QUARTER 4 WEEK 1

Processes in Animals: Reproduction And Development

WHY DO WE NEED TO REPRODUCE?

 To ensure survival of the species
• To produce egg and sperm cells
• To transport and sustain these cells
• To nurture the developing offspring
• To produce hormones

MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

• Testes
－ produce sperm
－ also known as testicles and gonads
▪ Duct System
• Vas Deferens
－ transports mature sperm to the urethra
• Epididymis
－ where sperm matures
• Seminal vesicles
－ attached to vas deferens
－ produce a sugar-rich fluid that provides energy
to sperm
• Urethra
－ tube that carries urine from the bladder to
outside of the body
－ also carries sperm out of the body
• Prostate Gland
－ makes fluid
Testis Epididymis Vas Deferens Seminal vesicle Prostate gland Urethra Penis

FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

• Ovaries
－ Produce eggs and hormones
－ Oval-shaped glands that are located on either
side of the uterus
• Fallopian Tubes
－ Tunnels for the egg cell to travel from the
ovaries to the uterus
－ Where fertilization happens
• Uterus
－ Hollow organ that is the home to a developing
fetus
• Vagina
－ Canal that joins the cervix to the outside of the
body
－ Also known as the birth canal
Ovary Fallopian Tube Uterus

Uterus Cervix Vagina

FERTILIZATION
Sperm enters the egg cell
FERTILIZATION
• Fertilization of an egg by a sperm, normally occurs in the fallopian tubes
• Fertilized egg cell is called zygoyte
• The zygote then moves to the uterus, where it implants into the lining of the uterine wall

Amnion
－ transparent sac
that protects the baby
inside
－ Filled with
amniotic fluid

TWINS: Monozygotic Twins and Dizygotic Twins

Monozygotic Twins Dizygotic Twins
Definition Two offspring that develop from one zygote. Two offspring that develop from two separate
zygotes.
Genetic Composition Originate from the same fertilized egg, and Originate from two fertilized egg and fertilized by
fertilized by the same sperm so they share the two sperm; therefore, they do not share the same
same DNA. DNA.
Placenta, Amniotic Sac Zygotes only share the outer layer of the Have a separate placenta, amniotic sac and
and Chorion amniotic sac and have two placentas but chorion.
changes if divided within 4-8 days.
Cause Due to the random splitting of the zygote into Due to two separate eggs fertilized by two
two embryos. sperms.
Gender Same gender Can be different or the same gender
Appearance of the twins Almost have the same appearance May have the same or different appearance
Characteristics Have a chance for same characters, Don’t have the same characters, developments,
developments, etc. etc.
Hereditary Not hereditary hereditary
The placenta, umbilical cord, and amniotic sac protect an provide nutrients to the fetus.

• The placenta is a fetomaternal organ that enables the selective transfer of nutrients and gases between mother and fetus.
The placental barrier limits direct contact between the embryo and maternal blood, thus protecting both mother and child from
potentially harmful substances (e.g., blood cell antigens of the unborn, bacteria from the mother). In addition, the placenta
produces hormones that mediate maternal adaptation to pregnancy and maintain pregnancy.

• The 50–70 centimeter long umbilical cord connects the placenta with the fetus and contains one umbilical vein that carries
oxygenated, nutrient-rich blood supply and two umbilical arteries that carry deoxygenated blood from fetus to the placenta and
the maternal circulation.

• The amniotic sac surrounds the fetus and contains the amniotic fluid, providing mechanical protection to the developing
fetus.

VARIOUS FORMS OF CONTRACEPTION IN HUMANS

• Condoms
• Birth Control Pills - are synthetic steroid hormones, usually consisting of either a single hormone, progestin, or two
hormones, progestin and estrogen. These hormones suppress the release of folliclestimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing
hormone (LH) from the pituitary gland in the female body. FSH and LH normally trigger the release of estrogen from the
ovaries, which in turn stimulates ovulation—the release of a mature egg from the female ovary. However, when FSH and LH
are suppressed, the chances of ovulation, and therefore fertilization by a male sperm cell, are significantly reduced. Progestin-
only birth control pills also cause mucus in the cervix to thicken, making it more difficult for sperm to reach the egg in the event
that ovulation occur.

