Conclusion

Nuclear power is one of the safest, most reliable, cleanest (in that there are no carbon
emissions), and efficient technologies that exists. Most of the fight against nuclear
power is emotional/political.

Now factor in the following:

 The risk of a naval vessel being attacked by terrorists is much lower than a nuclear
power plant.
 The people who work on naval vessels tend to be highly disciplined, and follow
regulations much more strictly (some might say blindly) than a civilian might.
 The vessels are in the ocean, not near large populations of people. The risk of
meltdown (even if it did occur) affects far fewer people.
 Nuclear power means that do not have to carry a ridiculously large, heavy, and
expensive amount of volatile fossil fuels to power your vessel. This increases the length
of time you can be away from port and also solves a huge logistics problem.

 Nuclear Powered Ships Explained

Nuclear powered ships are becoming increasingly popular in advancing ship technology. Previous drawbacks for using nuclear
power centered mainly around the inherent safety concerns for the crew; installation, maintenance and disposal costs and the
exceptionally high standards required for component manufacturing and quality assurance. These hurdles are slowly being
overcome as more funds are being allocated to social security and defense worldwide and as a greater demand is being placed on
sustained performance efficiency in naval ships.

Another important factor that has spurred on the continuous research of nuclear power generation within ships is the erratic cost
of combustible fuels. A ship, being a fairly large means of transportation, requires adequate means of forward propulsion. In
many ships throughout the world, combustible fuel is the primary means of thrust. Finding ways to combat the reliance on
combustible fuel is where the importance of nuclear propulsion comes in. Theadverse effects of burnt fuel being dispelled into
the ocean are also a concerning factor for green and maritime-life rights activists.
Of course this does not mean to say that nuclear ships were not around in the earlier days. Shown below is the picture of a nuclear
ship which was taken nearly four decades ago that shows a ship named "Otto Hahn," which was a German nuclear powered ship.

 How nuclear power ship works?

A large motivating factor in nuclear power generation is the concept of re-usable energy prompting an almost self-sustaining
system.

The energy generating house or propulsion plant of a nuclear powered ship utilizes a nuclear reactor to generate heat. The heat is
generated within the nuclear reactor as a result of the fissioning of the nuclear fuel. Lead shields are placed around the reactor as
a preventive measure against the radiation produced from the fissioning process.

The nuclear propulsion plant operates as a pressurized water reactor design containing both a primary andsecondary system.
Primary system: This is where water is circulated through the reactor, piping loops, pumps and steam generators. As the heat
transferred from the reactor to the water is done at such a high pressure, it does not boil. Instead, the water is pumped from the
steam generator back to the reactor for re-heating.

Secondary system: Steam which is produced at the steam generators supply the energy required to drive the turbine generators.
The turbine generators then cause the propeller to rotate thereby causing thrust and a forward motion to the ship. Turbine
generators are also utilized in supplying the ship with electricity. Once the steam has passed through the turbines, it is cooled and
condensed into water and then fed back to the steam generators by the feed pumps.
As can be noted, both the primary and secondary systems involve the recirculation and renewal of water.

It should also be noted that these processes take place in a completely closed system. This ensures the safety of the onboard
workers as well as any potential expulsion of radiated nuclear energy to nearby components and parts of the ship.

How to create or produce nuclear energy for a ship?

A nuclear reactor produces and controls the release of energy from splitting the atoms
of uranium. 

Uranium-fuelled nuclear power is a clean and efficient way of boiling water to make
steam which drives turbine generators. Except for the reactor itself, a nuclear power
station works like most coal or gas-fired power stations.

The reactor core

Several hundred fuel assemblies containing thousands of small pellets of ceramic
uranium oxide fuel make up the core of a reactor. For a reactor with an output of 1000
megawatts (MWe), the core would contain about 75 tonnes of enriched uranium. 

In the reactor core the uranium-235 isotope fissions or splits, producing a lot of heat in a
continuous process called a chain reaction. The process depends on the presence of a
moderator such as water or graphite, and is fully controlled.

The moderator slows down the neutrons produced by fission of the uranium nuclei so
that they go on to produce more fissions.
Two examples of fission of a uranium-235 atom

Some of the uranium-238 in the reactor core is turned into plutonium and about half of
this is also fissioned similarly, providing about one third of the reactor's energy output.

The fission products remain in the ceramic fuel and undergo radioactive decay,
releasing a bit more heat.  They are the main wastes from the process.

The reactor core sits inside a steel pressure vessel, so that water around it remains
liquid even at the operating temperature of over 320°C.  Steam is formed either above
the reactor core or in separate pressure vessels, and this drives the turbine to produce
electricity.  The steam is then condensed and the water recycled.

