A

project report on
“STEAM TURBINE”
As a part of the summer training pursued, during the course

of

DIPLOMA IN ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION

ENGINEERING

PUSA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY..

Submitted By:

DEEPAK KUMAR (ROLL NO-1708081215)

Under the able guidance of

Mr. Rishi Raj

(Manager)
BHEL, NOIDA SITE(U.P)

BHARAT HEAVY ELECTRICAL

LIMITED(BHEL)NOIDA SITE(U.P.)

1|Page
 DECLARATION

This is certified that DEEPAK KUMAR of 4th semester ELECTRONNIS

AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING has successfully completed his
SIX weeks summer training in BHARAT HEAVY ELECTRICAL LIMITED
,NOIDA SITE (U.P.)during the date from 1 JULY-12th AUGUST.

Dated: .0 .2019 Signature of Student

(DEEPAK KUMAR)

This training report is here by approval for submission toward

partial fulfillment for the award of diploma in (Electronics &
communication engineering) from PUSA INSTITUTE OF
TECHNOLOGY (DELHI)

I certify that the above statement made by the student is

correct to the best of my knowledge and belief.

MISS GEETA BHATIA

(E.C.E LECTURER)
PUSA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
DELHI-110015

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AKNOWLEDGEMENT

As you look at the modern pace of development and research in

each and every field of engineering, even the most brilliant minds
will be short for producing desired result if not packed up with
some practical knowledge and skill of modern engineering and
technology. Practical training plays an important role in making a
student familiar with the basic principles of engineering and
technology.

I take this opportunity to express my profound gratitude and deep

regards to my guide Mr. Rishi Raj for his exemplary guidance,
monitoring and constant encouragement throughout the course of
this thesis. The blessing, help and guidance given by him time to
time shall carry me a long way in the journey of life on which I am
about to embark.

I am grateful to PIT (Electronics & communication Department)

and Miss. Shivani (H.O.D., ECE., PIT) to provide me such a great
opportunity.

I express my sincere thanks and gratitude to BHEL authorities for

allowing me to undergo the training in this prestigious
organization. I will always remain indebted to them for their
constant interest and excellent guidance in my training work,

3|Page
moreover for providing me with an opportunity to work and gain
experience and sincere thanks to my college.

4|Page
 PREFACE

At very outset of the prologue it becomes imperative to insist that

vocational training is an integral part of engineering curriculum.
Training allows us to gain an insight into the practical aspects of
the various topics, with which we come across while pursuing our
diploma i.e. vocational training gives us practical implementation
of various topics we already have learned and will learn in near
future. Vocational training always emphasizes on logic and
commonsense instead of theoretical aspects of subject.

On my part, I pursued four weeks training at B.H.E.L. Noida

Site(U.P) The training involved a study of various departments of
the organization as per the time logically scheduled and well
planned given to us. The rotation in various departments was
necessary in order to get an overall idea about the working of the
organization.

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 INDEX

1. Introduction to BHEL
2. History of BHEL
3. BHEL ‘S power
4. BHEL’S plants in INDIA
5. BHEL PRODUCTS.
6. Power
7. STEAM TURBINE
7.1 Working principle of steam turbine
7.2 Thermodynamics of steam turbine
7.3 T-S diagram for steam
8. Classification of steam turbine
8.1 Impulse turbine
8.2 Simple impulse steam turbine
8.3 Reaction turbine
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 8.4 Simple reaction steam turbine
8.5 Turbine blades
9. Methods of reducing rotor speed
9.1 Velocity compounding
9.2 Pressure compounding
9.3 Pressure-velocity compounding
10. . Parts of steam turbine
10.1 Operating and maintenance
10.2 Supply and exhaust conditions
10.3 Advantages and disadvantages of steam
turbine
11. Applications of steam turbine
12. Conclusion
13. REFRENCES

7|Page
Introduction

BHEL is the largest engineering and manufacturing enterprise in

India the energy-related/infrastructure sector, today. BHEL was
established more than 50 years ago, ushering in the indigenous
Heavy Electrical Equipment industry in India a dream that has
been more than realized with a well-profits continuously since
1971-72 and paying dividends since 1976-77.

