Electrical Engineering

Electrical
Engineering
Prashant S. Minz
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
Course Developer
Prashant S. Minz
AAU Anand
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INDEX
Lesson Page No
Module 1: Alternating and direct current: Fundamentals
Lesson 1. Introduction to circuits 5-14
Lesson 2. Electromagnetic induction and magnitude of
15-20
induced e.m.f.-I
Lesson 3. Electromagnetic induction and magnitude of
21-26
induced e.m.f.-II
Lesson 4. Fundamentals of alternating current 27-35
Lesson 5. Phase relations and vector representation 36-39
Module 2: A.C. series and parallel circuits
Lesson 6. A.C. series and parallel circuits 40-54
Lesson 7. Concept of resonance 55-59
Lesson 8. Polyphase alternating current circuits 60-66
Lesson 9. Star delta transformation 67-73
Module 3: Transformers
Lesson 10. Transformer theory-I 74-82
Lesson 11. Transformer theory-II 83-86
Lesson 12. Vector diagram and losses 87-94
Lesson 13. Voltage regulation and efficiency of transformer 95-98
Module 4: Alternators
Lesson 14. Construction and types of alternators 99-103
Lesson 15. Principles of alternators 104-107
Lesson 16. E.M.F. in alternators, circuit breakers 108-111
Module 5: Induction motors
Lesson 17. Construction of induction motors 112-120
Lesson 18. Principle of induction motors 121-124
Lesson 19. Single phase induction motor 125-129
Lesson 20. Performance characteristics of induction motors 130-135
Lesson 21. Starting and speed control of induction motor 136-142
Module 6: D.C. Machines
Lesson 22. Construction and principle of D.C. generator 143-146
Lesson 23. Types and characteristics of D.C. generators 147-150
Lesson 24. Types and characteristics of D.C. motors-I 151-155
Lesson 25. Types and characteristics of D.C. motors-II 156-158
Lesson 26. Starting and speed control of D.C. motors 159-162
Module 7: Electrical measuring instruments
Lesson 27. Characteristics of measuring instruments 163-167
Lesson 28. Classification of instruments 168-171
Lesson 29. Principles of electrical measurement system 172-174
Lesson 30. Energy measurement 175-179
Module 8: Electrical Power economics
Lesson 31. Maximum demand charge 180-186
Lesson 32. Load factor and power factor correction 187-189
Electrical Engineering
Module 1. Alternating and direct current: Fundamentals
Lesson 1
INTRODUCTION TO CIRCUITS
1.1 Introduction
Electrical engineering is a field of engineering that generally deals with the study and application of
electricity, electronics and electromagnetism. Electrical energy is an important utility in a dairy processing
plant for operating the equipments, instruments, control systems etc. Electrical engineering as a subject will
give an understanding of A.C. fundamentals, A.C. circuits, transformers, alternators, motors, electrical
measuring instruments and electrical power economics.
1.2 Important Terms
1.2.1 Electricity
Electricity is a form of energy which involves flow of electrons in a closed circuit to do work.
1.2.2 Electric current (I)
Flow of electron in an electric circuit is called electric current (I) and its unit is ampere (A).
1.2.3 Potential difference
When two bodies are changed to different electric potential, these exists a potential difference between the
two bodies. Unit: Volt (v)
1.2.4 Resistance
The opposition offered to flow of electrons or current by a conductor / material is known as resistance. Unit:
Ohm (Ω)
1.3 Law of Resistance

The resistance of a wire depends on the following function:
(a) Resistance (R) is directly proportional to the length of wire (L).

R L
(b) Resistance (R) is inversely proportional to the cross sectional area of wire (a).
R 1/a
(c) Resistance (R) depends on the temperature of the conducting wire.
(d) Resistance (R) depends on the atomic structure of the material.
1.3.1. Ohm’s law
Ohm’s law states that the current (I) flowing between two points in a circuit is directly proportional to the
potential difference (V). This condition is applicable when temperature is constant.
I V
V = IR
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Fig. 1.1 Electric circuit
Numerical:
1. Calculate the current flowing in a circuit if voltage applied by the battery is 12 V and R = 5Ω.
Solution
V = IR
I=V/R
= 12/5
= 2.4 A
2. Calculate the current flowing in a A.C circuit at 220 V. Take value of R = 100 Ω.
Solution
V = IR
I = V/R
= 220/100
= 2.2 A
1.3.2 Effect of temperature on resistance
The value of resistance (RT) at any temperature T°C is given as:

RT = Ro(1+arT)
RT = Resistance at temperature T , Ohm
R0 = Resistance at 0°C,Ohm
ar = Temperature co-efficient of resistance at 0°C.
1.4 Electrical Circuit

The electrical circuit can be kindly classified as:
a) D.C. Circuit
b) A.C. Circuit. (will be covered in Module 2)
1.5 D.C. circuits
A circuit based on direct current (D.C.) is known as D.C. circuit. Circuits can further be classified as:
· Series circuit
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· Parallel circuit
· Series parallel circuit.
1.5.1 Series circuit
A circuit in which load (resistors) are connected in series so that same current flows through them is called
series circuit.
Here three resistance R1 ,R2 & R3 are connected in series across a voltage of V volts.
Let V1 , V2 & V3 be the voltage across resistor R1 ,R2 & R3 resistivity.
Where
Fig. 1.2 Series circuit
1.5.2 Parallel circuit

A circuit in which load (register) are connected in parallel so that different current through them is called
parallel circuit.
Fig. 1.3 Parallel Circuit
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Here three resistances I1, I2and I3 are connected in parallel across supply voltage of V volt. Note that the
voltage V across each resister in same. The current flowing through R1, R2 and R3 are I1, I2 and I3
respectively.
Or
Where
R = Total resistance
Similarly
1.6 Kirchhoff’s Laws

1.6.1 First law: Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL)
The algebraic sum total of all the currents (I1, I2, I3,….In) meeting at a point is zero.
Fig. 1.4 Currents at a point
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Taking incoming current at a point as +ve and outgoing current as –ve.
Or
1.6.2 Second law: Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL)
(Also known as Kirchhoff’s mesh law)

The algebraic sum total of all the emf and all the voltage drops is zero in a closed circuit or mesh.
Rules for algebraic sum:
· Rise in potential is considered +ve and fall in potential is considered –ve
· Taking following circuit as example
Fig. 1.5 Electric circuit
Voltage drop
· Tracing branch from A to B. V is negative (-v) i.e. fall is potential

