death of tigers.
 Forest Act 1980 and Environment Act 1972- Environment protection act 1986 (23
take effective steps to protect the environment. e

May 1986) I- it is a legislation which signifies the central government determination to
Stating that: No State Government or other authority shall make any order directing-
(i) that any reserved forest shall cease to be reserved;
(ii) that any forest land or any portion thereof may be used for any non-forest purpose;
(iii) that any forest land or any portion thereof may be assigned by way of lease or
otherwise to any private person or to any authority, corporation, agency or any other
organization not owned, managed or controlled by Government;
(iv) that any forest land or any portion thereof may be cleared of trees which have
grown naturally in that land or portion, for the purpose of using it for reafforestat.
4.12 ISSUES INVOLVED IN ENFORCEMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL LEGISLATION
 Drawbacks of wildlife protection Act
 Drawbacks of Forest Act 1980 and
 Drawbacks of Environment Act 1972.

4.13 PUBLIC AWARENESS
Our environment is presently degrading due to many activities like pollution, deforestation,
overgrazing, rapid industrialization and urbanization.
4.13.1 Objectives of public awareness
Create awareness among people of rural and city about ecological imbalances, local
environment, technological development and various development plants.
To organize meetings, group discussion on development, tree plantation programmes
exhibitions.
To learn to live simple and eco-friendlily manner.
4.13.2 Methods to create environmental awareness
ww 

In schools and colleges
w.E
Through mass – media
 Cinema
 Newspapers


 asy
Audio - Visual media
Voluntary organizations
Traditional techniques



E
Arranging competitions
Leaders appeal
ngi
Non – government organizations.
nee
rin
g.n
e

UNIT 5 HUMAN POPULATION AND THE ENVIRONMENT

5.1 Objectives
 To get a knowledge on human population and human rights.
 To educate the students on value education.
 To equip the students towards the modern technology with respect to environment
and human health.
5.1.1 Population density
Number of individuals of the population per unit area or per unit volume.
5.1.2 Parameters affecting population size
 Birth rate
 Death rate or Mortality
 Immigration
ww  Emigration.
5.1.3 Population Growth
The rapid growth of the global population for the past 100 years from the difference between
w.E
the rate of birth and death.
Table.5.1 Population statistics in India ason 2010
Density Densit
Rank
asy
State or union
territory
Population % Rural Pop. Urban Pop. Area km² (per
km²)
Area mi² y (per
mi²)
Sex
ratio
E
1 Uttar Pradesh 193,977,661 16.16% 131,658,339 34,539,582 240,928 690 93,022.8 1,787 898
ngi
2 Maharashtra 110,878,627 9.42% 55,777,647 41,100,980 307,713 315 118,808.7 815 922
3 Bihar 102,998,509 8.07% 74,316,709 8,681,800 94,163 881 36,356.5 2,283 921
nee
4 West Bengal 90,176,197 7.79% 57,748,946 22,427,251 88,752 903 34,267.3 2,340 934
5 Andhra Pradesh 82,210,007 7.41% 55,401,067 20,808,940 275,045 277 106,195.5 718 978
rin
6 Tamil Nadu 62,405,679 6.07% 34,921,681 27,483,998 130,058 480 50,215.7 1,243 987
Madhya
7 60,348,023 5.87% 44,380,878 15,967,145 308,245 196 119,014.1 507 919
Pradesh
8
9
Rajasthan
Karnataka
56,507,188
52,850,562
5.49%
5.14%
43,292,813
34,889,033 g.n
13,214,375
17,961,529
342,239
191,791
165 132,139.2
276 74,050.9
428
714
921
965
10
11
12
Gujarat
Orissa
Kerala
50,671,017
36,804,660
31,841,374
4.93%
3.58%
3.10%
31,740,767
31,287,422
23,574,449
18,930,250
5,517,238
8,266,925
e 196,024
155,707
38,863
258
236
819
75,685.3
60,118.8
669
612
15,005.1 2,122
920
972
1,058
13 Jharkhand 26,945,829 2.62% 20,952,088 5,993,741 79,714 338 30,777.7 875 941
14 Assam 26,655,528 2.59% 23,216,288 3,439,240 78,438 340 30,285.1 880 935
15 Punjab 24,358,999 2.37% 16,096,488 8,262,511 50,362 484 19,444.9 1,253 876
16 Haryana 21,144,564 2.06% 15,029,260 6,115,304 44,212 478 17,070.3 1,239 861
17 Chhattisgarh 20,833,803 2.03% 16,648,056 4,185,747 135,191 154 52,197.5 399 989
Jammu and
18 10,143,700 0.99% 7,627,062 2,516,638 222,236 46 85,805.8 118 892
Kashmir
19 Uttarakhand 8,489,349 0.83% 6,310,275 2,179,074 53,483 159 20,649.9 411 962
Himachal
20 6,077,900 0.59% 5,482,319 595,581 55,673 109 21,495.5 283 968
Pradesh
21 Tripura 3,199,203 0.31% 2,653,453 545,750 10,486 305 4,048.7 790 948