BHEL manufactures over 180 products under 30 major product groups

&caters to core sectors of the Indian Economy viz., Power Generation &
Transmission, Industry, Transportation, Telecommunication, Renewable
Energy, etc. The wide network of BHEL's 17 manufacturing divisions, four
Power Sector regional centers, over 100 project sites, eight service centers
and 18 regional offices, enables the Company to promptly serve its
customers and provide them with suitable products, systems and services
efficiently and at competitive prices.

The high level of quality& reliability of its products is due to the

emphasis on design, engineering and manufacturing to
international standards by acquiring and adapting some of the best

8|Page
technologies from leading companies in the world, together with
technologies developed in its own R&D centers

Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited (BHEL), owned

by Government
of India, is a power plant equipment manufacturer and
operates as An engineering and manufacturing company
based in New Delhi, India. Established in 1964, BHEL is
India's largest engineering and manufacturing company of
its kind. The company has been earning profits
continuously since 1971-72 and paying dividends
uninterruptedly since 1976-77.

9|Page
 ✓ History:

BHEL was established in 1964. Heavy Electricals (India) Limited merged

with BHEL in 1974. In 1982, it entered into power equipment’s, to reduce
its dependence on the power sector. It developed the capability to produce a
variety of electrical, electronic and mechanical equipment’s for all sectors,
including transmission, transportation, oil and gas and other allied
industries. In 1991, it was converted into a public limited company. By the
end of 1996, the company had handed over 100 Electric Locomotives to
Indian Railway and installed 250 Hydro-sets across India.

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BHEL has :

✓ Installed equipment for over 90,000 MW of power generation

for Utilities, Captive and Industrial users.

✓ Supplied over 2,25,000 MVA transformer capacity and other

equipment operating in Transmission & Distribution network
up to 400 kV (AC & DC).

✓ Supplied over 25,000 Motors with Drive Control System to

Power projects, Petrochemicals, Refineries, Steel,
Aluminum, Fertilizer, Cement plants, etc.

✓ Supplied Traction electrics and AC/DC locos to power over

12,000 kms Railway network.

✓ Supplied over one million Valves to Power Plants and other

Industries. BHEL's operations are organized around three
business sectors, namely Power, Industry - including
Transmission, Transportation, Telecommunication &
Renewable.

✓ Energy - and Overseas Business. This enables BHEL to have

a strong customer orientation, to be sensitive to his needs and
respond quickly to the changes the market.
11 | P a g e
The fourteen manufacturing Divisions are located at:

• Bhopal(Madhya Pradesh).

• Bharat Heavy Electrical Limited, Raipur, Haridwar

(Uttarakhand) .
• Hyderabad (Andhra Pradesh).

• Jhansi (Uttar Pradesh).

• Tiruchirappalli(Tamil Nadu).

• Ranipet (Tamil Nadu).

• Bangalore (Karnataka).

• Jagdishpur (Uttar Pradesh).

• Rudrapur (Uttarakhand).

• Goindwal (Punjab).

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Major products of this unit's manufacture include
the following:

• Steam turbines
• Compressors
• Turbo generators
• Heat Exchangers
• Pumps
• Pulverizes
• Switch Gears
• Gear Boxes
• Oil Rig
• Project Engineering

13 | P a g e
6.Power generation

In power generation mostly steam turbine is used

because of its greater thermal efficiency and high power to weight
ratio. Because the turbine generates rotary motion, it is particularly
suited to be used to drive an electrical generator – about 80% of all
electricity generation in the world is by use of steam turbines.
Steam turbine has an ability to utilize high pressure and high
temperature steam.

The power generation in a steam turbine is at a

uniform rate, therefore necessity to use flywheel is not felt. Much
higher speeds and greater range of speed is possible for a a steam
turbine. No internal lubrication is required as there are no rubbing
parts in the steam turbine. It can utilise high vacuum very
advantageously.

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 Due to the above said salient features, of all heat
engines and prime movers the steam turbine is nearest to the ideal
and is widely used in power generation.