· Tracing branch from B to A. V is positive
Emf
· Tracing branch from 1 to 2 E is negative
· Tracing branch from 2 to 1 E is positive
1.7 Superposition Theorem
The superposition theorem for electrical circuits states that for a linear system having two emf source in any
branch of a bilateral linear circuit, the current flowing through any section is the algebraic sum of all the
currents caused by each independent emf source acting alone, while all other independent sources are
replaced by their internal resistances. Consider a circuit (Fig. 1.6) with two emf source.
Let r1 and r2 be internal resistance of emf source E1 and E2. Applying superposition theorem to the given
electrical circuit:
· Case 1: considering first emf source E1 (Fig. 1.7). E2 is replaced by the internal resistance r2.
· Case 1: considering second emf source E2 (Fig. 1.8). E1 is replaced by the internal resistance r1.
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Considering Fig. 1.6-1.8, the currents in different branches can be given as:
I1 = I1’ – I1’’
I2 = I2’ – I2’’
I3 = I3’ + I3’’
Fig. 1.6 Electric circuit with two emf source
Fig. 1.7 Electric circuit considering first emf source
Fig. 1.8 Electric circuit considering second emf source
1.8 Numerical
1. For the circuit shown below calculate the current and power in 12 Ω resistor.
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Solution
For mesh A B C D A applying K V L
- 25 (I1 + I2) – 12 I2 + 160 = 0

- 25 I1 – 37 I2 + 160 = 0
25 I1 + 37 I2 = 160 -----------------(1)
For mesh B E F C B Applying K V L
10 I1 + 12 I2 - 120 = 0
- 10 I1 + 12 I2 = 120
Multiplying above equation by 2.5

- 25 I1 + 30 I2 = 300 ---------------(2)
Adding equ (1) & (2)

(25 I1 + 37 I2 = 160) + ( - 25 I1 + 30 I2 = 300) = 67 I2 – 460
67 I2 = 460
I2 = 6.86 A
Power p = I22 R2
P = 6.862 * 12
= 564.7 w
2. Find the branch current by superposition theorem in the following circuit.
Fig. 1.9 Electric circuit with two emf source
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Solution
The internal resistance of e.m.f can be denoted as follows:
Fig. 1.10 Resistance of emf denoted in the circuit

By replacing 35v battery with internal resistance of 1Ω. Total resistance across 25 v.
Current
Current
Fig. 1.11 Electric circuit considering first emf source

Now replace 25v battery by internal resistance as shown in the following fig.
Total resistance across 35 v battery
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Fig. 1.12 Electric circuit considering second emf source
1.9 Thevenin Theorem

Thevenin theorem states that current flowing through a load resistance RL connected across any two
terminals of a network by an equivalent circuit with voltage Eth and resistance Rth.
Where,
Eth = Thevenin voltage or open circuit voltage between two terminals of the network
Rth = Equivalent resistance of the network known as Thevenin resistance
Steps to apply Thevenin theorem
· Load resistance is removed to create an open circuit (Fig. 1.14)

· Find out the open circuit voltage between points A and B which is also known as thevenin voltage.
Fig. 1.13 Fig. 1.14
· Resistance across points A and B is determined by replacing emf E by internal resistance r (Fig.
1.15). This resistance is known as Thevenin resistance.
· The network is replaced by Thevenin voltage Eth, internal resistance Rth and load resistance RL
(Fig. 1.16).
· Current flowing through load resistance RL is calculated as:
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Fig. 1.15 Fig. 1.16
2.0 Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

Maximum power transfer theorem states that power output of a network is maximum when load resistance
RL is equal to internal resistance Rth i.e. RL = Rth
Software: Open source software Tiny CAD was used to draw the circuit diagrams. It is free software useful
for electrical engineering teachers and students. The software can be downloaded from the following link:
http://sourceforge.net/apps/mediawiki/tinycad/index.php?title=TinyCAD
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Module 1. Alternating current fundamentals
Lesson 2
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION AND MAGNITUDE OF INDUCED E.M.F. -I
2.1 Introduction
Before proceeding to the chapter of electro-magnetic induction, we need to know few things about
magnetism and electromagnetism. The first part of the lesson will be a revision of what you have already
studied in +2 level physics.
2.2 Magnetic Poles
When a bar magnet is dipped into iron filling, it is observed that large cluster of iron filling are formed at the
two ends have highest magnetic effects and are called poles of the magnet, one is North Pole (N) and other is
South Pole (S).
Fig. 2.1 Poles of a magnet
A simple experiment is described here to observe the distribution of magnetic field. Place a card board on the
top of a bar magnet and sprinkle iron filling over it. When the cardboard is slightly tapped, the iron fillings
get aligned in curved pattern as shown in figure 2.2. This arrangement is due to the magnetic force or field
around the magnet.
Fig. 2.2 Magnetic field around a magnet
2.3 Magnetic Field

It is the region around the magnet where the forces of attraction or repulsion act on magnetic poles. The
magnetic field is strongest near the poles and its strength decreases with increasing distance from the poles.
2.4 Magnetic Flux

In the above experiment, the curved lines formed by the iron filings represent the magnetic lines of force and
is known as magnetic flux.
Flux: The word Flux in dictionary means flow through a unit area, here it refers to magnetic lines of forces.
Magnetic flux may be quantified as the total number of magnetic lines of force produced by a magnet or an
electromagnet. Magnetic flux is denoted by ϕ and its SI unit is weber (Wb)
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1 Wb = 108 magnetic lines of force = 108 Maxwell
If magnetic flux of a bar magnet is 1 Wb, there will be 108 magnetic lines of force joining north and south
pole of the bar magnet.
2.4.1 Characteristics of lines of magnetic flux
1. The lines of magnetic flux are imaginary and represent the density and distribution of magnetic field.
2. In non-magnetic medium like air around the magnet, the line of magnetic flux has north to south
direction.
3. In magnetic medium like inside a magnet the line of magnetic flux has south to north direction.
4. Thus, lines of magnetic flux form a closed loop (fig. 2.3)
5. The lines of magnetic flux do not intersect each other.
6. Lines of magnetic flux act like stretched cords, always trying to shorten themselves.
7. Parallel lines of magnetic flux which are in the same direction tend to repel each other.
8.
Fig. 2.3 Lines of magnetic flux form a closed loop

2.4.2 Magnetic flux density
The magnetic flux density is the flux per unit area at right angle to the flux at a point.
Flux density, B = ϕ/A
Wb/m2 or Tesla (T) where, ϕ = magnetic flux (Wb), A = area (m2).
2.4.3 Permeability
Permeability is the ability of a material to conduct magnetic flux through it. Permeability is expressed as
absolute and relative Permeability and is denoted as µ.
2.4.3.1 Absolute permeability (µ)
It is the actual permeability of a material. Air or vacuum has a poor permeability for magnetic flux and its
value is given as:
µo = 4π x 10-7 H/m, where µo = permeability air or vacuum.
2.4.3.2 Relative permeability (µr)
Relative Permeability is the ratio of the absolute permeability of a material (µ) to the absolute permeability
of air or vacuum (µo).
µr = absolute permeability of a material / absolute permeability of air or vacuum = µ/ µo
#Relative permeability of air or vacuum = µ/ µo = 1
#Relative permeability of all non magnetic material = 1
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Table 2.1 Relative permeability of some materials
Material Relative
permeability
Aluminium 1.00002
Air/Vacuum 1
Soft iron 8000
Steel 100000
Nickel 100.600
Mu Metal (Nickel, 15% iron + copper + 50,000
molybdenum)
Metglass Magnetic Alloy 2714A 10,00,000
Hydrogen a pure iron- N 5 grade 1,60,000
Permeability (nickel iron magnetic alloy) 8,000