22 Meghalaya 2,318,822 0.23% 1,864,711 454,111 22,429 103 8,659.9 268 972
23 Manipurβ 2,166,788 0.21% 1,590,820 575,968 22,327 97 8,620.5 251 974
24 Nagaland 1,990,036 0.19% 1,647,249 342,787 16,579 120 6,401.2 311 900
25 Goa 1,347,668 0.13% 677,091 670,577 3,702 364 1,429.4 943 961
Arunachal
26 1,097,968 0.11% 870,087 227,881 83,743 13 32,333.4 34 893
Pradesh
27 Mizoram 888,573 0.09% 447,567 441,006 21,081 42 8,139.4 109 935
28 Sikkim 540,851 0.05% 480,981 59,870 7,096 76 2,739.8 197 875
UT1 Delhi 13,850,507 1.35% 944,727 12,905,780 1,483 9,340 572.6 24,189 821
UT2 Puducherry 974,345 0.09% 325,726 648,619 479 2,034 184.9 5,268 1,001
UT3 Chandigarh 900,635 0.09% 92,120 808,515 114 7,900 44.0 20,462 777
Andaman and
UT4 356,152 0.03% 239,954 116,198 8,249 43 3,185.0 112 846
Nicobar Islands
Dadra and
UT5 220,490 0.02% 170,027 50,463 491 449 189.6 1,163 812
Nagar Haveli
ww
UT6
UT7
Daman and Diu
Lakshadweep
158,204
60,650
0.02%
0.01%
100,856
33,683
57,348
26,967
112
32
1,413
1,895
43.2 3,658
12.4 4,909
710
948
w.E
Total India 1,206,610,32 100.00 742,490,639 286,119,68 3,287,24 313 1,269,21 810 933
5.1.4 Causes of rapid population growth

 The rapid population growth is due to decrease in death rate and increase in birth rate.
asy
 Availability of antibiotics, immunization, increased food production, clean water and
air decreases the famine-related deaths.
E
 In agricultural based countries, children are required to help parents in the field that is
ngi
why population increases in the developing countries.
5.1.5 Characteristics of population growth
 Exponential growth
 Doubling time
 Infant mortality rate nee
 Total fertility rate
 Replacement level
rin
 Male/female ratio
 Demographic transition.
g.n
e
5.1.6 Variation of population based on age structure
1. Pyramid shaped – India, Bangladesh, and Ethiopia.
2. Bell shaped – France, USA, and UK.

Fig. 5.1 Bell and Pyramid shaped Population structure

3. Urn shaped - Germany, Italy, and Japan.
ww
w.E
asy Fig. 5.2 Urn shaped Population structure
E
5.1.7 Population Explosion
ngi
The enormous increase in population due to low death rate and high birth rate.
5.1.8 Causes
Modern medical facilities, life expectancy, illiteracy.
5.1.9 Effects
nee
Poverty, Environmental degradation, over –exploitation of natural resources, threat, communal
rin
war.
5.1.10 Remedy
Through birth control programmes.
g.n
e
Fig. 5.3 World Population Growth

5.2 FAMILY WELFARE PROGRAMME

5.2.1 Objectives
o Slowing down the population explosion
o Over exploitation of natural resources
5.3 FAMILY PLANNING PROGRAMME
5.3.1Objectives
o Reduce infant mortality rate.
o Encourage late marriages.
o Improve women’s health.
o Control of communal diseases.
5.4 ENVIRONMENT AND HUMAN HEALTH
1. Physical Hazards – Radioactive and UV radiations, Global warming, Chlorofluro carbons,
Noise etc.
2. Chemical Hazards – Combustion of Fossil fuels, industrial effluence, pesticides, heavy
metals.
ww 3. Biological Hazards- Bacteria, Viruses, Parasites.

5.5 HUMAN RIGHTS
 Human right to freedom
w.E
 Human right to property
 Human right to freedom of religion
 Human right to culture and education
asy
 Human right to constitutional remedies
 Human right to equality
E
 Human right against exploitation
ngi
 Human right to food and environment
 Human right to good health.
 To promote interdependence among Asian countries in all areas of cooperation by
nee
identifying Asia's common strengths and opportunities which will help reduce poverty
and improve the quality of life for Asian people whilst developing a knowledge-based
rin
society within Asia and enhancing community and people empowerment;
 To expand the trade and financial market within Asia and increase the bargaining
competitiveness in the global market;

g.n
power of Asian countries in lieu of competition and, in turn, enhance Asia's economic
 To serve as the missing link in Asian cooperation by building upon Asia's potentials
e
and strengths through supplementing and complementing existing cooperative
frameworks so as to become a viable partner for other regions;
 To ultimately transform the Asian continent into an Asian Community, capable of
interacting with the rest of the world on a more equal footing and contributing more
positively towards mutual peace and prosperity.
5.6 VALUE EDUCATION

Education
It is nothing but learning about the particular thing through knowledge. We can identify our
values and ourselves with the help of knowledge and experience.
5.6.1 Types
1. Formal education-Self related learning process.
2. Value education – Analyze based on instruments.
3. Value-based environment education- Based on environment.