what are the economic advantages of using nuclear powered engine vessel

 Unparalleled Flexibility. A nuclear surface ship brings optimum capability to bear. A

recent study by the Navy found the nuclear option to be superior to conventional
fuels in terms of surge ability, moving from one theater to another, and staying on
station. Admiral Kirkland Donald, director of the Navy Nuclear Propulsion Program,
said in recent congressional testimony, "Without the encumbrances of fuel supply
logistics, our nuclear-powered warships can get to areas of interest quicker, ready to
enter the fight, and stay on station longer then their fossil-fueled counterparts."
 High-Power Density. The high density of nuclear power, i.e., the amount of volume
required to store a given amount of energy, frees storage capacity for high value/high
impact assets such as jet fuel, small craft, remote-operated and autonomous
vehicles, and weapons. When compared to its conventional counterpart, a nuclear
aircraft carrier can carry twice the amount of aircraft fuel, 30 percent more weapons,
and 300,000 cubic feet of additional space (which would be taken up by air intakes
and exhaust trunks in gas turbine-powered carriers). This means that ships can get
to station faster and deliver more impact, which will be critical to future missions. This
energy supply is also necessary for new, power-intensive weapons systems like rail-
guns and directed-energy weapons as well as for the powerful radar that the Navy
envisions.
 Real-Time Response. Only a nuclear ship can change its mission and respond to a
crisis in real-time. On September 11, 2001, the USS Enterprise--then on its way
home from deployment--responded to news of the terrorist attacks by rerouting and
entering the Afghan theater.
 Energy Independence. The armed forces have acknowledged the vulnerability that
comes from being too dependent on foreign oil. Delores Etter,Assistant Secretary of
the Navy for Research, Development, and Acquisition, said in recent congressional
testimony, "[We] take seriously the strategic implications of increased fossil fuel
independence." The Navy's use of nuclear propulsion for submarines and aircraft
carriers already saves 11 million barrels of oil annually. Using nuclear propulsion for
all future major surface combatants will make the Navy more energy independent.
 Survivability. U.S. forces are becoming more vulnerable as other nations become
more technologically and tactically sophisticated. Expanding America's nuclear navy
is critical to staying a step ahead of the enemy. A nuclear ship has no exhaust stack,
decreasing its visibility to enemy detection; it requires no fuel supply line, assuring its
ability to maneuver over long distances; and it produces large amounts of electricity,
allowing it to power massive radars and new hi-tech weaponry.
 Force Enhancement. Though effective, modern aircraft carriers still depend on less
capable fossil-fueled counterparts in the battle group. Increasing the number of
nuclear surface ships would increase the capability of U.S. naval forces to operate
both independently and as part of a battle-group.
 Superiority on the Seas. Policymakers have taken for granted the United States'
superiority on the seas for many years. This has led to a decline in America's overall
naval force structure and opened the door for foreign navies to potentially control
critical blue-water regions. Expanding the nuclear navy will allow the United States to
maintain its maritime superiority well into the 21st century.
 Environmentally Clean Source of Energy. Congress is considering placing CO2
restrictions on all federal government activities, including the Pentagon's. This
mandate would be highly detrimental to the armed forces. More people are starting to
realize the often-overlooked environmental benefits of a nuclear navy. Expanding
nuclear power would help to achieve many of the objectives of a CO2 mandate in
addition to increasing America's military capability. Unlike a conventionally powered
ship, which emits carbon dioxide and other pollutants into the atmosphere, a nuclear
ship is largely emissions-free.

CONCLUSION

Nuclear power favors vessels with high power requirements, so container ships and icebreaking vessels
are suitable for early adoption of nuclear propulsion. Expanding nuclear propulsion to other ship types,
such as slower-going bulk carriers, will generally require higher service speeds than the industry is
currently used to. To avoid soot induced melting of Arctic ice from increased shipping in that region,
nuclear power will need to be used on a large scale. Nuclear shipping is only possible if there are nuclear
reactors available for ships, so the development of passively safe, wide market marine reactors is critical
for future developments. Applying the principles of large production runs and factory construction will
help lower the costs of these reactors, as well as changes to nuclear quality control requirements
through cost-benefit analysis of current regulations. Discussions about the safety of nuclear powered
ships are ultimately about reactor design and radiation. A modern understanding of ionizing radiation
health effects reveals that the true risks from radioactive materials are far below what current 54
regulations imply. Reactors can also be built so meltdowns are impossible, eliminating that concern for
nuclear ships in port. The success of nuclear propulsion ultimately is tied to the success of nuclear fission
in general. Focused opposition will be faced from the hydrocarbon and renewable energy industries, as
well as any other lucrative industries which stand to lose out from the acceptance and widespread use
of nuclear energy. Protests, lobbying, and advertising against nuclear fission will likely be funded by
these commercial entities and nuclear propulsion for commercial ships is just as much their competition
as a utility-sized nuclear power plant. There are opportunities for the United States in nuclear powered
commercial shipping. The technical and regulatory familiarity with nuclear power puts the United States
in a position to lead the world in the development of modern nuclear ships, but only if there is a national
interest to do so. Building the reactors, training the crews, or performing maintenance and repair on
nuclear powered ships are ways to grow the United States maritime industry, as well to increase the
United States’ influence in global maritime matters. America will likely still have to reduce the costs of its
shipyards if it wants to build nuclear powered ships for foreign trade, but nuclear power is a way to
overcome the price differential.