6.1Working principle of a steam

turbine:

The steam turbine is essentially a flow machine in which heat

energy in the steam is transferred into kinetic energy and its kinetic
energy is utilized to rotate the rotor while steam flows through the

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turbine. During the flow of steam through the nozzle, the heat
energy is converted into kinetic energy. The steam with high
velocity enters the turbine blades and suffers a change in direction
of motion which gives rise to change of momentum and therefore
to a force. This constitutes the driving force of the turbine. This
force acting on the blades in the circumferential direction sets up
the rotation of the wheels or rotor. As the wheel rotates each one
of the blades fixed on the rim of the wheel comes into action of the
jet of steam which causes the wheel to rotate continuously.

7. THERMODYNAMICS OF STEAM
TURBINE
The steam turbine operates on basic principles of
thermodynamics using the part of the Rankin cycle. Superheated
vapour (or dry saturated vapour, depending on application) enters
the turbine, after it having exited the boiler, at high temperature
and high pressure. The high heat/pressure steam is converted into
kinetic energy using a nozzle (a fixed nozzle in an impulse type
turbine or the fixed blades in a reaction type turbine).

Once the steam has exited the nozzle it is

moving at high velocity and is sent to the blades of the turbine. A
force is created on the blades due to the pressure of the vapour on
the blades causing them to move. A generator or other such device
can be placed on the shaft, and the energy that was in the vapour
can now be stored and used. The gas exits the turbine as a
saturated vapour (or liquid-vapour mix depending on application)
at a lower temperature and pressure than it entered with and is
sent to the condenser to be cooled. If we look at the first law we
16 | P a g e
can find an equation comparing the rate at which work is
developed per unit mass.

7.1 T-S diagram for steam

Rankine cycle with super heat

Process 1-2: The working fluid is pumped from low to high pressure.

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Process 2-3: The high pressure liquid enters a boiler where it is heated
at constant pressure by an external heat source to become a dry saturated
vapour.

Process 3-3': The vapour is superheated.

Process 3-4 and 3'-4': The dry saturated vapour expands through a
turbine, generating power. This decreases the temperature and pressure of
the vapour, and some condensation may occur.

Process 4-1: The wet vapour then enters a condenser where it is

condensed at a constant pressure to become a saturated liquid.

8.CLASSIFICATION OF STEAM
TURBINES

There are several ways in which the steam turbines may be

classified. The most important and common division being with
respect to the action of the steam, as

1. Impulse turbine
2. .Reaction turbine
3. Combination of impulse and reaction turbine

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Figure showing the difference between impulse and reaction
turbine

8.1 IMPULSE TURBINE:

An impulse turbine has fixed nozzles that orient the
steam flow into high speed jets. These jets contain significant
kinetic energy, which the rotor blades, shaped like buckets, convert
into shaft rotation as the steam jet changes direction. A pressure
drop occurs across only the stationary blades, with a net increase
in steam velocity across the stage.

As the steam flows through the nozzle its pressure falls

from inlet pressure to the exit pressure (atmospheric pressure, or

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more usually, the condenser vacuum). Due to this higher ratio of
expansion of steam in the nozzle the steam leaves the nozzle with
a very high velocity. The steam leaving the moving blades has a
large portion of the maximum velocity of the steam when leaving
the nozzle. The loss of energy due to this higher exit velocity is
commonly called the "carry over velocity" or "leaving loss".

The details of simple impulse turbine is shown in the

below figure, it consists of set of nozzles and blade ring mounted
on a rotor. Steam supplied from the boiler expands through the
nozzle to the exit pressure. After the expansion it enters the blades
at high velocity, and the blades are shaped such that steam glides
over the blades without shock. Due to change in momentum,
steam exerts an impulsive force on the blades. This provides driving
torque on the rotor of the turbine.

In impulse turbine pressure drops only in the nozzles

and remains constant over the moving blades, but velocity of steam
decrease as the kinetic energy is absorbed by the moving blades.

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8.2 SIMPLE IMPULSE STEAM TURBINE (DE-
LAVAL TURBINE)

21 | P a g e
8.3 REACTION TURBINE:
In the reaction turbine, the rotor blades themselves
are arranged to form convergent nozzles. This type of turbine
makes use of the reaction force produced as the steam accelerates
through the nozzles formed by the rotor. Steam is directed onto
the rotor by the fixed vanes of the stator. It leaves the stator as a
jet that fills the entire circumference of the rotor.