5.6.2 Objectives
 To improve the integral growth of human begins.
 To create attitudes and improvement towards sustainable lifestyle.
 To increase awareness about our national history our cultural heritage, constitutional
rights, national integration, community develo9pment and environment.
 To create and develop awareness about the values and their significance and role.
 To know about various living and non- living organisms and their interaction with
environment.
5.6.3 Types of values

 Universal values-Importance of the human conditions.
 Cultural values-Right, wrong, good and bad.
 Individual values-Individual personality and experiences.
 Global values-Human civilization.
 Spiritual values-Self-restraint, discipline.
ww
5.7 HIV /AIDS
AIDS is the abbreviated form for Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome caused by a virus
w.E
called HIV (Human Immune deficiency Virus).
5.7.1 Origin of HIV/AIDS
1. Through African Monkey
asy
African monkey or Chimpanzees To human.
2. Through Vaccine Programme
(a)Polio, small pox vaccine from monkey’s kidney-Africa.
E
(b) Hepatitis-B viral vaccine-Los Angles and New York.
ngi
5.7.2 Factors influencing modes of Transmission of HIV
1. Unprotected sex with infected person.
2. Using needles or syringes from HIV positive person.
nee
3. During pregnancy, breast feeding HIV transmits from mother to infant babies.
4. Blood transfusion during accident and pregnancy.
rin
5. Biologically the male to female transmission is 2 to 4 time more efficient than female to male
transmission.
6. Women’s cervical tissue is more vulnerable to HIV than men.
g.n
e
5.7.3 Factors not influencing transmission of HIV

1. Tears, food, air, cough, handshake and normal kissing.

2. Mosquito flies and insect bites.
3. Sharing of utensils, clothes, toilets and bathroom.
5.7.6 Effects
 Death
 Loss of labor
 Inability to work
 Lack of energy.
5.7.4 Functions of HIV in human body
White blood cells (WBC) are responsible for the formation of antibodies called T-helper cells’-helper
cells are the key infection fighters in the immune system. Once HIV cells are enter into the boy they
destroy the T-cells and cause many infection diseases.
5.7.5 Symptoms
I. Minor symptoms
 Persistent cough for more than one month.
ww  General skin disease.

 Viral infection.
II.w.E
 Fungus infection in mouth and throat.
 Frequent fever, headache and fatigue.
Major symptoms
asy
 Diarrhea for more than one month.
 TB for more than one month.
 Fall of hairs.
E
 10% of body weight loss within short period.
ngi
nee
rin
g.n
e
Fig.5.4 Main Symptoms of HIV
5.7.6 Mechanism of Infection

Fig.5.5 Mechanism of HIV infection

5.7.7 Control and Preventive measures
ww 1. Education.
2. Prevention of Blood borne HIV transmission.
3. Primary health care.
w.E
4. Counseling services.
5. Drug treatment.
5.7.8 Scenario in India
asy
Large number of cases has been reported in Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu.
5.7.9 World Scenario
Nearly 90% of the HIV affected peoples live in developing countries.13% of world’s
E
population live in Africa. About 3 million people so far died due to HIV in 2003.In the
ngi
world AIDS ranking India is in 2nd place.
5.7.10 HIV symbol and World AIDS day
nee
rin
g.n
e
Fig.5.6 Symbol of HIV
5.8 WOMANS AND CHILD WELFARE

5.8.1 Objectives
 To provide education
 To impart vocational training
 To generate awareness
 To improve employment opportunities

 To restore dignity, equality and respect.
ww Fig.5.7 International women’s day
w.E
5.9 ROLE OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY IN ENVIRONMENT
1. Remote sensing
Components - A platform, aircraft, a balloon, rocket and satellite.
Functions
asy
 Origin of electro magnetic energy
 Transmission of energy
E
 Interaction of energy
 Detection of energy
 Preprocessing of data ngi
 Data analysis and interpretation
 Integration and other applications. nee
rin
g.n
e
Fig.5.8 Functions of remote sensing

Applications
In agriculture, forestry, land cover, water resources.
2. Data Base- Collection of inter related data on various subjects.
Applications
 Ministry of environment and forest
 National management information system
 Environmental information system.
ww
w.E
asy Fig.5.9 Applications of Database
E
3. Geographical information system (GIS)
ngi
It is a technique of superimposing various thematic maps using digital data on a large number
of inter-related aspects.
nee
rin
g.n
e
Fig.5.10 GIS operations
Application
 Thematic maps are super imposed using soft wares.
 Interpretation of polluted zones
 To check unplanned growth and related environmental problems.
4. Satellite data
 Helps in providing reliable information and data about forest cover

 Provide information about forecasting weather

 Reserves of oil, minerals can be discovered.
ww
w.E
asy
E ngi
Fig.5.11 Satellite data processing
5. World Wide Web

It provides Current data. nee
Applications
 Online learning
rin
 Digital files or photos, animations on environmental studies.
5.10 ROLE OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY IN HUMAN HEALTH g.n

The health service technology involves three systems
 Finance and accounting
 Pathology
 Patient Administration – clinical system.
e
Applications
 Data regarding birth and death rates
 To monitor the health of the people effectively
 The information regarding the outbreak of epidemic diseases.
 Online Consultation
 Drugs and its replacement.