Methodology 
Type of Research 
The type of research that will be used in this study is qualitative research and quantitative research.
Qualitative researchers aim to gather an in-depth understanding of human behavior and the reasons
that govern such behavior. The discipline investigates the “why” and “how” of decision making.
Besides this, the researcher will also examine the phenomenon through observations in numerical
representations and through statistical analysis. Along with questionnaires that will be given out to
respondents for the statistical representation of the findings in the study, interviews with the
respondents and a few experts in this field will also be conducted.
Sampling Method 
The research sampling method that will be used in this study is random sampling to obtain a more
scientific result that could be used to represent the entirety of the population. A list of all health care
facilities (maternity and lying-in clinics, public and private hospitals, health centers) was acquired
from the Las Piñas City Hall.
From 20 barangays, 3 will be picked through random sampling. The health care facilities and
institutions in these three barangays will then be the target sources of respondents of the
researcher. The health care facilities and institutions will be contacted to obtain a verbal consent to
administer the questionnaire to mothers at their places. A letter of consent will also be sent to them
along with a sample copy of the questionnaire that will be used, as well as the protocol of the
researcher. A letter was also addressed to the City Health Officer to obtain endorsement and
consent to conduct a research in selected barangays and distribute questionnaires to the mothers in
the vicinity.
Data collection was conducted throughout the facilities‟ and health centers‟ operating hours from
Mondays through Sundays in order to include both working and non-working mothers.
Respondents 
The respondents in this research will all be coming from one single location - Las Piñas City,
specifically the randomly selected barangays of Pamplona I, CAA/BF International and Pamplona III.
The researcher chose Las Piñas City because of the socio-economic conditions present in the area
that is relevant to the study and also as it fits the time frame and resources of the researcher. The
randomly sampled respondents will be asked by the researcher for consent and approval to answer
the questionnaire until the desired number of respondents which is 100 is reached. The opinion of
experts will also be sought in this research to provide explanations regarding the respondents‟ infant
feeding behaviors and practices.
Questionnaire 
The questionnaire requires information about the socio-economic and demographic background of
the mother. It also has questions related to previous infant feeding practices and the birth of her
youngest infant and also regarding the baby’s general health and age.
Statements that are perceived to be factors that influence mothers‟ infant feeding decisions were
presented. The description of the type of infant formula given by formula and mixed feeding mothers
will also be asked in the material.

Research content

Nuclear Propulsion
A nuclear powered ship - be it a surface ship or a submarine - receives its propulsion
energy from a nuclear power plant on board. These ships have been widely used in the
military since the 1950s as submarines and aircraft carriers, but only a few
experimental civil nuclear ships exist, such as the N.S. Savannah, which was built as a
part of the U.S. Atoms for Peace program. [1]

How They Work and Comparison to Land-Based Reactors

Naval power plants are quite similar to land-based nuclear power reactors. They
produce heat through a nuclear reaction that is used to boil water, which then turns a
turbine. This spinning turbine either directly turns the propeller of the ship, or is
connected to a turbo-electric drive system that produces electric power to turn the
propeller. [2] Naval nuclear power reactors still have a few distinct properties from
land-based ones. Due to space considerations, these reactors are small (a few hundred
megawatts compared to a few gigawatts on land), and have a higher output power
density. They generally use pressurized water, run on highly enriched uranium, and
use uranium-zirconium or uranium-aluminum alloy, or a metal-ceramic. [2] They
have long core lives, therefore need little refueling, and they contain a safe yet
compact pressure vessel. Furthermore, due to the need of flexible power output and
space constraints, the thermal efficiency of naval reactors are less than land-based
nuclear power plants.

Pros and Cons

Naval nuclear reactors provide more miles per unit of raw fuel compared to
combustion-driven power sources. Thus, nuclear ships are much faster, need to carry
much less fuel, and do not need an oxygen source. [3] Furthermore, with rising oil
prices, nuclear ships might be more economical than conventionally powered ships,
since savings in fuel costs might offset the additional up-front costs of nuclear-
powered ships. [4]

Additionally, nuclear ships are environmentally friendly: nuclear fission releases no

greenhouse gasses, the confinement against radioactive leakage is excellent, and
nuclear ships are even recyclable. For example, after the ship's life cycle ends, the
U.S. Navy recycles the ship by defueling the reactor, inactivating the ship, removing
the reactor compartment for land disposal, recycling the remainder of the vessel, and
disposing of the non-recyclable materials. [2]

Through the usage of the newest technologies, good training programs, and high
levels of standardizations nuclear powered propulsion is one of the safest means of
transportation. The United States Navy has had an accident-free record up to this day,
operating for 5500 reactor-years. [5] To further perfect this technology, there are
many laboratories in the U.S. that specialize on naval nuclear propulsion work, such
as Bettis and Knolls Atomic Power Laboratories. [2]
Yet, there are problems with this technology, with the leading one being the expense.
Nuclear powered ships are much more expensive than those with conventional
sources of power (petroleum based), and especially during peace times, it is not
entirely clear which technology is cheaper in the long run. [6] Plus, there are
additional problems with the stress on the mechanical system, salt-water corrosion,
and operation under shaking and vibrations.

A nuclear-powered ship is constructed with the nuclear power plant inside a section of
the ship cded the reactor compartment. The components of the nuclear power plant
include a high-strength steel reactor vessel, heat exchanger(s) (steam generator), and
associated piping, pumps, and valves. Each reactor plant contains over 100 tons of
lead shielding, part of which is made radioactive by contact with radioactive material
or by neutron activation of impurities in the lead.