PROCESS IN PLANTS: Reproduction and Development

All living things grow and change. All living things need food, water, and air to live.
Plants must have these things to grow:
• Sunlight
• Air
• Water
• Nutrients or minerals from the soil

PARTS OF A PLANT
Roots - hold the plant in the soil and takes in
water and nutrients from the soil.
Stem - holds up the plant and moves water
and nutrients through it.
Leaves - use light, air, water, and nutrients to
make food for the plant.
Flowers - make fruits that hold seeds.
Seeds - are formed in the center part of the
flower or fruit that come in many shapes and
sizes. Plants grow from seeds.
HOW SEEDS ARE SCATTERED? Have we seen all the plants always bear fruits and flowers?
• Planting －No. There are many plants that do not bear fruits and
• Animals flowers.
• Water Do plants without fruits and flowers still reproduce?
• Wind －Yes. They reproduce by other means.

HOW A SEED GROWS INTO A NEW PLANT?

• The life of a plant begins as a seed.
• Once you plant and water a seed it begins to germinate.
• The root pushes through the seed coat.
• The seeding grows out of the ground.
• The stem and its leaves point to the sunlight.
• The leaves make its own food.
• Flowers begin to bloom and make seeds.
• New seeds are formed and scattered.

ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS

Offspring will have same genes as parents

1. Vegetative Propagation
－ Producing new individuals from roots, stems, or
leaves of existing plants.
－ Ex: ◦ Runners - modified stems that grow along the top
of the ground and send out their own roots.
◦ Strawberries
2. Rhizomes
－ Modified stems grow under the soil, produce new
roots from stem.
－ Ex: grasses
3. Tubers
－ Shorter, thicker stems that produce an ‘eye’ which
is capable of producing a new plant.
－ Ex: potato
4. Bulbs
－ Stem covered with modified leaves which can
produce a new plant.
－ Ex: Onion and Garlic
5. Food Storing Roots
－ Roots which are capable of producing a new plant
－ Ex: carrots

ARTIFICIAL PROPAGATION
Method of Asexual reproduction most used in agriculture

1. Cuttings
－ Pieces of stem cut from parent kept in water, moist
soil or sand.
－ Will put out new roots.
－ Ex: many garden plants
2. Grafting
－ Buds or sections are cut from one plant attached
to another that is already rooted in soil.
－ Ex: roses, fruit trees
3. Tissue Culture
－ Pieces of the center of stem are removed placed in flasks with growth medium a whole new plant will develop.

QUARTER 4 WEEK 2
PROCESSES IN ANIMALS: Nutrient Procurement and Processing

Digestive System

Digestion Types:
 Mechanical (physical)
－ Chew
－ Tear
－ Grind
－ Mash
－ Mix
 Chemical
－ Enzymatic reactions to improve digestion of
◦ Carbohydrates
◦ Proteins
◦ Lipids
  MOUTH
－ Teeth - mechanically break down food into small pieces.
－ Tongue - mixes food with saliva (contains amylase, which helps to break down starch).
－ Epiglottis - is a flap-like structure at the back of the throat that closes over the trachea preventing food from
entering it. It is located in the Pharynx.
 ESOPHAGUS
－ Approximately 20 cm long.
－ Functions in include:
◦ Secrete mucus
◦ Moves food from the throat to the stomach using muscle movement called peristalsis.
－ If acid from the stomach gets in here that’s heartburn.
 STOMACH
－ J-shaped muscular bag that stores the food you eat, breaks it down into tiny pieces.
－ Mixes food with Digestive Juices that contain enzymes to break down Proteins and Lipids.
－ Hydrochloric Acid (HCl) in the stomach kills bacteria.
－ Food found in the stomach is called Chyme.
 SMALL INTESTINE
－ Small intestines are roughly 7 meters long
－ Lining of intestine walls has finger-like projections called villi, to increase surface area for absorption of nutrients.
－ The villi are covered in microvilli which further increases surface area for absorption.
－ Nutrients from the food pass into the bloodstream through the small intestine walls.
－ Absorbs: • 80 % ingested water
• Vitamins
• Minerals
• Carbohydrates
• Proteins
• Lipids
－ Secretes digestive enzymes
 LARGE INTESTINE
－ About 1.5 meters long
－ Accepts what small intestines don’t absorb
－ Rectum (short term storage which holds feces before it is expelled).
－ Absorbs more water and salts from the material that has not been digested as food.
－ Get rid of any waste products left over.