Unit – I Environment, Ecosystems and Biodiversity

Part - A
1. State the significance and scope of environmental education. May 2011

 By environmental studies, people will understand the concept of need of development without
destruction of environment.
 To motivate the active participation in environmental protection and improvement..
 Environmental studies develop a concern and respect for the environment.
2. Give some important physical hazards and their health effects.

 Physical hazards are the substance (or) activities that threaten your physical safety.
 They will be present in most work places at one time or another; they can be detected through
your senses of touch or sight.
ww
3. Define environment and ecosystem. April 2011
Environment: It is defined as the sum of total of all the living and non-living things around us
w.E
influencing one another.
Ecosystem: A group of organisms interacting among themselves and with environment for
exchanging energy and matter is known as ecosystem.
asy
4. Differentiate between a biome and an ecosystem.
E Biome
A small ecosystem with in an
ecosystem is called as biome.
ngi
Ecosystem
A group of organisms interacting
among themselves and with the
environment for exchanging energy and
nee
matter is known as ecosystem.
5. Mention the abiotic components. JUNE 2013

rin
g.n
The non-living components of an ecosystem called abiotic components.
Examples: climate, soil, water, air, energy, nutrients, etc.
6. Define primary and secondary production.

e
Primary production: The primary function of all ecosystems is to absorb sunlight and manufacture of
starch.
Secondary production: The secondary function of all ecosystems is distributing energy in the form of
food to all consumers or the energy stored by the consumer.
7. What is the major significance of biodiversity? April 2011

 We depend on plants, micro-organisms, earth's animals for our food, medicine and industrial
products.
 Biodiversity protects the fresh air, clean water and productive land.
8. What is ecological succession? April 2011
The progressive replacement of one community by another till the development of stable community
in a particular area is called as ecological succession.

9. Define species diversity?

Species diversity is the diversity between different species. The sum of varieties of all the
living organisms at the species level is known as species diversity.
10.India as Mega diversity nation – Account.

India is one among the 12mega-diversity countries in the world. It has 89,450 animal species
accounting for 7.31% of the global faunal species and 47,000 plant species which accounts for 10.8%
of the world floral species. The loss of biodiversity is about 33%.
11.Differentiate food chain and food web with suitable examples. (MAY/JUNE 2013) (NOV/DEC
2013)
Food Chain : A food chain is a picture or model that shows the flow of energy from Autotrophs
to a series of organisms in an environment. A food chain only follows just one path as animals find
food.eg: A hawk eats a snake, which has eaten a frog, which has eaten a grasshopper, which has eaten
ww
grass.
Food web : A food web is several food chains connected together. A food web shows the many
w.E
different paths plants and animals are connected. eg: A hawk might also eat a mouse, a squirrel, afrog
or some other animal. The snake may eat a beetle, a caterpillar, or some other animal.And so on for all
the other animals in the food chain..
asy
12. Define Ecological succession. (NOV/DEC 2013)
E
"Ecological succession" is the observed process of change in the species structure of an
ngi
ecological community over time. Within any community some species may become less abundant
over some time interval, or they may even vanish from the ecosystem altogether. Similarly, over some
nee
time interval, other species within the community may become more abundant, or new species may
even invade into the community from adjacent ecosystems. This observed change over time in what is
living in a particular ecosystem is "ecological succession".
13. What are the threats to the Indian biodiversity? rin

g.n
Threats to Indian biodiversity- deforestation, destruction of wetlands, habitat fragmentation, raw
e
material, production of drugs, illegal trade and developmental activities.
14. What do you understand by endangered species and endemic species?
Endangered and endemic species – Endemic - species which are found only in a particular region.
species is said to be threatened or endangered when its number has been reduced to a critical level.
Unless it is protected and conserved it is in immediate danger of extinction.
15. Explain threatened and endangered species.
Threatened and endangered species. –species is said to be threatened or endangered when its number
has been reduced to a critical level. Unless it is protected and conserved it is in immediate danger of
extinction.

PART-B
1. Explain the components, characteristics and biodiversity of Forest ecosystem.

2. Explain the structure and functional features of Aquatic ecosystem.
3. Discuss in detail about Ecological succession stating the various stages.
4. What are trophic levels? Explain the flow of energy and minerals in ecosystem.
5. Explain the two models of energy flow in an ecosystem.
6. Discuss the value of biodiversity.
7. Explain Carbon and Nitrogen cycles.
8. Explain the Sulphur and Phosphorus cycles.
9. What are the threats faced by biodiversity. What are the solutions for the threats.
10. Explain In-situ and Ex-situ conservation of biodiversity.(or) What are the measures recommended
for conservation of biodiversity.
ww
w.E
asy
E ngi
nee
rin
g.n
e