The propulsion plant of a nuclear-powered ship or submarine uses a nuclear reactor to

generate heat. The heat comes from the fissioning of nuclear fuel contained within the
reactor. Since the fisioning process also produces radiation, shields are placed around
the reactor so that the crew is protected.

The nuclear propulsion plant uses a pressurized water reactor design which has two
basic systems - a primary system and a secondary system. The primary system
circulates ordinary water and consists of the reactor, piping loops, pumps and steam
generators. The heat produced in the reactor is transferred to the water under high
pressure so it does not boil. This water is pumped through the steam generators and
back into the reactor for re-heating.

In the steam generators, the heat from the water in the primary system is transferred to
the secondary system to create steam. The secondary system is isolated from the
primary system so that the water in the two systems does not intermix.

In the secondary system, the steam flows from the steam generators to drive the
turbine generators, which supply the ship with electricity, and to the main propulsion
turbines, which drive the propeller. After passing through the turbines, the steam is
condensed into water which is fed back to the steam generators by the feed pumps.
Thus, both the primary and secondary systems are closed systems where water is
recirculated and renewed.

Since there is no step in the generation of this power which requires the presence of
air or oxygen, this allows the ship to operate completely independent from the earth’s
atmosphere for extended periods of time.
Naval reactors undergo repeated power changes for ship maneuvering, unlike civilian
counterparts which operate at steady state. Nuclear safety, radiation, shock, quieting,
and operating performance requirements in addition to operation in close proximity to
the crew dictate exceptionally high standards for component manufacturing and
quality assurance. The internals of a Naval reactor remain inaccessible for inspection
or replacement throughout a long core life -- unlike a typical commercial nuclear
reactor, which is opened for refueling roughly every eighteen months.

Unlike commercial nuclear power plants, Naval reactors must be rugged and resilient
enough to withstand decades of rigorous operations at sea, subject to a ship's
pitching and rolling and rapidly-changing demands for power, possibly under battle
conditions. These conditions -- combined with the harsh environment within a
reactor plant, which subjects components and materials to the long-term effects of
irradiation, corrosion, high temperature and pressure -- necessitate an active,
thorough and far-sighted technology effort to verify reactor operation and enhance
the reliability of operating plants, as well as to ensure Naval nuclear propulsion
technology provides the best options for future needs.
With the demise of the commercial nuclear industry in the 1970's, Naval nuclear
suppliers have had virtually no other work to help absorb overhead and sustain a
solid business base from which to compete for Naval nuclear work. The result has
been reduced competition and higher costs. Requirements for naval nuclear
propulsion plant components are far more stringent than needed for civilian
products. Costly quality control and work production procedures to meet nuclear
requirements generally prevent these firms from competing successfully with firms
geared for less sophisticated civilian work. There is no civilian demand for quiet,
compact, shock-resistent nuclear propulsion systems which would keep skilled
designers and production workers current. This is a distinct difference from the
aerospace, electronics, and ground vehicle industries from which DOD buys many of
its weapon systems.

The Naval Reactors' program has shown the world that nuclear power can be handled
safely, with no adverse effects on the public or the environment. While others have
stumbled with this challenging technology, the Naval Reactors' program stands out-in
the private sector as well as in the public sector-for vision, discipline, and technical
excellence.
The nuclear propulsion plants in United States Navy ships, while differing in size and
component arrangements, are all rugged, compact, pressurized water reactors
designed, constructed, and operated to exacting criteria. The nuclear components of
these plants are all housed in a section of the ship called the reactor compartment.
The reactor compartments all serve the same purpose but may have different shapes
depending on the type of ship. For submarines, the reactor compartment is a
horizontal cyhder formed by a section of the ship�s pressure hull, with shielded
bulkheads on each end. Cruiser reactor compartments are shielded vertical cylinders
or shielded rectangular boxes deep within the ship�s structure.

The propulsion plants of nuclear-powered ships remain a source of radiation even

after the vessels are shut down and the nuclear fuel is removed. Defueling removes
all fission products since the fuel is designed, built and tested to ensure that fuel will
contain the fission products. Over 99.9% of the radioactive material that remains is
an integral part of the structural alloys forming the plant components. The
radioactivity was created by neutron irradiation of the iron and alloying elements in
the metal components during operation of the plant. The remaining 0.1% is
radioactive corrosion and wear products that have been circtiated by reactor
coolant, having become radioactive from exposure to neutrons in the reactor core,
and then deposited on piping system internals.

The fuel in a reactor contains uranium atoms sealed within metal cladding. Uranium
is one of the few materials capable of producing heat in a self-sustaining chain
reaction. When a neutron causes a uranium atom to fission, the uranium nucleus is
split into parts producing atoms of lower atomic number cded fission products.
When formed, the fission products initially move apart at very high speeds, but they
do not travel very far, ody a few thousandths of an inch, before they are stopped
within the fuel cladding. Most of the heat produced in the fission process comes
from stopping these fission products within the fuel and converting their kinetic
energy into heat.