The steam then changes direction and increases its

speed relative to the speed of the blades. A pressure drop occurs
across both the stator and the rotor, with steam accelerating
through the stator and decelerating through the rotor, with no net
change in steam velocity across the stage but with a decrease in
both pressure and temperature, reflecting the work performed in
the driving of the rotor.

Reaction turbine consists of fixed blades followed by a

ring of moving blades. The fixed blades acts as nozzle and allows a
relatively small expansion of steam. Further expansion takes place
in the moving blades. Thus in the reaction turbine, steam expands
continuously and consequently, there is an increase in specific
volume as the expansion proceeds, which is expanded by an
increase in the size of blades.

As the steam expands through blades relative velocity

increases and in the increase of relative velocity is achieved from
the enthalpy drop. Due to increase in relative velocity a thrust or
reaction force acts on the blades. This reaction force
constitutes.

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8.4 SIMPLE REACTION STEAM TURBINE
(PARSON’S TURBINE

23 | P a g e
 9.METHODS OF REDUCING ROTOR
SPEED
The following methods are used to reduce the speed of an
impulse turbine

1. Velocity compounding

2. Pressure compounding

3. Velocity-pressure compounding

9.1 Velocity compounding:

Steam is expanded through stationary nozzle from the boiler to

condenser pressure. So the pressure in the nozzle drops, the
kinetic energy of steam increases due to increase in velocity. This
energy is absorbed by
24 | P a g e
MATLAB stands for matrix laboratory. It is a high-performance
language for technical computing. It integrates computation,
visualization, and programming environment Furthermore,
MATLAB is a modern programming language environment it has
sophisticated data structures, contains built-in editing and
debugging tools, and supports object-oriented programming.
These factors make MATLAB an excellent tool for teaching and
research. MATLAB has many advantages compared to
conventional computer languages (e.g., C, FORTRAN) for solving
technical problems. MATLAB is an interactive system whose basic
data element is an array that does not require dimensioning. The
software package has been commercially available since1984 and
is now considered as a standard tool at most universities and
industries worldwide. It has powerful built-in routines that enable
a very wide variety of computations. It also has easy to use
graphics commands that make the visualization of results
immediately available. Specific applications are collected in
packages referred to as toolbox. There are toolboxes for signal
processing, symbolic computation, control theory, simulation,
optimization and several other fields of applied science and
engineering. In addition to the MATLAB documentation which Is
mostly available online. Started with simple matrix manipulation
and grow with capability of solving any technical problem. A
proprietary programming language developed by Mathworks .It
provide a very extensive library of predefined function to make
technical programming task easier and more efficient. MATLAB
distinguishes between uppercase and lowercase. MATLAB
commands and several more advanced features including two-

25 | P a g e
and three-dimensional graphics, solution of algebraic equations,
solution of ordinary differential equations, calculations with
matrices and solutions of linear systems of equations It has
literally hundreds of built-in functions for a wide variety of
computations and many toolboxes designed for specific research
disciplines, including statistics, optimization, solution of partial
differential equations, data analysis.

EEG is the measure of the electrical activity inside the human

brain. It measures the voltage changes that are caused due to the
ionic movement within the neurons of the brain. The electrical
charge of the brain is maintained by billions of neurons that are
electrically charged by membrane transport proteins that pump
ions across their membranes. There is constant exchange of ions
going on between the neurons and the extracellular milieu. Ions
of similar charge repel each other. When ions from many neurons
are pushed out at the same time they tend to push their
neighbors who thereby push their neighbors, creating a wave.
This process is called volume conduction. When this wave of ions
reaches the scalp and comes in contact with the metal of the
electrode it pushes or pulls electrons of the metal which causes a
voltage difference between any two electrodes. The recording of
these voltage changes is what forms the EEG signal.

The electric potential generated by a single neuron is extremely

small and hence cannot be picked up by the electrodes.
Therefore, EEG activity is always the summation of the
26 | P a g e
synchronous activity of thousands or millions of neurons with
similar spatial orientation. An EEG signal is measured in the range
of microvolts (μV), making it a very small signal to be observed on
any instrument.