20% iron & 80% nickel content
Magnetic material such as soft iron, steel etc have high relative permeability. Therefore it is used for making
cores of electromagnet equipments. In fig 2.4 ii soft iron core is placed between the two magnets to increase
the conductance of magnetic flux. The lines of magnetic flux pass completely through the soft iron ring. It
results in a higher flux density in soft iron ring compared to air (Fig 2.4). Since result in a higher flux density
in soft iron is 8000 times the flux density of air.
Fig. 2.4 Two magnets without and with soft iron core (Click for Animation)
Direction of magnetic field due to current passing through a horizontal coil and circular coil is shown in fig
2.5 and fig 2.6 respectively. The magnetic flux in the coil can be classified as useful and leakage flux (Fig.
2.7)
Fig. 2.5 Direction of magnetic field due to current passing through a horizontal coil (Click for
Animation)
Fig. 2.6 Direction of magnetic field due to current passing through a circular coil (Click for Animation)
Fig. 2.7 Useful and leakage flux (Click for Animation)
2.5 Electromagnetic Induction

Electromagnetic Induction is a phenomenon by which an e.m.f. can be induced in a conductor by changing
the flux linking with the conductor. If the conductor is connected through a closed circuit current will flow in
it. The flow of current will take place as long as the flux linking the conductor is changing. Let us consider
two cases:
Case 1
The bar magnet is stationary and the flux linking to coil is not changing.
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Fig. 2.8 Condition when flux linking the conductor is not changing
Case 2
The bar magnet is moved. The magnet is moved at a rapid pace into & from the coil
· The flux linking to coil changes.
· Magnetic induced emf i.e., voltage generated in coil equal to the rate of change of flux linkages.
Fig. 2.9 Condition when flux linking the conductor is changing (Click for Animation)
These observations were summed up into two laws known as Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction.
First law
E.m.f (voltage) is induced in a coil or conduction when there is a change in magnetic flux linking the
conductor.
Second Law
Magnitude of the induction e.m.f is equal to the rate of change of flux linkages.
In a coil of N turns, the flux linking the coil increases from ϕ1 to ϕ2 during the time period the second.
Initial flux linkages = N ϕ1
Final flux linkages = N ϕ2
According to second law, if e is the induced emf in the coil, it is given by the following equation.
e = rate of change of flux linkages
Here (-) ve sign shows that the voltage is induced in a direction such as to oppose the cause that produces it.
Direction of magnetic field due to current passing through a conductor (Fig. 2.10) is given by right hand
screw rule (Fig. 2.11)
Fig. 2.10 Magnetic field around a conductor (Click for Animation)
Fig. 2.11 Right hand screw rule (Click for Animation)
When a conductor is placed between two magnets and current is passed through it (Fig. 2.12), direction of
current will determine whether the conductor will be pulled towards magnets (Fig. 2.13 i) or will be repelled
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(Fig. 2.13 ii).
Fig. 2.12 Conductor placed between two magnets (Click for Animation)
Fig. 2.13 Direction of current will determine force on the conductor (Click for Animation)
Two conductors are placed side by side. Direction of current will determine whether the conductors will be
pulled inwards (Fig. 2.14) or will be repelled (Fig. 2.15).
Fig. 2.14 Two conductors pulled inwards (Click for Animation)
Fig. 2.15 Two conductors repelled outwards (Click for Animation)

Numerical 1: Consider a coil of 75 turns. A magnet is moved close to the coil in such a way that the
rate of change of flux linkages is 15 mWb/s. Calculate the e.m.f induced in the coil.
Given: N = 75
Numerical 2: Consider a coil with 500 turns. If the flux linking the coil increase from 0.5 mWb to
1.5mWb in 1 sec, Calculate the induced emf.
Given:
N = 500
ϕ1= 0.5 mWb
ϕ2 = 1.5 mWb
t = 1 sec
Numerical 3: Flux of 5 mWb is linked with coil of 600 turns. If the flux is reversed in every 2s,
Calculate the e.m.f induced in the coil.
Change in flux dϕ = 5 – (-5) = 10 mWb [Since current is reversed]
Time period dt = 2 s.
Rate of change of flux = mWb/s
Emf induced = e = N =
Numerical 4: A 6-pole d.c generator consists of 6 fields with coils connected in series. Each coil is of
1500 turns. When the generator is started, there is a magnetic flux of 0.05 Wb/pole. The rotor rotates
at such a speed that the value of residual flux becomes 0.005 Wb/pole in 1 sec. Calculate the e.m.f
induced in by the generator.
Given:
No. of poles = 6
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No. of field windings = 6
No. of turns in each coils = 1500
Total no. of turns = 6×1500 = 9000
Total initial flux = 0.05 × 6 = 0.3 Wb
Total residual or final flux = 0.005 ×6 = 0.03 Wb
Time required for change between initial & final flux = 1 sec.
e.m.f induced
Numerical 5: A coil having 1000 turns has flux linkage of 10 mWb. If this flux is reversed in 5ms,
Calculate the e.m.f induced in the coil.
N = 1000 turns
dϕ= 10-(-10) = 20 mWb
dt = 5×10-3sec.
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Lesson 3
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION AND MAGNITUDE OF INDUCED E.M.F.-II
3.1 Direction of Induced E.M.F
There are two methods of determining the direction of induced e.m.f.

1. Lenz’s Law
2. Fleming’s Right hand rule
3.1.1 Lenz’s law
Lenz’s law states that the direction of electro-magnetic induced current will be in such a direction so as to
oppose the very cause which produces it. By the term “cause” we mean that the change in flux linking the
coil is the cause of production of current. Therefore the flow of induced current will be in such a direction
that the magnetic field created will oppose the change in the flux which is responsible in producing the
induced current.
When N- pole of a bar magnet is brought close to a coil, an e.m.f. is induced in the coil. The direction of the
current will be such that ‘B’ side of the coil attains north polarity, So as to oppose the change in the original
flux.
Fig. 3.16 E.m.f. induced in the coil by moving a magnet to and fro
3.1.2 Fleming’s right hand rule
Keep forefinger, middle finger and thumb of your right hand in a position that they are at right angles to each
other (Fig. 3.17 a, and b). If the:
a. First finger of the right hand is pointed in the directing magnetic flux.
b. Thumb is pointed in the direction of motion of the conductor.
c. Then the second finger will point in the direction of induced current.
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Fig. 3.17 (a) Fleming right hand rule
Fig. 3.17 (b) Fleming right hand rule (Click for Animation)
3.1.3 Fleming’s left hand rule

Fleming's left-hand rule is used for electric motors, while Fleming's right-hand rule is used for electric
generators. Separate hands need to be used for motors and generators because of the differences between
cause and effect. In an electric motor, the electric current and magnet field exist (which are the causes), and
they lead to the force that creates the motion (which is the effect), and so the left hand rule is used. In an
electric generator, the motion and magnetic field exist (causes), and they lead to the creation of the electric
current (effect), and so the right hand rule is used.
Fig. 3.17 (c) Fleming left hand rule (Click for Animation)
3.2 Magnitude of Induced E.M.F.
Induced e.m.f. can be classified as:
Fig. 3.18 Classification of induced e.m.f.
3.2.1 Dynamically induced e.m.f.