Radioactivity is created during fission because some of these fission products are
highly radioactive when they are formed. Most of the radioactivity produced by
nuclear fuel is in the fission products. The uranium fuel in naval nuclear proptision
reactor cores uses highly corrosion-resistant and highly radiation-resistant fuel and
cladtig. As a resdt, the fuel is very strong and has very high integrity. The fuel is
designed, built, and tested to ensure that the fuel construction will contain and hold
the radioactive fission products. Naval fuel totally contains fission products with the
fuel - there is no fission product release from the fuel in normal operation.

Fissioning of uranium also produces neutrons while the nuclear power plant is
operating. Most of the neutrons produced are absorbed by the atoms within the fuel
and continue the chain reaction. However, some of the neutrons travel away from
the fuel, go outside the fuel, and are absorbed in the metal structure which supports
the fuel or in the walls of the reactor pressure vessel. Trace amounts of corrosion
and wear products are carried by reactor coolant from reactor plant metal surfaces.
Some of these become radioactive born exposure to neutrons.

Reactor coolant carries some of these radioactive products through the piping systems
where a portion of the radioactivity is removed by a purification system. Most of the
remaining radionuclides transported from the reactor core deposit in the piping
systems. These neutrons, when absorbed in the nucleus of a nonradioactive atom like
iron, can produce a radioactive atom. For example, iron-54 contains a total of 54
particles. Adding an additiond neutron produces an atom containing 55 particles,
called iron-55. This atom is radioactive. At some later time, it changes into a
nonradioactive manganese-55 atom by releasing energy in the form of radiation. This
is called radioactive decay.

Due to the need for sallors to live on the ships during operation, reactor
compartments are designed to attenuate radiation levels outside of the reactor
compartment to extremely low levels. The external surface radiation levels for the
normal conditions of transportation of the cruisers and LOS ANGELES Class and 0HI0
Class submarines are expected to be a fraction of the 200 mrem per hour on contact
tit dewed under 49CFR173.

History

Under the leadership of Hyman Rickover, the Navy contracted the Westinghouse
Electric Corporation to construct, test and operate a prototype submarine reactor
plant. This first reactor plant was called the Submarine Thermal Reactor, or STR. On
March 30, 1953, the STR was brought to power for the first time and the age of naval
nuclear propulsion was born. One of the greatest revolutions in the history of naval
warfare had begun.

To test and operate his reactor plant, Rickover put together an organization which has
thrived to this day. Westinghouse's Bettis Atomic Power Laboratory was assigned
responsibility for operating the reactor it had designed and built. The crew was
increasingly augmented by naval personnel as the cadre of trained operators grew.
Admiral Rickover ensured safe operation of the reactor plant through the enforcement
of the strictest standards of technical and procedural compliance.

At the site and at the STR, two missions for the prototype quickly emerged. First was
the research and development of advanced reactor plant designs and procedures for
the fleet. Second was the mission of training and certifying operators for the fleet.
And the fleet came quickly and in large numbers. STR was redesigned S1W, the
prototype of the USS NAUTILUS and was followed in the middle to late '50s by A1W,
the prototype of the aircraft carrier, USS ENTERPRISE. Also in the late '50s, the
Expended Core Facility was built. It is used to this day to examine expended naval
reactor fuel to aid in the improvement of future generations of naval reactors.
Finally, in the middle 1960s, S5G, the prototype of the submarine, USS NARWHAL,
and predecessor to the reactor plant used to propel the Trident Fleet Ballistic Missile
Submarines, was built and place in service.

As the Navy's presence expanded in eastern Idaho, slowly but surely the Navy support
organization matured. By late 1954, the Nuclear Power Training Unit was established.
In 1961, the Naval Administrative Unit set up shop in Blackfoot. In 1965, the unit
moved to its present location in Idaho Falls, and over the next 30 years, continued to
expand and improve its services. By 1979, a separate Personnel Support Detachment
had arrived. 1982 saw a branch dental clinic established, and 1983 ushered in a branch
medical clinic.

In the early 1950s work was initiated at the Idaho National Engineering and
Environmental Laboratory to develop reactor prototypes for the US Navy. The Naval
Reactors Facility, a part of the Bettis Atomic Power Laboratory, was established to
support development of naval nuclear propulsion. The facility is operated by
Westinghouse Electric Corporation under the direct supervision of the DOE's Office
of Naval Reactors. The facility supports the Naval Nuclear Propulsion Program by
carrying out assigned testing, examination, and spent fuel management activities.

The facility consists of three naval nuclear reactor prototype plants, the Expended
Core Facility, and various support buildings. The submarine thermal reactor prototype
was constructed in 1951 and shut down in 1989; the large ship reactor prototype was
constructed in 1958 and shut down in 1994; and the submarine reactor plant prototype
was constructed in 1965 and shut down in 1995. The prototypes were used to train
sailors for the nuclear navy and for research and development purposes. The
Expended Core Facility, which receives, inspects, and conducts research on naval
nuclear fuel, was constructed in 1958 and is still operational.