Unit – II Natural Resources

Question Bank- I (For Internal Assessment Purpose)
Part - A
1. Distinguish Renewable and Non-renewable energy sources. Nov2014
Renewable energy sources Non-renewable energy sources
Resources capable of being regenerated Resources not capable of being
within a reasonable time period. regenerated by ecological processes.
Example: Solar energy, wind energy. Example: Coal, petroleum.
2. Write the effects of timber extraction on forest & tribal people. May 2011
 Large scale timber extraction causes deforestation.
 It also leads to loss of tribal culture and extinction of tribal people.
 Timber extraction reduces thickness of the forest.
ww
3. Mention the major environmental impacts of mining? June 2012
 Mining reduces the shape and size of the forest areas.
 Pollution of surface and ground water resources due to the discharge of waste minerals in water.
w.E
4. Explain overgrazing. June 2012
Overgrazing-A process of eating away of forests without giving it a chance to regenerate.
asy
5. State the reasons of over exploitation of forests. (MAY/JUNE 2013)
1. Shifting of Cultivation – 300 million people – 5 lakh hectares of forest for slash and burn culture
E
2. Fuel requirement
3. Raw materials for industrial use
4. Developmental projects
5. Growing food needs ngi
6. Overgrazing
7. Forest fires nee
6. Write the ways of drought management. (MAY/JUNE 2013)
rin
g.n
 Selecting appropriate crop or plantation depending upon the climate, soil type .
 Afforestation
7. Mention the major environmental impacts of Mining. (NOV/DEC 2013)

e
Impacts of Mining are: Soil erosion, Contamination of soil, Loss of biodiversity, Formation of
sinkholes.
8. What are the changes caused due to overgrazing? (NOV/DEC 2013)

Overgrazing leads to loss of biodiversity, loss of minerals, Soil erosion, leads to desertification.
9. What are the harmful effects of land degradation?( NOV/DEC 2013)

Harmful effects of land degradation. – Soil structure and texture are deteriorated, loss of soil fertility
due to loss of valuable nutrients, increase in water logging, salinity, alkalinity, acidity problems.
10. What are Mineral Resources? Give its types.

Mineral resources are natural occurring substances having definite chemical composition and
physical properties.

Types: Identified resources, undiscovered resources, reserves.

11. What is eutrophication?
A large proportion of nitrogen and phosphorous fertilizers used in crop fields is washed off by
the runoff water and reaches the water bodies causing over nourishment of the lakes. The process
of accumulation of nutrients in the water bodies is known as eutrophication.
12. Define Water logging. Write its consequences?

Water logging is the land where water stand for most of the year. During water-logged
conditions, pore-voids in the soil get filled with water and the soil air gets depleted. In such a
condition the roots of the plants do not get adequate air for respiration. So mechanical strength of
the soil decreases and crop yield falls.
13. What is land degradation? What are the causes of land degradation? Nov2014
Land degradation is the process of deterioration of soil or loss of fertility of the soil. Causes:
Increase in population, fertilizers& water logging.
ww
14. What is desertification? Give any two reasons for it?
w.E
Desertification is a progressive destruction or degradation of arid or semiarid lands to desert.
Desertification is characterized by DE vegetation, depletion of ground water, salination and soil
erosion.
asy
15. What is the role of an individual in conservation of natural resources?
Role of individual in the conservation of natural resources. – duty of every individual to conserve
natural resource in such a way that it is available for future generations also. Due to advancement
E
I technology and population growth, the present world is facing lot of problems on degradation of
natural resource.
16. What is environmental biochemistry?
ngi
nee
Environmental biochemistry involves approaches to treat polluted air, waste water and solid
waste using metabolic activities of micro- organisms.
PART -B rin
g.n
1. What are conventional energy resources? Discuss about solar energy and Ocean thermal energy.
2. Discuss the major causes & consequences of deforestation?
3. Explain the major impacts of timber extraction and mining.
4. Enumerate the various benefits and drawbacks of constructing dams. e
5. What are the uses and over-exploitation of water? Explain with a case-study.
6. Comment on floods & drought.
7. What are the environmental impacts of mineral extraction? Explain.
8. Discuss in detail the impacts of over-grazing & agriculture.
9. Write short notes of (i) Tidal energy (ii) Bio-gas (iii) Nuclear energy.
10. Explain the various types of land degradation.
11. Explain as an individual how will you conserve natural resources.
12. How will you achieve sustainable life-style by equitable share of resources.
13. What are the measures recommended for conservation of natural resources.
14. Explain briefly the various methods of harvesting solar energy.
15. Explain in detail the effects due to pesticides usage in moderns agriculture.

Unit – III Environmental Pollution

Part – A
1. Define Environmental Pollution. May 2014

Environmental Pollution is defined as any undesirable change in the physical, chemical, or
biological characteristics of any component of the environment (air,water,soil)which can cause
harmful effects on various forms of property.
2. Suggest four important sources of air pollution. Nov 2011

The sources of air pollution are volcanic eruptions, fest fires, biological decay, thermal power
plants, vehicular emissions etc.,
3. What is meant by BOD and COD? Nov 2011
BOD: BOD is the amount of oxygen required for the biological
ww decomposition of organic matter present in the water.