It can occur in two cases:
1. When conductor is moving in stationary magnetic field.
2. Or moving the entire field system while keeping the conductor stationary.
In both the above cases magnetic flux is cut by the conductor to induce e.m.f. in the conductor.
Consider a conductor of length l meters is placed in the magnetic field of magnetic flux density B Wb/m2.
The conductor is moving at right angles to the field at velocity v m/s (Fig. 3.19 a).
Fig. 3.19 (a) Conductor moving at right angles to the field (Click for Animation)
If the conductor moves a small distance dx in dt seconds. Then area swept by the conductor is = l ×dx.
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Flux cut by conductor dϕ = Flux density × area swept
= B × l.dx Wb
dϕ = Bldx Wb……………….eqn. 1
According to Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction, e.m.f (e) induced in the conductor is given by:
Since N = 1,
From equations 1 & 2.
Where,
If the conductor is moved at an angle θ with the direction of magnetic field at a velocity v m/s, as shown in
figure 3.19 (b), then:
Area swept by the conductor, A = l × dx Sin θ
Flux cut by conductor dϕ = Flux density × Area swept
dϕ = Bldx Sin θ
Fig. 3.19 (b) Conductor is moved at an angle θ with the direction of magnetic field (Click for
Animation)
Unsolved numerical
Numerical 1: A wire of length 60 cm is at right angles to a uniform magnetic field having flux density 2
Wb/m2. The velocity of the conductor is 50 m/s. Calculate the induced e.m.f. if conductor moves at an angle
700 to the field. (Ans: 46.43 V)
Numerical 2: A conductor of length 30 cm moves with a velocity of 50 m/s in a uniform magnetic field
(flux density 2.5 Wb/m2) Calculate the e.m.f. induced in the conductor when the direction of motion is:
(a) 900 to the magnetic field. (Ans 33.52 V)

(b) Inclined at 300 to the direction of field. (Ans 37.05 V)
3.2.2 Statically induced E.M.F
Here the conductor/ coil and magnetic field system both are stationary.
3.2.2.1 Self induced e.m.f

The e.m.f induced in a coil due to flux change linking with its own turn is known as self induced e.m.f.
When current flows through a coil, a magnetic field is established through the coil. If the current flowing in
the coil also changes. Due to change in flux linkage an e.m.f will be induced in the coil. According to Lenz’s
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law the direction of induced e.m.f is such that it opposes the cause which produces it. Thus the direction of
this induced e.m.f is toward change of current in the coil.
When current in the coil is varied, the induced e.m.f. opposes the change of current in the coil. This oppose
caused by induced e.m.f delays the change of current in the coil.
Fig. 3.20 Self induced e.m.f (Click for Animation)
3.2.3 Mutually induced e.m.f
If two coils are placed such that change in current in one coil induces e.m.f in the adjoining coil, it is known
a mutually induced e.m.f. Consider two coils A and B is placed side by side as shown in the figure 3.21.
When current is passed through coil A links to coil B. The flux common to both the coils (linking A to B) is
called mutual flux (ϕm). Varying current in coil A, varies the mutual flux leading to e.m.f induction in both
the coils. Now there are two types of induced e.m.f in the two coils A & B.
Fig. 3.21 Mutual Inductance

In Coil A: Self-induced e.m.f
Coil B: Mutually induced e.m.f

Characteristics of mutually induced e.m.f.
1. Magnitude of mutually induced e.m.f
where
Nm = number of turns in coil B.
2. According to Lenz’s law, the direction of mutually induced e.m.f is as to oppose the very cause
producing it. The direction of induced current in coil B due to mutual induced e.m.f will be such that the
flux linking coils A & B.
3. The characteristic of two coils such that voltage can be induced in one coil by changing current in the
other coil is called mutual inductance.
4. Mutually induced e.m.f in coil B will exists as long as the current in coil A is being changed. If the
magnitude of current in coil A comes to a constant value, the mutual flux no longer changes and mutually
induced e.m.f (in coil B) drops to zero.
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3.3 Coefficient of Self Inductance (L)
Self inductance of the coil may be defined as the property of a coil due to which it opposes the change of
current flowing through itself. This property of self inductance is attained by a coil is due to the self induced
e.m.f produced in the coil itself by the changing current. The principle of self inductance can be understood
taking two cases (Table 3.1):
Table 3.1 Cases for the direction of self induced e.m.f.

Current in the coil Direction of self induced e.m.f.
Case 1 Increasing Is such to oppose the rise of current (
and opposite to applied voltage)
Case 2 Decreasing Is such to oppose the decrease of
current (and of same direction as the
applied voltage)
Now we should understand that self inductance does not prevent the current from changing, but only causes
delay to the change.
3.3.1 Inductance of the coil depends on the following factors:
1. Number of turns in a coil and its shape.

2. Relative permeability (μr) of the material which surrounds the coil.
3. The rate of change of magnetic field. (It can also be said as rate of change of flux linkage).
Self inductance L = Nϕ/I henry.
Where
N = Number of turns in the coil.
ϕ = flux linking with the coil.
I = Current flowing through the coil.
Nϕ= Flux linkages.
3.4 Coefficient of Mutual Inductance

It may be defined as the characteristic of coil due to which it opposes the change of current in the
neighbouring coil.
where,
ii = current flowing through coil 1.