The initial power run of the prototype reactor (S1W) for the first nuclear submarine,
the Nautilus, was conducted at the INEEL in 1953. The A1W prototype facility
consists of a dual-pressurized water reactor plant within a portion of the steel hull
designed to replicate the aircraft carrier Enterprise. This facility began operations in
1958 and was the first designed to have two reactors providing power to the propeller
shaft of one ship. The S5G reactor is a prototype pressurized water reactor that
operates in either a forced or natural circulation flow mode. Coolant flow through the
reactor is caused by thermal circulation rather than pumps. The S5G prototype plant
was installed in an actual submarine hull section capable of simulating the rolling
motions of a ship at sea. The unique contributions of these three reactor prototypes to
the development of the United States Nuclear Navy make them potentially eligible for
nomination to the National Register of Historic Places.

The Test Reactor Area (TRA) occupies 102 acres in the southwest portion of the INEL.
The TRA was established in the early 1950s with the development of the Materials
Test Reactor. Two other major reactors were subsequently built at the TRA: the
Engineering Test Reactor and the Advanced Test Reactor. The Engineering Test
Reactor has been inactive since January 1982. The Materials Test Reactor was shut
down in 1970, and the building is now used for offices, storage, and experimental
test areas. The major program at the TRA is now the Advanced Test Reactor. Since
the Advanced Test Reactor achieved criticality in 1967, it's been used almost
exclusively by the Department of Energy's Naval Reactors Program. After almost 30
years of operation, this reactor is still considered a premier test facility. And it's
projected to remain a major facility for research, radiation testing, and isotope
production into the next century.

The Navy makes shipments of naval spent fuel to INEL that are necessary to meet
national security requirements to defuel or refuel nuclear powered submarines, surface
warships, or naval prototype or training reactors, or to ensure examination of naval
spent fuel from these sources. The Secretary of Defense, upon notice to the Governor
of the State of Idaho, certifies the total number of such shipments of naval spent fuel
required to be made through the year 2035. The Navy will not ship more than twenty
four (24) shipments to INEL from the date of this Agreement through the end of 1995,
no more than thirty six (36) shipments in 1996, and no more than twenty (20)
shipments per year in calendar years 1997 through 2000. From calendar year 2001
through 2035, the Navy may ship a running average of no more than twenty (20)
shipments per year to INEL. The total number of shipments of naval spent fuel to
INEL through 2035 shall not exceed 575. Shipments of naval spent fuel to INEL
through 2035 shall not exceed 55 metric tons of spent fuel.

Decommissioning and Defueling

US Navy nuclear ships are decommissioned and defueled at the end of their usefueli
lifetime, when the cost of continued operation is not justified by their military
capability, or when the ship is no longer needed. The Navy faces the necessity of
downsizing the fleet to an extent that was not envisioned in the 1980�s before the
end of the Cold War. Most of the nuclear-powered cruisers will be removed from
service, and some LOS ANGELES Class submarines are scheduled for removal from
service as well. Eventually, the Navy will also need to decommission 0HIO Class
submarines.
US Navy nuclear-powered ships are defueled during inactivation and prior to transfer
of the crew. The defuelig process removes the nuclear fuel from the reactor pressure
vessel and consequently removes most of the radioactivity from the reactor plant.
Defueling is an operation routinely accomplished using established processes at
shipyards used to perform reactor servicing work.
A disposal method for the defueled reactor compartments is needed when the cost
of continued operation is not justified by the ships� military capability or when the
ships are no longer needed. After a nuclear-powered ship no longer has sufficient
military value to justify continuing to maintain the ship or the ship is no longer
needed, the ship can be: (1) placed in protective storage for an extended period
followed by permanent disposd or recychg; or (2) prepared for permanent disposd or
recycling. The preferred alternative is land burial of the entire defueled reactor
compartment at the Department of Energy Low Level Waste Burial Grounds at
Hanford, Washington.
A ship can be placed in floating protective storage for an indefinite period. Nuclear-
powered ships can dso be placed into storage for a long time without risk to the
environment. The ship wodd be maintained in floating storage. About every 15 years
each ship would have to be taken out of the water for an inspection and repainting
of the hull to assure continued safe waterborne storage. However, this protective
storage does not provide a permanent solution for disposal of the reactor
compartments from these nuclear-powered ships. Thus, this alternative does not
provide permanent disposal.
Before a ship is taken out of service, the spent fuel is removed from the reactor
pressure vessel of the ship in a process called defueling. This defueling removes all of
the fuel and most of the radioactivity from the reactor plant of the ships. The fuel
removed from the decommissioned ships would be handed in the same manner as
that removed from ships wtich are being refueled and returned to service. Unlike the
low-level radioactive material in defueled reactor plants, the Nuclear Waste Poficy
Act of 1982, as amended, requires disposd of spent fuel in a deep geological
repository.
Prior to disposal, the reactor pressure vessel, radioactive piping systems, and the
reactor compartment disposd package wodd be sealed. Thus, they act as a
containment structure for the radioactive atoms and delay the time when any of the
radioactive atoms inside wodd be avtiable for release to the environment as the
metal corrodes. This is important because radioactivity �decays� away with time;
that is, as time goes on radioactive atoms change into nonradioactive atoms. Since
ra&oactivity decays away with time, the effect of a delay is that fewer radioactive
atoms would be released to the environment. Over 99.9% of these atoms are an
integral part of the metal and they are chemically just like ordinary iron, nickel, or
other metal atoms. These radioactive atoms are only released from the metal as a
result of the slow process of corrosion. The remaining O.1% -- which is corrosion and
wear products -- decay away prior to penetration of the containment structures by
corrosion.
The Hanford Site is used for disposal of radioactive waste from DOE operations. The
pre-LOS ANGELES Class submarine reactor compartments are placed at the Hanford
Site Low Level Burial Grounds for disposd, at the 218-E-12B burial ground in the 200
East area. The disposd of the reactor compartments from the cruisers, LOS ANGELES,
and OHIO Class submarines wodd be consistent with the pre-LOS ANGELES Class
submarine reactor compartment disposd program. The land required for the btid of
approximately 100 reactor compartments from the cruisers, LOS ANGELES, and OHIO
Class submarines wuold be approximately 4 hectares (10 acres) which is similar to
the land area needs for the pre-LOS ANGELES Class submarine reactor
compartments.
An estimated cost for land burial of the reactor compartments is $10.2 million for
each LOS ANGELES Class submarine reactor compartment, $12.8 million for each
0HIO Class submarine reactor compartment, and $40 million for each cruiser reactor
compartment. The estimated total Shipyard occupational exposure to prepare the
reactor compartment disposd packages is 13 rem (approximately 0.005 additiond
latent cancer fatalities) for each LOS ANGELES Class submarine package, 14 rem
(approximately 0.006 addtiond latent cancer fatalities) for each 0~0 Class submarine
package and 25 rem (approximately 0.01 additiond latent cancer fatalities) for each
cruiser package.