ACCESSORY ORGANS: The Glands

 Not part of the path of food, but play a critical role.
 Include: Liver, gall bladder, and pancreas

 LIVER
－ Directly affects digestion by producing bile
◦ Bile helps digest fat
◦ Filters out toxins and waste including drugs and alcohol
and poisons.
 GALL BLADDER
－ Stores bile from the liver, releases it into the small intestine.
－ Fatty diets can cause gallstones.
 PANCREAS
－ Produces digestive enzymes to digest fats, carbohydrates,
and proteins.
－ Regulates blood sugar by producing insulin.
Some Common Digestive Disorders

Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD)

- also known as an acid reflux or heartburn, is a chronic
digestive disease. It occurs when the acid from the
stomach flows back (reflux) into the oesophagus
(food pipe). This acid reflux irritates,
and can sometimes damage, the lining of the
oesophagus. It can also reach the vocal cords, or
even flow back into the lungs.
In normal digestion, the muscular valve between
the stomach and the oesophagus (food pipe), known
as the lower oesophageal sphincter, opens to allow
food to pass into the stomach, and closes to
prevent food and acidic stomach juices from
flowing back into the oesophagus.
Every once in a while, it is normal to experience
acid reflux, where your stomach contents flow back
up into your oesophagus. However, if this occurs more
than twice a week for a few weeks, it could be a sign
of GERD

 Risk factors for GERD

Conditions and factors that can lead to the onset of GERD or aggravate acid reflux include:
• Increased abdominal pressure due to being overweight, obese, or pregnant
• Certain diseases (Zollinger-Ellison syndrome, scleroderma)
• Hiatal hernia, a condition where the upper part of the stomach moves up into the chest through an opening in the
diaphragm, which lowers the pressure in the oesophageal sphincter
• Increased production of gastrin, a hormone that regulates the release of stomach acid
• Certain foods and beverages, such as fried, spicy, or fatty foods, chocolat peppermint, coffee, or alcoholic beverage
• Smoking or inhaling second-hand smok
• Use of certain medications, including asthma medicines, calcium channel blockers, antihistamines, painkillers, sedatives,
and antidepressants

 Preventing and managing GERD

Several lifestyle changes and over-the-counter medications can be taken to control gastroesophageal reflux, and prevent or
reduce the risk of the condition turning into a chronic disease. These include:
• Avoid consuming certain trigger foods and beverages, such as fried, spicy, or fatty foods, chocolate, peppermint, coffee, or
alcoholic beverages
• Avoid overeating
• Not eating 2 to 3 hours before bedtime
• Losing weight if overweight or obese
• Taking over-the-counter medicines, such as antacids, for mild GERD, and H- 2-receptor blockers or certain proton pump
inhibitors for chronic, moderate GERD

Irritable Bowel Syndrome (IBS)

Causes Symptoms Treatment
• Stress; Anxiety; or Depression • Constipation and/or Diarrhea • Avoid trigger foods
• Change in the Gut’s microbiota • Abdominal pain • Regular exercise
• Genetics • Gas and/or Bloating • Medication
ULCER (Gastric Ulcer, Peptic Ulcer, etc.)
 Causes of Stomach Ulcers
• Helicobacter Pylori Infections
• Non-Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs (NSAIDs) Usage (aspirin, ibuprofen, etc.)
• Poor Diet and Nutrient Deficiencies
• Chronic Stress
• Long-Term Smoking
• Long Term Alcohol Abuse
• Long Term Use of Certain Medications
 Signs you have an Ulcer
• Gnawing or burning pain in your stomach
• Feeling hunger pains between meals and in the early hours of the morning
• Frequent burping
• Bloating
• Pain that comes and goes over long periods of time
• Bleeding
• Vomiting
• Loss of appetite
• Nausea and dizziness
• Stool discoloration
 Eating Tips to Reduce Peptic Ulcer Symptoms
• Enjoy five or six small meals per day
• Always sit upright in a chair while eating
• Rest a few minutes before and after each meal
• Enjoy your last meal or snack at least 3 hours before bedtime