N1= Number of turns on core of length l meters.
a = area of cross section.
= relative permeability.
N2 = Number of turns in coil 2.
3.5 Coefficient of Coupling
Consider two coils placed adjacent to each other such that flux produced in one coil links to the other. The
fraction of magnetic flux produced by the current in one coil linking to other coil is known as co-efficient of
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coupling (K).
Where,
L1 & L2 are inductance of coil 1 and 2 respectively.
M = Mutual inductance between them.
Numerical: A coil having 1000 turns has flux linkage of 10 mWb. If this flux is reversed in 5ms, Calculate
the e.m.f induced in the coil.
N = 1000 turns
dϕ= 10-(-10) = 20 mWb
dt = 5×10-3sec.
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Lesson 4
FUNDAMENTALS OF ALTERNATING CURRENT
4.1 Introduction
In an A.C. system; the voltage acting in the circuit changes polarity (+ve & -ve) at regular time interval and
therefore the current also changes direction accordingly. A.C systems are more widely used than D.C. system
due to following reasons:
1. For large scale power generation, transmission and distribution ac systems are used to reduce
transmission losses. Transformers are used to step up or step down alternating voltage efficiently. Thus
handling alternating current is easier than D.C. system.
2. A.C. motors known as induction motors are simple in construction and also are cheaper compared to d.c
motor.
The switch gears like switches, circuit breaker etc for A.C. system is simpler than D.C. system.
4.2 Generation of Alternating Voltage and Currents
An alternating voltage may be generated by

a) Rotating a coil in a uniform magnetic field.
b) Rotating a magnetic field within a stationary coil.
Fig. 4.1 Rotating a coil in a uniform magnetic field (Click for Animation)
Fig. 4.2 Rotating a magnetic field within a stationary coil.
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Fig. 4.3 Generation of A.C.

The alternating voltage generated by any of the above methods will be of sinusoidal waveform (i.e sine
wave). The magnitude of generated voltage depends upon the speed of rotation, number of turns of coil and
the strength of magnetic field. The equation for alternating voltage is given by:
e = Em Sin ωt
Where,
e = Instantaneous voltage at any time t.
Em = Maximum value of alternating voltage.
ω = Angular velocity of coil.
Alternating voltage in Sine waveform will produce sinusoidal current. There can be different types of
alternating wave forms (Fig. 4.4).
Fig. 4.4 Different waveforms (Click for Animation)
Among different types of wave forms, sinusoidal wave is preferred over ramp, triangular or square wave
because of following reasons:
· In A.C. system like induction motor and transformer, sinusoidal wave has lower losses with higher
efficiency.
· Sinusoidal waves produce less noise or disturbance.
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Fig. 4.5 A.C. sine wave

4.3 A.C. Terms
1. Wave form: Also known as wave shape is the shape of the curve obtained by plotting the instantaneous
value of voltage or current in y-axis vs time in x-axis.
2. Cycle: an alternating quantity either voltage or current when completes one set of positive and negative
values. One cycle is equal to 2π radian or 3600 electrical degree.
3. Alternation: One half cycle of alternating quantity either –ve or +ve half is called an alternation.
4. Instantaneous value: The value of an alternating quantity (voltage or current) at any instant is called
instantaneous value.
5. Time period: The time required to complete one cycle of an alternating quantity is known as Time
period. It is denoted by T and its unit is in second.
6. Frequency: The number of cycles per second of an alternating quantity is known as time period. Its unit
is cycles/sec or Hertz (Hz). It is denoted by f.
Unit per second (1/s)

7. Amplitude: The maximum positive or negative value of alternating quantities is known as peak value
or amplitude. It is denoted by Emax or Imax.
8. Angular velocity (ω): Angular velocity of rotating coil is given as:
Note: In one revolution the coil undergoes rotation of 2 π radiations.
4.4 Magnitude of Alternating Voltage and Current

There are three ways to measure magnitude of alternating voltage and current.
1. Peak value.
2. Average or mean value.
3. R.M.S value.
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4.4.1 Peak value
The maximum value attained by an alternating quantity either voltage or current during one cycle is called
the peak value. It is also known as amplitude and denoted as Emax or Imax.
4.4.2 Average value
The arithmetic mean of all the instantaneous values of an alternating quantity over one cycle is known as
average value.
Since in symmetrical waves like sinusoidal current or voltage wave +ve half is equal to -ve half, the
average value over a complete cycle is zero. Therefore, for alternating quantity average value is considered
only for +ve half of the cycle.
4.5 Average Value of Sinusoidal Current

Consider an elementary area of width dθ in the +ve half of an alternating current. If i is the mid ordinate of
the strip, then area of strip:
Area of strip = idθ
Equating an alternating current

i = Im Sin θ…………………………….…(2)
From equation (1) & (2):
Iave = 0.637 Imax

Similarly for alternating voltage, average value of voltage is given as:
Eave = 0.637 Emax
4.6 R.M.S Value (Root mean Square value)

The R.M.S value of an alternating current is the steady current or direct current which when flows through a
known resistance for a given time produces the same amount of heat when the alternating current is flowing
through the same resistance for the same time.
Consider the +ve half cycle of a non-sinusoidal alternating current I, flowing through a resistance R ohms for
t seconds. Let divide the entire area into n equal parts as shown in the figure 4.6.
Fig. 4.6 Dividing wave into n equal parts (Click for Animation)
Let us consider that heat produced in the resistance R by current I is same as produced by direct current I
flowing through resistance R for the same duration t seconds.
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We know, heat produced in a resistance is given has:
Heat produced (q) = Current2×Resistance ×Time
q = i2Rt
According to assumption heat produced by direct current I flowing through R for the same time is:
As the heat produced in both the cases is same we can equate equation (1) and (2):
I = Square root of mean of squares of instantaneous values.

= Root-mean-square (r.m.s) value.
4.7 R.M.S Value of Sinusoidal Current

The equation for sinusoidal alternating current is given by:
i = Imax Sin θ……………………..(1)
The bold line in the figure shows sinusoidal current wave and the shaded line denotes i2 value of the
sinusoidal wave.
Fig. 4.7 i2 value of the sinusoidal wave (Click for Animation)
In the previous section we have already seen the formula for r.m.s value of current (Irms):
Consider an elementary area of width dθ in the +ve half cycle of the i2 current wave.
Area of Strip = i2 dθ
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From equation (1):
Area of +ve half cycle of the squared wave:
Base of half cycle = Π ……… (4)

Placing values from equation 3 and 4 in equation 2:
Irms = 0.707 Imax
Similarly for sinusoidally alternating voltage r.m.s value can be given as:
Er.m.s = 0.707 Emax
4.8 Form Factor

The ratio of r.m.s value to average value of an alternating quantity is known as form factor:
Form factor = 1.11

4.9 Peak Factor
Peak factor is the ratio of maximum value to r.m.s value of an alternating quantity is known as peak factor.
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4.10 Numerical
Q.1. Calculate the frequency and angular velocity of an alternating quantity if the time period = 0.5
sec.
Sol. Frequency f =
= 2 Hz or 2 cycles per sec