COD: COD is the amount of oxygen required f chemical oxidation of organic
w.E
matter using oxidizing agent.
4. Name the sources and effects of marine pollution. Nov 2014
asy
Sources: Dumping the waste, oil pollution and shipment.
Effects: The continuous oil films inhibit photosynthesis and absorption of oxygen.
This inhibits the growth of plankton. All aquatic animals depend either
E
directly indirectly on plankton, which is the basis of the tropic chain.
ngi
5. Mention the sources of soil pollution. (MAY/JUNE 2013)
nee
Domestic wastes include garbage, rubbish material like glass, plastics, metallic cans, paper, fibers,
cloth rags, containers, paints, varnishes etc.
6. Define green house effect. (MAY/JUNE 2013)

rin
The greenhouse effect is a naturally occurring process that makes the earth warmer by trapping more
g.n
energy in the atmosphere. The green house gases absorb and hold heat from the sun, preventing it from
escaping back into the space; much like a green house absorbs and holds the sun’s heat Industrial
e
wastes are the effluents discharged from chemical industries, paper and pulp mills, tanneries, textile
mills, steel industries, distilleries, refineries, pesticides and fertilizer industries, pharmaceutical
industries, food processing industries, cement industries, thermal and nuclear power plants, mining
industries etc.
7. List the ozone depleting chemicals. (MAY/JUNE 2013)

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC) are responsible for ozone layer depletion.
8. Define the term Noise Pollution. (NOV/DEC 2013)

Noise pollution is the disturbing or excessive noise that may harm the activity or balance of human or
animal life. The source of most outdoor noise worldwide is mainly caused by machines and
transportation systems, motor vehicles, aircraft, and trains.

9. Define biological oxygen demand and chemical oxygen demand. Write its environmental
impacts. (NOV/DEC 2013)
Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) is defined as the amount of DO required to aerobically decompose
biodegradable organic matter over a period of 5 days at 20○C.
Chemical oxygen demand (COD) is commonly used to indirectly measure the amount of organic
compounds in water.
Increase in BOD and COD values degrades the quality of water. It is harmful to aquatic organisms and
causes toxic effects at various levels of food chain.
10. What are the effects of Global warning? June 2014
a) More heat waves
b) Expansion of desert area
c) Natural fires in forestlands
d) More evaporation of water from oceans and water bodies
e) Melting of ice caps in Arctic and Antarctica regions
f) More cloud formation in the atmosphere.
ww g) Shorter and warmer winters and longer and shorter summer.

h) Changes in pattern of rainfall i) Rise in sea level
w.E
j) Flooding and submergence of low lying coastal areas
11.Give two effects of noise pollution on human beings. June 2014

(i)
asy
It causes contraction of blood vessels, makes the skin pale, leads to
excessive secretion of adrenalin hormone in to blood stream which is
responsible for high blood pressure.
E
(ii) It causes muscles to contract leading to nervous breakdown, tension etc.,
12 Define thermal pollution. May 2013

ngi
nee
Thermal pollution is defined as the addition of excess of undesirable heat to water
that makes it harmful to man, animal aquatic life otherwise causes significant departures from
the normal activities of aquatic communities in water.
13. Mention the effects of solid waste.
rin
*Spreading of fungal diseases; *Bad odours; *Burning of waste produce chemicals which are harmful
g.n
to human life; *Contaminates water & *Affects the characteristics of soil .
14. What are the damages caused by the nuclear radiations?
e
Genetic damages – The damage is caused by radiations, which induce mutations in DNA. The damage
is often seen in the offsprings and may be transmitted upto several generations.
Somatic damage – This includes burns, miscarriages, eye cataract, bone cancer etc.
15. Mention the activities involved in solid waste management.
 Waste generation,
 onsite handling ,storage and processing
 collection
 transfer and transport
 processing and recovery and disposal
15. Mention the activities involved in solid waste management.

 Waste generation,
 onsite handling ,storage and processing
 collection
 transfer and transport

 processing and recovery and disposal
PART- B
1.Mention the sources and effects of various air pollutants.

2. Describe the method of control of air pollution.
3.Briefly describe the sources effects and control of noise pollution.
4. Enumerate with example the major sources of surface and ground water
pollution.
5. Wrtie short notes on a) Minimata disease b) blue baby syndrome c) itai-itai
disease.
6. Explain the method of sewage water treatment.
7. What are the major sources of soil pollution?
8. What are the measures to be taken to prevent soil pollution?
9. Explain in detail the Solid waste management techniques.
ww
10. Write notes on (i) Floods (ii) Landslides (iii) Cyclones.
11. Explain any two case studies on Nuclear pollution.
w.E
12. What are the sources, effects & control measures of Marine pollution?
13. Explain the various types of Radio-active radiations.
14. Explain the causes,effects & control measures of Water pollution.
asy
15.What are the effects of improper municipal solid waste management? State
the measures recommended for proper management of the solid waste.
16.Explain the methods of disposal of municipal solid waste.
E
17.Write notes on disposal of radio-active wastes.
ngi
18.Compare the nuclear power with coal power.
19.What are the causes of soil erosion and methods of preventing it.
nee
20.Discuss the aspects of prevention & control of noise.
rin
g.n
e