Some of the main neurological diagnostic applications of EEG are

in case of epilepsy, coma and brain death. However, it is also used
for studies of sleep and sleep disorders. This is can be done
because of the clear abnormalities observed in the EEG signals
during these disorders. It can also be used to diagnose tumors and
strokes. to screen those with such disorders and prevent them re
producing. EEGs were also used in ‘lie detector’ machines. By the
1960s most psychiatrists and psychologists accepted EEG data
could not reliably diagnose dishonesty, criminality or mental
illness. Since then, EEGs have been used in sleep research. They
help us understand the relationship between deep sleep, light
sleep, dreaming and wakefulness. They also help legally define
‘death’. During the 20th century EEG demonstrated the absence
of brain activity. In 1963an EEG was used as an indicator of brain
death by R S Schwab. Using EEG to define death remains
controversial. They help in identifying epileptic seizures, brain
dead, tumors, sleep disorders, depth of anesthesia in patients,
states of deep sleep and many other important functions. There
are two general approaches for measuring the electrical activity of
the brain. They are invasive and non-invasive. In an invasive
method, the electrodes are physically implanted inside the human
brain. They require surgical procedures and are not generally
recommended. In a non- invasive method, electrodes are placed
27 | P a g e
on the surface of the skin to measure the electrical potential
generated by the muscle neurons. They are safe and painless.
Both the methods give different views and allow us to visualize
the brain and to monitor what occurs. In EEG, brain-related
electrical potentials are recorded from the scalp. The electrodes
are held in position on the scalp with special pastes and their
diameter typically range from 0.4 to 1cm. Electrodes, made of
conducting material such as silver are used to read this electrical
impulse. The brain signals vary from 30 V to 100 V. These signals
are weak and has to be amplified. When the brain neurons
communicate with each other, they give rise to current which in
general termed as action potential.

2.3 Brain Lobe

The cerebral cortex is further divided into four sections, the lobes.
While there are right and left counterparts for each lobe, there
are subtle differences between the hemispheres. Sometimes the
right hemisphere is associated with creativity and imagination,
while the left hemisphere is associated with logic abilities such as
numerical and spatial cognition. However, this association is
phasing out as scientific research is coming up with more intricate
imaging technologies and analysis techniques, which allow for
deeper insights than ever before. Yet, a basic division is still made
between 4 lobes:

28 | P a g e
 In ships, compelling advantages of steam turbines over
reciprocating engines are smaller size, lower maintenance, lighter
weight, and lower vibration. A steam turbine is only efficient when
operating in the thousands of RPM, while the most effective
propeller designs are for speeds less than 100 RPM; consequently,
precise (thus expensive) reduction gears are usually required,
although several ships, such as Turbine, had direct drive from the
steam turbine to the propeller shafts. Another alternative is turbo-
electric drive, where an electrical generator run by the high-speed
turbine is used to run one or more slow-speed electric motors
connected to the propeller shafts; precision gear cutting may be a
production bottleneck during wartime. The purchase cost is offset
by much lower fuel and maintenance requirements and the small
size of a turbine when compared to a reciprocating engine having
an equivalent power. However, diesel engines are capable of
higher efficiencies: propulsion steam turbine cycle efficiencies have
yet to break 50%, yet diesel engines routinely exceed 50%,
especially in marine applications.

Nuclear-powered ships and submarines use a nuclear

reactor to create steam. Nuclear power is often chosen where
diesel power would be impractical (as in submarine applications) or
the logistics of refuelling pose significant problems (for example,
icebreakers). It has been estimated that the reactor fuel for the
Royal Navy's Vanguard class submarine is sufficient to last 40
circumnavigations of the globe – potentially sufficient for the
vessel's entire service life.