Angular velocity w = 2πf radians/sec
= 2π×2
=2 2
= 12.14 radian/ sec.
Q.2 For an alternating quantity, I = 100 sin125t calculate

a. Maximum value of current
b. r.m.s value
c. Average value
d. Frequency
e. value of current after 0.005 sec.
Solution:
a. We know i = Imsinωt
Im = 100A
b. Irms = = = 70.70
c. Iave= 0.637 Im
= 0.637×100
= 63.7 A
d. sin ωt = sin125t
ω =2πf
sin2πft = sin125t
2πft =125
f= = 19.9
20 Hz
e. From the ques i = 100 sin 125t
i = 100sin125×0.005
i = 10.88 A
Q.3 For an alternating current i=75 sin 68t determine:
a. Maximum value
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b. r.m.s value
c. Average value
d. Form factor
e. Frequency
Sol: a. we know for an alternating quantity.
i = Imax sinωt
Imax = 75 A
b. Irms =
= = 53.03A
c. Iave = 0.637 Imax
= 0.637 75
= 47.77 A
d. form factor =
=
= 1.11
Q.4 Find the instantaneous value (equation) for alternating, voltage of 230v at 50 Hz for domestic
supply.
Sol: Equation for alternating voltage:
V = Vm sinωt
Vm = 230
= 325.26
ω = 2πf
= 2π50
= 314.15 radian/ sec
V = 325.26 sin 314.15t
Q.5 Calculate the term required by the current to obtain values of 25, 50 and 75 A. for a sinusoidal
alternation current having maximum value of 150 A and frequency 50 Hz.
Sol: we know
i = Imax sinωt
Imax = 150A
a. Time for attaining 25 A
25 m = 150 sin (2π50t)
sin2 50t =
2 50t = sin-1 0.166
2 t = 9.550
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= 0.00053 sec.
b. Time for attaining 50 A.
50 = 150 sin (2π50t)
Sin (2π50t) =
2 = sin-1 0.33
= 0.00107 sec.
c. time for attaining 75 A
75 = 150 sin (2π50t)
2 = sin -1 0.5
= 0.00166 sec
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Lesson 5
PHASE RELATIONS AND VECTOR REPRESENTATION
5.1 Introduction
Sinusoidal varying alternating quantity (Current or Voltage) may be represented in following three ways:
a. Graphically represented by wave form.
b. Mathematical equation of instantaneous value of an alternate quantity.
c. Phasor Diagram: Phasor is a line of definite length to represent an alternating quantity. The length of
this line is equal to the maximum value of the alternating quantity. It rotates in anti-clockwise direction
at angular velocity ω radians/ second.
Fig. 5.1 Phasor for alternating current

Let us consider an alternating current i = Imax Sin ωt. The phasor is shown in fig. 5.1.
· The phasor OL rotating in anti-clockwise direction is representing the alternate current.

· The horizontal dotted projecting phasor OP on Y-axis gives the value of the current at that instant (Iinst).
· The lengthy phasor (i.e OL) gives the maximum value of current, Imax..
· The angle of the phasor with the horizontal x-axis represent the angle of the alternating current θ. This
angle θ is also known as phase of the alternating quantity.
· I is the value of current at that instance and is given by equation:
i = imax Sin ωt (Where θ = ωt)
· The angular velocity of phasor is ω radian/ sec about point O.
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5.2 Phasor Diagram of Similar Alternating Quantity
Let us consider two alternating currents of same frequency of magnitude Im1 and Im2. Two alternating
quantities having same frequency but having different zero points are said to have a phase difference.
As shown in figure 5.2, the angle between the zero points of two alternating current is called phase angle or
angle of phase difference ϕ. Phase angle can be measured as degrees or radians.
Fig. 5.2 Phasor Diagram of similar alternating quantity
5.2.1 The concept of leading and lagging

Alternating quantities with different zero points have a phase difference generally measured as angle ϕ.
Leading: The quantity which attains zero point earlier than the other quantity is known as leading quantity.
Lagging: The quantity which attains zero point later than the leading quantity is known as lagging quantity.
In figure 5.2 I1 is the leading current w.r.t I2, And I2 is the lagging current w.r.t. I1. The phase difference
between them is ϕ.
5.3 Phasor Diagram of Different Alternating Quantity

In case of two alternating quantities e.g. current & voltage, let us consider following assumptions:
1. Two alternating quantities voltage V and current I of same frequency.
2. Voltage is leading w.r.t current by phase difference of ϕ angle.
3. These alternating quantities can be shown by phasor diagram (Fig. 5.3).
4. The phasor Vm and Im rotate at the same angular velocity ω radian / sec.
5. Due to same angular velocity the phase difference ϕ between two phasors Vm and Im remains constant.
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Fig. 5.3 Phase difference ϕ between two phasors Vm and Im
5.4 Addition and Subtraction of Alternating Quantities

5.4.1 Addition of alternating quantities
There are certain rules for addition of alternating quantities:
a) Alternating quantities like voltage and currents can be represented as phasor.
b) These phasor can be added in the same manner as forces are added.
c) Only alternating quantities of similar types can be added. Either voltages can be added or currents can
be added. Voltage cannot be added to current.
Alternating voltage or current can be added by any of the following methods:
i. Parallelogram method.
ii. Method of components.
5.4.1.1 Parallelogram method
This technique is used for addition of two phasors at a time. The two alternating quantities are denoted by
phasor diagram. The two phasors are arranged as the adjacent sides of a parallelogram. The diagonal of the
formal parallelogram gives the resultant value of the two phasors. The following diagram shows phasor
diagram of a.c parallel circuit:
Fig 5.4 Phasor diagram of a.c parallel circuit
The two currents flowing in the circuit are given as:
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i1= Im1Sin ωt
i2= Im2 Sin (ωt +ϕ)
ir= resultant current
Im1 and Im2 are the maximum value of currents i1 and i2 respectively. Here i1 is leading w.r.t i2 or in other
words i2 is lagging w.r.t i1. The phase difference between i1 and i2 is ϕo.
The equation for instantaneous value of resultant current ir is given as:

ir = Imr Sin (ωt + α)
5.4.1.2 Method of components
This method can be used to add two or more phasors. The steps are as follows:
· Draw the phasor diagram for each alternating quantity.
· Resolve each phasor into horizontal and vertical components.
· Add all the horizontal components algebraically to obtain the resultant horizontal component Ix.
· The entire vertical component algebraically to obtain the resultant vertical component Iy.
· The resultant value of the alternating quantity will be calculated as:
5.5 Subtraction of Alternating Quantities

The steps for subtraction of alternating quantities are described below:
1. Draw phasor diagram for the two alternating quantities.
2. One of the phasor is traced and drawn in reverse direction.
3. Now it can be solved by parallelogram method or method of component.
Two similar alternating quantities i.e current i1 and i2 is given by phasor OA and OB.
The subtraction can be given by = OA –OB