Unit – IV Social Issues and the Environment

Question Bank- I (For Internal Assessment Purpose)
Part - A
1. What is earthquake?
It is defined as sudden, violent, and shaking of part of the earth.
2. What is cyclone and mention the prevention taken at the time of cyclone?
 It is an area of low pressure in the centre and high pressure outside.
 Store all the loose items inside the home
 Fuel your car and park it under solid cover
 Close the shutters or heavily tape all the windows
 Disconnect all the electrical appliances
 Turn off the gas
ww
3. What is landslide?
It is a sudden collapse of larger mass of hill slide.
w.E
4. What is Rain water harvesting?
In urban areas, the construction of houses, footpaths and roads has left little exposed earth for water to
asy
soak in. In parts of the rural areas of India, floodwater quickly flows to the rivers, which then dry up
soon after the rains stop. If this water can be held back, it can seep into the ground and recharge the
groundwater supply.
E ngi
5. Define sustainable development. (NOV/DEC 2013)
Sustainable development is defined as, “meeting the needs of the present without compromising the
nee
ability of future generation to meet to meet their own needs”.
6. List the objectives of Forest Conservation Act. (NOV/DEC 2013)
rin
Illegal non-forest activity within a forest area can be immediately stopped under this act.
Provides conservation of all types of forests. Non forest activities include clearing of forest land for
cultivation of any types of crops.
7. List the objectives of forest conservation act. May 2012 g.n
 To protect and conserve the forest.
To ensure judicious use of forest products
8. Define the concept of sustainable development.

e
Sustainable development is defined as the meeting the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.
9. Define urbanization.
Urbanization is the movement of human population from rural areas to urban areas for the want of
better education, communication, health, employment, etc.,
10. What are the urban problems related to energy?

 Residential and commercial lightings.
 Transportation means including motor cycle, car and public transport for moving
from residence to work place.

11. Enumerate the uses of Rainwater harvesting.

 Reduce loss of rain water.
 Increase ground water level.
 Minimizing the soil erosion and flood hazards.
12. List the objectives of forest conservation act. May 2012

 To protect and conserve the forest.
 To ensure judicious use of forest products
13. Define watershed management.

The management of rainfall and resultant runoff is called watershed management. It also involves
conservation, regeneration and proper use of water.
ww
14. List the objectives of forest conservation act. May 2012
To protect and conserve the forest.
To ensure judicious use of forest products.
w.E
15. Define the term Tsunami. May 2013
Tsunami is a large waves that are generated in a water body when the sea floor is deformed
by seismic activity. This activity displaces the overlying water in the ocean.
asy
16. What is biomedical waste?
Biomedical wastes are one type of bio waste generated from health care activities (hospitals,
hazardous. E
laboratories, etc,). Biomedical waste may be solid or liquid in nature and also be hazardous or non
ngi
PART – B
nee
1. Bring out the activities of NGO’s on environmental protection.
rin
2. Discuss about the Forest Act, 1980 and its amendment –1992.
3. Describe about Water Act – 1974.
4. Describe the important waste land reclamation practices.
5. Describe environmental ethics in detail. g.n
6. Discuss the modern techniques of rain water harvesting.
7. Discuss the water shed management practices.
8. Discuss in detail about the water conservation methods.
9. Discuss the agenda for sustainable development.
e
10. Write in detail about global warming.
11. Explain the mechanism of Ozone layer depletion.
12. Write briefly on community participation in environment management programmes.
13. Discuss briefly of the Indian environmental Acts.
14. Write short notes on a) environmental ethics b) waste land reclamation.
15. State the important provisions in Environment protection Act , Air Act Water Act.

Unit – V Human Population and the Environment

Part - A
1. Define Population explosion. (NOV/DEC 2013)
Unprecedented growth of human population at an alarming rate is defined as population explosion.
For, e.g. Between 1950-1990, in just 40 years the population crossed 5billion mark with current
addition of about 92 million every year.
2. What is value education? Give its significance. (NOV/DEC 2013)
Value education is an instrument used to analyse our behavior and provide proper direction to our
youths.it teaches them the distinction between right and wrong, to be
compassionate,helpful,loving,generous and tolerant.so that a youth can move towards the sustainable
future.
3. What do you mean by Doubling Time? (NOV/DEC 2013)
The doubling time is the period of time required for a quantity to double in size or value. It is
generally applied to denote the population growth.
ww
4. State the role of Information Technology in Environment.
It plays a vital role in the field of environmental education. IT means collection, processing,
w.E
storage, and dissemination of information. A number of software have been developed to study
about the environment.
5. What is meant by remote sensing? June 2013
asy
Remote sensing refers to any method which can be used to gather information about object without
actually coming in contact with it.
E
6. What is meant by GIS? June 2012
ngi
 A geographic information system (GIS), also known as a geographical information system, is
an information system for capturing, storing, analyzing, managing and presenting data which is
spatially referenced (linked to location).
nee
 In the strictest sense, it is any information system capable of integrating, storing, editing,
analyzing, sharing, and displaying geographically referenced information.
7. Define Human Rights. rin

g.n
Human rights refer to the "basic rights and freedoms to which all humans are entitled. Examples of
rights and freedoms which are often thought of as human rights include civil and political rights, such
e
as the right to life and liberty, freedom of expression, and equality before the law; and social, cultural
and economic rights, including the right to participate in culture, the right to food, the right to work,
and the right to education. All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are
endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
8. How does HIV transmitted?

 HIV transmits through blood contact, sexual fluids, using same needles or syringes.
 HIV can also pass from infected mothers to babies during pregnancy.
7. Name the major precautions to avoid AIDS

 Education.
 Prevention of blood borne HIV transmission.
 Primary health care.