29 | P a g e
to screen those with such disorders and prevent them re
producing.EEGs were also used in ‘lie detector’ machines. By the
1960s most psychiatrists and psychologists accepted EEG data
could not reliably diagnose dishonesty, criminality or mental
illness. Since then, EEGs have been used in sleep research. They
help us understand the relationship between deep sleep, light
sleep, dreaming and wakefulness. They also help legally define
‘death’. During the 20th century EEG demonstrated the absence
of brain activity. In 1963an EEG was used as an indicator of brain
death by R S Schwab. Using EEG to define death remains
controversial. They help in identifying epileptic seizures, brain
dead, tumors, sleep disorders, depth of anesthesia in patients,
states of deep sleep and many other important functions. There
are two general approaches for measuring the electrical activity of
the brain. They are invasive and non-invasive. In an invasive
method, the electrodes are physically implanted inside the human
brain. They require surgical procedures and are not generally
recommended. In a non- invasive method, electrodes are placed
on the surface of the skin to measure the electrical potential
generated by the muscle neurons. They are safe and painless.
Both the methods give different views and allow us to visualize
the brain and to monitor what occurs. In EEG, brain-related
electrical potentials are recorded from the scalp. The electrodes
are held in position on the scalp with special pastes and their
diameter typically range from 0.4 to 1cm. Electrodes, made of
conducting material such as silver are used to read this electrical
impulse. The brain signals vary from 30 V to 100 V. These signals
are weak and has to be amplified. When the brain neurons

30 | P a g e
communicate with each other, they give rise to current which in
general termed as action potential.

The cerebral cortex is further divided into four sections, the lobes.
While there are right and left counterparts for each lobe, there
are subtle differences between the hemispheres. Sometimes the
right hemisphere is associated with creativity and imagination,
while the left hemisphere is associated with logic abilities such as
numerical and spatial cognition. However, this association is
phasing out as scientific research is coming up with more intricate
imaging technologies and analysis techniques, which allow for
deeper insights than ever before. Yet, a basic division is still made
between 4 lobes:

row of moving blades. The steam flows through fixed blades. The
function of these blades is to re direct the steam flow without
altering its velocity to the following next row of moving blades
where again work is done on them. This method has the
advantage of less initial cost, but its efficiency is low.

31 | P a g e
9.2 Pressure compounding:

Figure shows rings of fixed nozzles incorporated between the

rings of moving blades. The steam at boiler pressure enters the
first set of nozzles and expands partially. The kinetic energy is
absorbed by moving blades. The steam then expands partially in
second set of nozzles where pressure again falls and velocity
increases, the KE is then absorbed by second ring of moving
blades. This is repeated in stage 3 and stem finally leaves the
turbine at low velocity and pressure.

32 | P a g e
9.3 Pressure-Velocity compounding:

This method of compounding is the combination of two

previously discussed methods. The total drop i steam pressure is
divided into stages and velocity obtained in each stage is also
compounded. The rings of nozzles are fixed at the beginning of
each stage and pressure remains conststant during each stage.
This method of compounding is used in curits and moore turbine.

33 | P a g e
10.PARTS OF STEAM TURBINE

1. Casing

2. Rotor
3. Casing sealing glands
4. Governor system
5. Oil ring lubrication system
6. Bearing case

34 | P a g e
7. Steam chest
8. Over speed trip system
Rotor is one of the critical parts of the steam turbine. All the
expansion process is done on the rotor in steam turbine.

10.1 OPERATING AND MAINTENENCE

When warming up a steam turbine for use, the main

stream stop valves (after the boiler) have a bypass line to allow
superheated steam to slowly bypass the valve and proceed to heat
up the lines in the system along with the steam turbine. Also, a
turning gear is engaged when there is no steam to the turbine to
slowly rotate the turbine to ensure even heating to prevent uneven
expansion. After first rotating the turbine by the turning gear,
allowing time for the rotor to assume a straight plane (no bowing),
then the turning gear is disengaged and steam is admitted to the
turbine, first to the astern blades then to the ahead blades slowly
rotating the turbine at 10 to 15 RPM to slowly warm the turbine.

Problems with turbines are now rare and maintenance

requirements are relatively small. Any imbalance of the rotor can
lead to vibration, which in extreme cases can lead to a blade letting
go and punching straight through the casing. It is, however,
essential that the turbine be turned with dry steam - that is,
superheated steam with minimal liquid water content. If water gets
35 | P a g e
into the steam and is blasted onto the blades (moisture carryover),
rapid impingement and erosion of the blades can occur leading to
imbalance and catastrophic failure. Also, water entering the blades
will result in the destruction of the thrust bearing for the turbine
shaft. To prevent this, along with controls and baffles in the boilers
to ensure high quality steam, condensate drains are installed in the
steam piping leading to the turbine.