= phasor OC
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Module 2. A.C. series and parallel circuits
Lesson 6
A.C. SERIES AND PARALLEL CIRCUITS
6.1 A.C. Circuit
When an alternating current flows in closed loop or a path, it is called an a.c. circuit. Different elements of an
a.c. circuit may be any or in combination of following:
1. Resistance: An electrical element which causes opposition to the passage of an electric current through
that element.
2. Inductance: In electromagnetism and electronics, inductance in the circuit "induces" (creates) a voltage
(electromotive force) in both the circuit itself (self-inductance) and any nearby circuits (mutual
inductance). Inductance is typified by the behaviour of a coil of wire in resisting any change of electric
current through the coil.
3. Capacitance: Capacitance is the ability of a body to store an electrical charge. Any element or structure
that is capable of being charged, either with static electricity or by an electric current exhibits
capacitance.
If the voltage applied to an a.c. circuit in sinusoidal, the resulting alternating current is sinusoidal. Also the
frequency of the alternating current will be equal to that of applied voltage. The opposition to the flow of
current in an a.c. circuit may be due to:
1. Resistance R
2. Inductive reactance (XL = ωL)
3. Capacitive reactance (XC = )
Different types of A.C. Circuit can be listed as follows:
1. A.C. Circuit with only one element

a) Resistance
b) Inductance
c) Capacitance
2. A.C. Series Circuit
a) R-L Series Circuit
b) R-C Series Circuit
c) R-L-C Series Circuit
3. A.C. Parallel Circuit
6.2 A.C. Circuit with Only One Element

6.2.1 A.C. Circuit with only one element-resistance
The figure 6.1 shows an a.c. circuit with a pure resistance of R Ω
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Fig. 6.1 A.C. Circuit with only one element-Resistance
The current in the circuit is i= ………………(1)

The instantaneous value of alternating voltage is given by:
From equation (1) and (2)
The value of current will be maximum when Sin 𝜔t=1
From equation (3) and (4)
In an a.c. circuit having resistance as any element, the phase difference between voltage and current is zero.
In other words it can be said that current is in phase with the voltage power.
We know instantaneous power p= i

From equation (2) and (5) we have
Considering average power
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P = Vrms Irms
p= i where V = rms voltage, I = rms current
6.2.2 A.C. Circuit with only one element-inductance

Figure 6.2 shows an a.c. circuit with pure inductance of L Henry
Fig. 6.2 A.C. Circuit with only one element-Inductance

The sinusoidal voltage can be given as
The e.m.f in the coil due to the current I flowing in the circuit can be given as
The induced e.m.f is also called e.m.f opposes the change of current in the coil .Back e.m.f. induced in the
coil is equal and opposite of the applied voltage. Thus equation
Integrating
i will be maximum when value of ) is one
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In the above equation

is also known as inductive reactance XL of the coil.
=angular velocity
f =frequency in hertz
L =inductance in henry
XL=inductive reactance in Ω (ohms)
Note: XL is the opposition offered by pure inductance to the flow of an alternating current
From equation (3) and (4) we have
From equation (1) and (5) it can be seen that current in a inductive circuit lags behind the voltage by
radians or 90 .It is well represented in the phasor diagram shown in fig. 6.3
Fig. 6.3 Phasor diagram for current and voltage in an inductive circuit
Power
Instantaneous power p = i
Average power consumed over one cycle
This shows that power absorbed in a circuit having only inductance element is zero
6.2.3 A.C. circuit with only one element- capacitance
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Fig. 6.4 Shows a circuit with capacitance C farads
Fig. 6.4 Circuit with capacitance C farads
The value of alternating voltage is given as
The charge on the capacitor q=c
The current in the circuit is
The value of the current will be maximum when sin ( t + =1
From equation (1)
This equation shows that in a circuit with capacitance as an only element, the current leads the voltage by 90
(Fig. 6.5)
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Fig. 6.5 Current leads the voltage by 90 in a circuit with capacitance

Power
Instantaneous power is given by
p= i
The average power over one complete cycle is p = Zero

The power absorbed in a circuit with pure capacitance is zero.
6.3 A.C. Series Circuit

There are three major types of circuit as follows
1. R-L Series Circuit
2. R-C Series Circuit
3. R-L-C Series circuit
6.3.1 R-L series circuit
Figure 6.6 shows a pure resistance and inductance connected in series
Fig. 6.6 A.C. circuit with series resistance and inductance
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Fig. 6.7 Phasor diagram for a.c. series circuit

From the phasor diagram
V2 = (VR)2 + (VL)2
Here,
V = r.m.s value of applied voltage
I = r.m.s. value of current
VR = voltage drop across R = IR
VL = voltage drop across L = IXL
Z = Impedance of the circuit and it is measured in Ω ohms
Here is known as phase angle
Voltage leads current by ϕ angle. In other words it can be said that current lags voltage by ϕ angle. Figure
6.8 shows the impedance triangle
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Fig. 6.8 Impedence triangle for a.c. series circuit
Impedance Z
Here, Z = Impedance and R = Resistance

XL=Inductive reactance
ϕ = Phase angle
Cos ϕ = power factor of the circuit
Power P= VI Cos ϕ
= (Z.I) ICos ϕ
P = I2R
In a series R-L Circuit power is consumed in resistance only. Inductance consumes zero power. The unit of
power is watt.
6.3.2 R-C series circuit

Fig. 6.9 shows a pure resistance and capacitance connected in series.
Fig. 6.9 A.C. circuit with series resistance and capacitance
Fig. 6.10 Phasor diagram for a.c. series resistance and capacitance circuit
From the phasor diagram figure 6.10
V2 = (VR)2 + (-VC)2
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Here,
VR = Voltage drop across R = IR
VC = Voltage drop across C = IXC
Z = Impedance of the circuit and it is measured in ohms
Here ϕ is known as phase angle.

Current leads voltage by ϕ angle. In other word can be said that voltage lags current by ϕ angle. The figure
6.11 shows the impedance triangle.
Fig. 6.11 Impedance triangle for a.c. series circuit
Impedance Z
Here, Z = Impedance and R=Resistance

XC = Capacitive reactance
= Power factor of circuit

C = Capacitance
XC = = Capacitive reactance
Power P = VICosϕ
Here,
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= Power factor of circuit
6.3.3 R-L-C series circuit
When a pure resistance R ohms, pure inductance L Henry and pure capacitor of capacitance C farad are
connected in series it is known as R-L-C Series Circuit.
Fig. 6.12 A.C. series circuit for resistance, inductance and capacitance
Fig. 6.13 Phasor diagram for resistance, inductance and capacitance series
circuit
The voltage drop across each element is given as:

a) Resistance (R) = VR = IR (in phase with current I)
b) Inductance (L) = VL = IXL (leads current by 90 )
c) Capacitance (C) = VC = I.XC( lags current by 90 )
In the phasor diagram VL is leading current I by 90 and VC is lagging current by 90 . So it is evident that
VL and VC are at 180 to each other. In technical terms it is said to be 180 out of phase with each other. The
circuit will behave like inductive or capacitive manner depending upon voltage drop VL or VC w.r.t current I.
From the phasor diagram:

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Where
Z = Impedance of the circuit which offers opposition to current flow
Phase Angle
Again from the phasor diagram
Three cases of R-L-C Series Circuit
The equation for impedance is given as:
Case 1: When XL>XC
· The term (XL-XC) is positive.