8. What are objectives of family welfare programme?

 Slowing down the population explosion by reducing the fertility.
 Due to pressure, over exploitation of natural resources reduced.
9. What is value education?

Value education is an instrument used to analyze our behavior and proper direction to our
youths. It teach them the distinction between right and wrong to be compassionate, helpful, loving,
generous and tolerant.
10. What is meant by remote sensing? June 2013

Remote sensing refers to any method which can be used to gather information about object
without actually coming in contact with it.
11. What is crude fertility rate?

The general fertility rate indicates the number of live born children per 1,000 women of the mean
ww
population aged 15 to 49.
w.E
12. What do you mean by Total fertility rate, Zero population growth?
 Total fertility rate is defined as the average number of children that would be born to a woman
in her lifetime if the age specific birth rates remain constant.
asy
 When birth plus immigration in a population are just equal to deaths plus emigration, it is said
to be zero population growth.
E
13. What are the types of population growth curves?
ngi
(i) Pyramid shaped; (ii) Bell shaped & (iii) Urn shaped
14. What is meant by Life expectancy?

nee
It is the average age that a newborn infant is expected to attain in a given country. The average life
expectancy, over the globe, has risen from 40 to 65.5 years over the past century. In India, life
rin
expectancy of males and females was only 22.6 years and 23.3 years, respectively in 1900.
g.n
15. What are the post and preindustrial phases of demographic transition?
 Preindustrial phase characterized by high growth and death rates and net population growth is
low.
e
 Post industrial phase during which zero population growth is achieved.

PART – B
1. Explain the population characteristics & variations among nations.

2. What is meant by population explosion? Discuss the Indian Scenario.
3. What is meant by population stabilization? Discuss the family welfare and family planning in
Indian context.
4. Discuss the influence of environmental parameters and pollution on human health.
5. What is Universal declaration of Human rights? What is its importance in achieving the goals of
equity, justice & sustainability.
6. Discuss the salient features of Draft declaration of Human Rights on environment.
7. What are the objectives & elements of Value-education? How can the same be achieved?
8. Briefly discuss HIV/AIDS, mode of its spread and its effect on environment.
9. Discuss various issues & measures for Women & Child Welfare at International & National level.
10. What is the role of NMIS, ENVIS & GIS in dissemination of environmental information and
environmental management?
ww
11. Explain the role of Information Technology in environment & Human health.
12. Discuss the environmental and social impacts of growing population.
w.E
13. Write briefly on the effect of increasing affluence on environment.
14. Write briefly on implementation of family planning programme.
15. Write a note on AIDS in developing countries.
asy
16. Discuss the factors influencing the family size.
E ngi
nee
rin
g.n
e

GE6351 ESS Old Notes

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

GE6351 ESS Old Notes

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

GE6351 ESS Old Notes

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.

GE 6351- Environmental Science and Engineering

Class/ Sem: II EEE / III Sem

Unit I Environment, Ecosystems and Biodiversity 12

Unit III Natural Resources

SCE Page 3 of 95 DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.ne

Unit IV Social Issues And The Environment 7

Unit V Human Population and the Environment 6

SCE Page 4 of 95 DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.ne

1.5 CONCEPT OF ECOLOGY AND ECOSYSTEM 11

STRUCTURE OR COMPONENTS OF ECOSYSTEM

1.12 ENERGY FLOW IN ECOSYSTEM

1.15 ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS 23

1.19 HOT- SPOTS OF BIODIVERSITY 30

1.20 THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY 31

1.21 POACHING OF WILDLIFE 31

1.22 MAN – WILDLIFE CONFLICTS 31

SCE Page 5 of 95 DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.ne

1.23 ENDANGERED SPECIES 31

1.24 CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY 32

2.2 AIR POLLUTION 35

2.3 WATER POLLUTION 36

2.4 SOIL POLLUTION 36

SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

3.1 NATURAL RESOURCES

SCE Page 6 of 95 DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.ne

DAMS AND THEIR EFFECTS ON FORESTS AND TRIBAL

ww 3.17 WIND ENERGY 65

SCE Page 7 of 95 DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.ne

4.8 NUCLEAR ACCIDENTS AND HOLOCAUST 89

UNIT 1 ENVIRONMENT, ECOSYSTEMS AND BIODIVERSITY

SCE Page 8 of 95 DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.ne

Dead animals Dead Plants Nourishing matter

SCE Page 9 of 95 DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.ne

1.4 NEED FOR PUBLIC AWARENESS

SCE Page 10 of 95 DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.ne

 Environmental pollution cannot be removed by laws alone.

1.5 CONCEPT OF ECOLOGY AND ECOSYSTEM

Terrestrial Aquatic rin

Fig 1.2 Types of Ecosystem

1.7 STRUCTURE OR COMPONENTS OF ECOSYSTEM

SCE Page 11 of 95 DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.ne

• Producer (autotrophy): make food; plants, algae

1.8 FOREST ECOSYSTEM (TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEM)

SCE Page 12 of 95 DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.ne

ww  Fire Wood & Timber.

 In a forest, consumers are of three main types;

SCE Page 13 of 95 DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.ne