TYPES
Steam turbines are made in a variety of sizes ranging
from small <1 hp (<0.75 kW) units (rare) used as mechanical drives
for pumps, compressors and other shaft driven equipment, to
2,000,000 hp (1,500,000 kW) turbines used to generate electricity.
There are several classifications for modern steam turbines

10.2 Supply and exhaust conditions:

These types include condensing, no condensing, reheat,
extraction and induction. No condensing or back pressure turbines
are most widely used for process steam applications. The exhaust
pressure is controlled by a regulating valve to suit the needs of the
process steam pressure. These are commonly found at refineries,
district heating units, pulp and paper plants, and desalination
facilities where large amounts of low pressure process steam are
available. Condensing turbines are most commonly found in
electrical power plants. These turbines exhaust steam in a partially
condensed state, typically of a quality near 90%, at a pressure well
below atmospheric to a condenser. Reheat turbines are also used

36 | P a g e
almost exclusively in electrical power plants. In a reheat turbine,
steam flow exits from a high pressure section of the turbine and is
returned to the boiler where additional superheat is added. The
steam then goes back into an intermediate pressure section of the
turbine and continues its expansion.

Extracting type turbines are common in all

applications. In an extracting type turbine, steam is released from
various stages of the turbine, and used for industrial process needs
or sent to boiler feed water heaters to improve overall cycle
efficiency. Extraction flows may be controlled with a valve, or left
uncontrolled. Induction turbines introduce low pressure steam at
an intermediate stage to produce additional power.

10.3Advantages of steam turbine include:

1. Ability to utilize high pressure and high temperatures

2. High efficiency.
3. High rotational speed
4. High capacity/weight ratio.
5. Smooth operation.
6. No internal lubrication.
7. Oil free exhaust system
8. Can be built in small or very large units ( up to 1200 MW)

Disadvantages include:

37 | P a g e
 1. For low speed application reduction gears are required.
2. Steam turbine cannot be made reversible.
3. Efficiency of small steam turbine is poor.

11.APPLICATIONS

To drive large centrifugal pumps, such as feed water pumps at a

thermal power plant. A small industrial steam turbine (right)
directly linked to a generator (left). This turbine generator set of
1910 produced 250 kW of electrical power. Electrical power
stations use large steam turbines driving electric generators to
produce most (about 80%) of the world's electricity. The advent of
large steam turbines made central-station electricity generation
practical, since reciprocating steam engines of large rating became
very bulky, and operated at slow speeds. Most central stations are
fossil fuel power plants and nuclear power plants; some
installations use geothermal steam, or use concentrated solar
power (CSP) to create the steam. Steam turbines can also be used
directly

The turbines used for electric power generation are

most often directly coupled to their generators. As the generators
must rotate at constant synchronous speeds according to the
frequency of the electric power system, the most common speeds
are 3000 RPM for 50 Hz systems and 3600 RPM for 60 Hz systems.
Since nuclear reactors have lower temperature limits than fossil-
fired plants, with lower steam quality, the turbine generator sets

38 | P a g e
may be arranged to operate at half these speeds, but with four-
pole generators, to reduce erosion of turbine blades.

11.1 Marine propulsion

In ships, compelling advantages of steam turbines over
reciprocating engines are smaller size, lower maintenance, lighter
weight, and lower vibration. A steam turbine is only efficient when
operating in the thousands of RPM, while the most effective
propeller designs are for speeds less than 100 RPM; consequently,
precise (thus expensive) reduction gears are usually required,
although several ships, such as Turbine, had direct drive from the
steam turbine to the propeller shafts. Another alternative is turbo-
electric drive, where an electrical generator run by the high-speed
turbine is used to run one or more slow-speed electric motors
connected to the propeller shafts; precision gear cutting may be a
production bottleneck during wartime. The purchase cost is offset
by much lower fuel and maintenance requirements and the small
size of a turbine when compared to a reciprocating engine having
an equivalent power. However, diesel engines are capable of
higher efficiencies: propulsion steam turbine cycle efficiencies have
yet to break 50%, yet diesel engines routinely exceed 50%,
especially in marine applications.