Lactose Intolerance
It is the inability to digest lactose, a component of milk and some other dairy products, due to lack of enzyme lactase in small
intestine.
Symptoms Add to diet Avoid from diet
• Diarrhea • Almonds, Brazil nuts, dried beans • Milk and milk products
• Nausea • Almond milk • Products with dairy found in:
• Abdominal cramps • Tofu or soy －Packaged and prepared food
• Stomach rumbling • Kale, broccoli and leafy vegetables －Bread and baked goods
• Bloating • Calcium fortified orange juice and soy milk －Breakfast cereals, instant soups
• Gas • Fatty fish －Processed meats
• Egg yolks －Milk based liquids and powders
• Beef liver －Powdered coffee creamers

QUARTER 4 WEEK 3
Processes in Plants: Nutrient Procurement and Processing

Nutrients are the components found in our food such as

carbohydrates, vitamins, minerals, fats, etc. These
components are necessary for living organisms to survive.
Plants produce their own food while animals and human beings
do not produce their own food. We indirectly or directly depend
on plants and animals for our food needs.

If the animals get their nutrients through their

digestive system that is composed of several
organs and enzymes, how do the plants get their
nutrients needed?

Modes Of Nutrition
The process of obtaining food and utilizing it to grow, stay healthy
and repair any damaged body part is known as nutrition.
Plants produce their food by taking raw materials from their
surroundings, such as minerals, carbon dioxide, water and sunlight.

There are two modes of nutrition:

• Autotrophic – Plants exhibit autotrophic nutrition and are called primary producers. Plants synthesis their food by using light,
carbon dioxide and water.
• Heterotrophic – Both animals and human beings are called heterotrophs, as they depend on plants for their food.

Autotrophic Nutrition in Plants

 Photosynthesis
• Plants are able to produce their own food through a process called
photosynthesis.
• The chloroplast is the site of photosynthesis.
• Food production primarily is carried out in leaves. Water and minerals
from the soil are absorbed by the root and transported to the leaves
through vessels. Carbon dioxide reaches leaves through stomata –
which are small pores on leaves surrounded by guard cells.
• Chlorophyll is a green pigment present in leaves which helps the leaves
capture energy from sunlight to prepare their food. This production of food
which takes place in the presence of sunlight is known as photosynthesis.
Hence, the sun serves as the primary source for all living organisms
• During photosynthesis, water and carbon dioxide are used in the
presence of sunlight to produce carbohydrates and oxygen.
• Photosynthesis provides food to all living beings. • Oxygen, one of the
main components of life on earth is released by plants during photosynthesis.

Heterotrophic Nutrition in Plants

Some plants do not contain chlorophyll and depend on other plants for their food through the heterotrophic mode of nutrition.
These type of nutrition in plants are referred to as Heterotrophic nutrition in plants, hence are called parasites.

Listed below are different types of heterotrophic plants that are mainly classified based on their mode of nutrition:
▪ Parasitic
▪ Insectivorous
▪ Saprophytic
▪ Symbiotic

 Parasitic Nutrition - Some heterotrophic plants depend on other plants and animals for nutrition. Such plants are known as
parasitic plants. However, the host is not benefited from the parasite.
• For eg., Cuscuta, Cassytha

 Insectivorous Nutrition - Some plants have special structural features that help them to trap insects and are commonly
known as carnivorous or heterotrophic plants. These plants digest the insects by secreting digestive juices and absorb the
nutrients from them. These plants grow on the soil that lacks minerals.
• For eg., Pitcher plant, Venus flytrap

 Saprophytic Nutrition - The saprophytic plants derive nutrition from dead and decaying plants and animals. They dissolve
the dead and decaying matter by secreting digestive juices and absorb the nutrients.
• For eg., mushrooms, moulds.

 Symbiotic Nutrition - When two different plants belonging to two different categories show a close association, they are
termed as symbiotic. In this, both the plants are benefited from each other.
• For eg., the association of fungi and trees.
PARASITIC: Cassythia

INSECTIVOROUS: Pitcher Plant and Venus Flytrap

SAPROPHYTIC: Mushroom and Moulds

SYMBIOTIC: Fungi and Trees