How Nuclear Propulsion Works

Adaptations for the Seas
Nuclear reactors aboard ships are not immune to the perils of sea. Although the ship can move with
degrees of freedom that land reactors cannot endure, space and weight aboard is limited, and the
ship is isolated at sea. The reactor must be able to withstand the rolling and pitching seas, be able to
generate higher power per unit of space, and fulfill stability requirements. While land reactors
produce thousands of megawatts of power, a marine reactor only produces a few hundred
megawatts.

The reactor also needs to be extremely sturdy and reliable. However skilled the personnel,
maintenance away from port is difficult, and a breakdown can leave a ship stranded at sea with its
contaminants seeping across international waters.

The reactor is made to minimize risk. In U.S. Naval submarines, the reactor is typically housed in a
cylindrical section in the belly of the submarine, sandwiched between shielded bulkheads. One
hundred tons of lead shielding surrounds each reactor. Only the inside of the reactor, roughly the
size of a garbage can, is inaccessible for inspection and replacement (1).  It relies on its long core
life and the ship’s relatively low energy demand to continue operation. By contrast, a land reactor is
inspected and refueled every eighteen months (10).

Pressurized Water Reactor

In a typical nuclear reactor, a pressurized water reactor generates steam that rushes through
turbines to produce energy. Pellets of uranium oxide arranged in tubes form the reactor core, and
fission in these rods release neutrons from the nucleus of uranium. This release generates energy,
and a moderator, typically water, slows down these neurons in order to further fission in other atoms.
Neutron-absorbing material such as cadmium and hafmium are inserted or withdrawn from the core
to control the reaction rate (9).
The massive amounts of energy released by the core heat up the water in the primary coolant loop
of the reactor. The loop holds the water at high pressures and prevents it from evaporating until the
water reaches the steam generator. Once the water evaporates, the steam travels through the main
turbine. The turbine’s spin generates electricity.

The steam occupies almost 2,000 times the volume that an equal amount of water would.  It moves
to the condenser, where electricity-powered pumps circulate water through the cooling system. The
water then cools the steam enough so that the steam condenses, later to be reheated and sent
through the reactor again.

The primary danger of nuclear energy lies in this condensation process. In the case that the system
is cut off from the outside power grid, as in the recent Fukushima explosion, heated steam does not
return to water. The build-up of this high-volume steam ultimately leads to a pressure explosion of
steam—not, contrary to a common misconception, of the core itself. Every nuclear energy system is
equipped with backup upon backup in the case of failure, and the failure of all of these systems is
extremely rare (Fig. 3).

Figure 2: NS (Nuclear Ship) Savannah, the first commercial nuclear power cargo vessel, enroute to
the World’s Fair in Seattle.

Nuclear Marine Propulsion Today

At the end of the Cold War in 1989, 400 nuclear submarines were operational or under construction.
Since then, at least 300 have been scrapped due to weapons reduction programs, and there are
currently about 120 vessels in operation, including newly constructed ones.
Since the commercial nuclear ship industry closed in the 1970’s, lack of competition and incentive
have driven naval suppliers to a lull in development. Unlike in markets of other military weapons
systems, such as aerospace and electronics, prices have crept up. Producers of civilian reactors
could not and did not have the financial incentive to match the complexity of maritime reactors (10).

However, recent changes have returned interest to this market. Shipping currently accounts for 5%
of greenhouse gas emissions, and the world is focused on climate change. Gen4 Energy, an
outgrowth of Los Alamos National Laboratory, has developed a small modular reactor that produces
25 MW using low enriched uranium, while a typical reactor generates 1500 MW (1). The power and
fuel choice of the reactor makes what this company calls “nuclear batteries” a breakthrough for the
nuclear world.