Nuclear-powered ships and submarines use a nuclear

reactor to create steam. Nuclear power is often chosen where
diesel power would be impractical (as in submarine applications) or
the logistics of refuelling pose significant problems (for example,

39 | P a g e
icebreakers). It has been estimated that the reactor fuel for the
Royal Navy's Vanguard class submarine is sufficient to last 40
circumnavigations of the globe – potentially sufficient for the
vessel's entire service life.

11.2 Locomotives
Main article: Steam turbine locomotive. A steam turbine
locomotive engine is a steam locomotive driven by a steam turbine.
The main advantages of a steam turbine locomotive are better
rotational balance and reduced hammer blow on the track.
However, a disadvantage is less flexible power output power so
that turbine locomotives were best suited for long-haul operations
at a constant output power. The power spectrum Sxx (f) of a time
series x(t) describes the distribution of power into frequency
components composing that signal. According to Fourier analysis,
any physical signal can be decomposed into a number of discrete
frequencies, or a spectrum of frequencies over a continuous range.
The statistical average of a certain signal or sort of signal (including
noise) as analyzed in terms of its frequency content, is called its
spectrum. When the energy of the signal is concentrated around a
finite time interval, especially if its total energy is finite, one may
compute the energy spectral density. More commonly used is the
power spectral density (or simply power spectrum), which applies
to signals existing over all time, or over a time period large enough
(especially in relation to the duration of a measurement) that it
could as well have been over an infinite time interval. The power

40 | P a g e
spectral density (PSD) then refers to the spectral energy
distribution that would be found per unit time, since the total
energy of such a signal over all time would generally be infinite.
Summation or integration of the spectral components yields the
total power (for a physical process) or variance (in a statistical
process), identical to what would be obtained by integrating x2(t)
over the time domain, as dictated by Parseval's theorem.

The spectrum of a physical process pitch and timbre of a musical

instrument are immediately determined from a spectral analysis.
The colour of a light source is determined by the spectrum of the
electromagnetic wave's electric field Fourier transform, and
generalizations based on Fourier analysis. In many cases the time
domain is not specifically employed in practice, such as when a
dispersive prism is used to obtain a spectrum of light in a
spectrograph, or when a sound is perceived through its effect on
the auditory receptors of the inner ear, each of which is sensitive
to a particular frequency. Independent component analysis was
originally developed to deal with problems that are closely related
to the cocktail-party problem. Since the recent increase of interest
in ICA, it has become clear that this principle has a lot of other
interesting applications as well, such as that in electrical recordings
of brain activity as given by an electroencephalogram (EEG). The
EEG data consists of recordings of electrical potentials in many
different locations on the scalp. These potentials are presumably
generated by mixing some underlying components of brain and
muscle activity. This situation is quite similar to the cocktail-party
problem: we would like to find the original components of brain
41 | P a g e
activity, but we can only observe mixtures of the components. ICA
can reveal interesting information on brain activity by giving access
to its independent components. CA gives a method for artefact
removal where we do not need an accurate model of the process
that generated the artifacts; this is the blind aspect of the method
neither do we need specified observation intervals that contain
mainly the artifact, nor additional inputs; this is the unsupervised
aspect of the method. Thus, ICA gives a promising method for
artifact identification and removal.

It was shown in that artifacts can indeed can be estimated by ICA

alone. It turns out that the artifacts are quite independent from the
rest of the signal, and thus even this requirement of the model is
reasonably well fulfilled. If during an EEG acquisition procedure,
the subject moves eyes suddenly, the signal will be distorted
heavily. A common way for removing eye movement artifacts from
EEG data is to use independent component analysis. ICA is a an
elegant and practical computational blind source separation
method to recover a set of underlying components which are
statistically maximally independent from each other. The resultant
components are automatically sorted based upon on the sum of
the weighting factors. Determination of the components with eye
movement artifacts is aided by spatial topography of the
components Independent Component Analysis (ICA), part of the
Data Mining suite of analyses, is designed for signal separation
using a well-established and reliable statistical method known as
Independent Component Analysis. Signal separation is a frequently
occurring problem and is central to Statistical Signal Processing,
42 | P a g e
which has a wide range of applications in anyareas of technology
ranging from Audio and Image Processing to Biomedical Signal

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