Nuclear power creates close to zero emissions and is cost-effective. While the per-unit cost of fuel is
higher than that of traditional fuels such as coal or gas, the overall cost per unit of energy is much
lower in nuclear energy. Regardless, concerns about safety continue to impede the development of
nuclear power. Gen4’s nuclear battery is also under scrutiny because its small size makes it
vulnerable to theft and abuse.

Nuclear technology has made massive strides since its conception in the early 20th century. Its
applications have been limited due to safety concerns, but the new war against global warming is
poised to drive its progress. In a span of a few years, safety risks may be minimized and nuclear
power—aboard ships and even in cars—may be the norm. Perhaps a reprisal of the Atoms for
Peace days will come at last.

Basic operation of naval ship or submarine[edit]

The ship or submarine will be fitted with one nuclear power plant. The plant is divided into two sides,
port and starboard. This division of the plant provides a safety net should one side fail to function.
Water is used to transfer heat generated by the power plant to steam generators (pressure
vessels whose temperature is raised to approximately 250 °C to 300 °C by the heating element of
the power plant's primary circuit). Since water vaporizes at 100 °C the system is pressurized. To
transfer the heated water there are two sets of pumps on each side.

The steam is provided by water commonly referred to as feed water. This feed water is sea water
pumped into the boat and desalinated. The desalinated water is then fed to the steam generators.

The primary circuit then heats the feed water turning it to steam. The steam passes through several
driers and onto the main steam stop valve (port and starboard) as super heated dry steam.
The Russian, US and British navies rely on steam turbine propulsion, while the French and Chinese
ships use the turbine to generate electricity for propulsion (turbo-electric transmission). Most nuclear
submarines have a single reactor, but Russian submarines and USS Triton had two. Most American
aircraft carriers are powered by two reactors, but USS Enterprise had eight. The majority of
marine reactors are of thepressurized water type, although the US and Soviet navies have designed
warships powered with liquid metal cooled reactors.

Differences from land power plants[edit]

Marine-type reactors differ from land-based commercial electric power reactors in several respects.

While land-based reactors in nuclear power plants produce up to around 1600 megawatts of power,
a typical marine propulsion reactor produces no more than a few hundred megawatts. Space
considerations dictate that a marine reactor must be physically small, so it must generate higher
power per unit of space. This means its components are subject to greater stresses than those of a
land-based reactor. Its mechanical systems must operate flawlessly under the adverse conditions
encountered at sea, including vibration and the pitching and rolling of a ship operating in rough seas.
Reactor shutdown mechanisms cannot rely on gravity to drop control rods into place as in a land-
based reactor that always remains upright. Salt water corrosion is an additional problem that
complicates maintenance.

A nuclear fuel element for the cargo ship NS Savannah. The element contains four bundles of 41 fuel rods. The
uranium oxide is enriched to 4.2 and 4.6 percent U-235

The fuel in a seagoing reactor is typically more highly enriched (i.e., contains a higher concentration
of U235 vs. U238) than that used in a land-based nuclear power plant. Some marine reactors run on
relatively low-enriched uranium which requires more frequent refueling. Others run on highly
enriched uranium, varying from 20% U235, to the over 96% U235 found in U.S. submarines,[2] in which
the resulting smaller core is quieter in operation (a big advantage to a submarine). [3] Using more-
highly enriched fuel also increases the reactor's power density and extends the usable life of the
nuclear fuel load, but is more expensive and a greater risk to nuclear proliferation than less-highly
enriched fuel.[4]

A marine nuclear propulsion plant must be designed to be highly reliable and self-sufficient, requiring
minimal maintenance and repairs, which might have to be undertaken many thousands of miles from
its home port. One of the technical difficulties in designing fuel elements for a seagoing nuclear
reactor is the creation of fuel elements which will withstand a large amount of radiation damage. Fuel
elements may crack over time and gas bubbles may form. The fuel used in marine reactors is a
metal-zirconium alloy rather than the ceramic UO2 (uranium oxide) often used in land-based
reactors. Marine reactors are designed for long core life, enabled by the relatively high enrichment of
the uranium and by incorporating a "burnable poison" in the fuel elements, which is slowly depleted
as the fuel elements age and become less reactive. The gradual dissipation of the "nuclear poison"
increases the reactivity of the core to compensate for the lessening reactivity of the aging fuel
elements, thereby lengthening the usable life of the fuel. The life of the compact reactor pressure
vessel is extended by providing an internal neutron shield, which reduces the damage to the steel
from constant bombardment by neutrons.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This research paper is made possible through the help and support from everyone, including:
parents, teachers, family, friends, and in essence, all sentient beings. Especially, please allow me to
dedicate my acknowledgment of gratitude toward the following significant advisors and contributors:

First and foremost, I would like to thank Dr. Joshua Capitanio for his most support and
encouragement. He kindly read my paper and offered invaluable detailed advices on grammar,
organization, and the theme of the paper.

Second, I would like to thank Dr. Ananda Guruge and Dr. Darui Long to read my thesis and to
provide valuable advices, Dr. Keith Brown to reproof the paper, as well as all the other professors who
have taught me about Buddhism over the past two years of my pursuit of the master degree.

Finally, I sincerely thank to my parents, family, and friends, who provide the advice and financial
support. The product of this research paper would not be possible without all of them.

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