· The circuit works as an R-L Series Circuit.
· Current lags behind voltage.
· Phase angle is positive.
· Power angle is positive.
· Power factor is lagging.
· Current flowing in circuit i,
Case 2: When XC>XL
· The term (XL-XC) is negative.

· The circuit works as an R-C Series Circuit.
· Current leads over voltage.
· Phase angle is negative.
· Power factor is negative.
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· The current flowing in the circuit i,
Case 3: When XL = XC
· The term (XL-XC) = 0.
· The circuit works as pure resistance.

· Current is in phase with voltage.
· Phase angle is Zero.
· Power factor = 1.
· The current flowing in the circuit i,
6.4 True Power and Reactive Power
Table 6.1 Power in the electrical circuit

Formula Units
1. True power · Power consumed by watt PTrue = V×I Cosϕ Watts
meter
· Is the useful work and the
current is in phase with
the voltage
· Is the power consumed
by resistance
· It is also known as active
power
· Power consumed in L or PReac = V×I Sinϕ VAR

2. Reactive power C in a circuit is zero but
the circulating power is
termed as reactive power
· Does no useful work and
current is 90o out of phase
with voltage.
· Reactive power cannot be
measured by wattmeter.
3. Apparent power · It is defined as the Papparent = VI VA

product of Voltage and
Current
6.5 Power Triangle
Figure 6.14 shows the power triangle for an A.C. circuit.
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Fig. 6.14 Power triangle for an A.C. circuit

True power PTrue = V×I Cos ϕ
Reactive Power PReac = V×I Sin ϕ
Apparent power Papp = VI
From power triangle
6.6 A.C. Parallel Circuits
In a.c. circuits R, L and C are connected in parallel. Voltage across each element is same but the current
flowing through it is different. Equipments, lights and circuits are connected and operated in parallel.
Parallel connection gives advantage that each equipment, appliance or device can be operated independently
having separate switches for on/off. Parallel circuits are analysed using following methods:
1. Phasor diagram
2. Admittance method
3. Symbolic methods
Numerical
1. A coil of R = 100 ohm and L = 125 milli Henry is connected across alternating voltage e = 250 sin
100 t. Determine:
a. Impedance
b. Current through the coil
Solution:
2 ft = 100 t
f = 50 Hz
Inductive reactance XL =
= 2 fL
= 2 50x125x 10-3
= 39.25 ohm
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Impedance Z
Z
Z = 107. 42 ohm
Current through coil I = em/Z

= 250/107.42 = 2.32 A
2. A resistance of 50 ohm and capacitor of 200 µF are connected across 220 V, 50 Hz voltage supply.
Determine:
a. Impedance
c. Power factor
Capacitive reactance = XC = = = = 15.92 ohm
Impedance Z
Z
Z = 52. 47 ohm
Current I = V/Z = 220/52.47 = 4.19 A
Power factor Cos ϕ = R/Z = 50/52.47 = 0.953 leading
3. A resistance of 50 ohm, inductance 75 mH and capacitor of 25 µF are connected across 220 V, 50 Hz

voltage supply. Determine:
a. Impedance
c. Power factor
Inductive reactance XL =
= 2 fL
= 2 x50x75x 10-3
= 23.55 ohm
Capacitive reactance = XC = = = = 127.38 ohm
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Impedance Z
Z
Z = 115.24 ohm
Current I = V/Z = 220/115.24 = 1.9 A
Power factor Cos ϕ = R/Z = 50/115.24 = 0.433 leading
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Lesson 7
CONCEPT OF RESONANCE
7.1 Introduction
An RLC circuit (or LCR circuit) is an electrical circuit consisting of a resistor, an inductor, and a capacitor,
connected in series or in parallel. The RLC part of the name is due to those letters being the usual electrical
symbols for resistance, inductance and capacitance respectively. The circuit forms a harmonic oscillator for
current and will resonate at resonant frequency.
7.2 Concept of Resonance in Series Circuit
The resonance frequency is defined as the frequency at which the impedance of the circuit is at a minimum.
Equivalently, it can be defined as the frequency at which the impedance is purely real (that is, purely
resistive). This occurs because the impedance (reactance) of the inductor and capacitor at resonance are equal
but of opposite sign and cancel out. Thus in a R-L-C series circuit, when the value of the inductance is equal
to the capacitance i.e. XL = XC, the circuit is said to be in resonance. For a circuit the value of XL and XC is
given as follows:
XL = 2pfL
Where
f = frequency
L = Inductance Units Henry
where
f = frequency
C = Capacitance unit Farad
At resonant frequency (fr) XL = XC
i.e.,
7.2.1 Resonance curve

Resonance curve is plotted between current and frequency. For R-L-C series circuit current approaches
maximum value at the resonant frequency (fr) and declines abruptly on either side at that point. It is so due to
following reason (Table 7.1):
Table 7.1 Variation in current with frequency
Condition Circuit
Impedance
(Z)
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Frequency < XC Z>R Rapid decrease
Resonating >XL in current
frequency
Frequency > XL>XC Z>R Rapid decrease
Resonating in current
frequency
Frequency = XL=XC Z≈R Rapid increase
Resonating Z is minimum in current
frequency
Fig 7.1 Resonance curve

The resonance curve has a shape of dome because magnitude of circuit current decreases rapidly as the
frequency varies from the resonant frequency.
Sharpness of resonance: The narrowness of the frequency band around the resonance at which the response
of an electric circuit exceeds an arbitrary fraction of its maximum response, often 70.7%.
Selectivity: The selectivity of the circuit is a measure of its ability to reject any frequencies either side of
these points. A more selective circuit will have a narrower bandwidth whereas a less selective circuit will
have a wider bandwidth. The selectivity of a series resonance circuit can be controlled by adjusting the value
of the resistance only, keeping all the other components the same.
7.2.2 Q-factor
Q-factor gives the degree of current change with frequency above and below resonance. A R-L-C circuit is
used to discriminate between frequencies. In other words Q-factor or quality factor is the ability to
discriminate different frequencies.
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Resonant circuits are used to respond selectively to signals of a given frequency while discriminating against
signals of different frequencies. If the response of the circuit is more narrowly peaked around the chosen
frequency, we say that the circuit has higher "selectivity". A "quality factor" Q, as described below, is a
measure of that selectivity, and we speak of a circuit having a "high Q" if it is more narrowly selective.
An example of the application of resonant circuits is the selection of AM radio stations by the radio receiver.
The selectivity of the tuning must be high enough to discriminate
Fig 7.2 Q-factor

Q-factor depends entirely upon design of coil (i.e. R-L part of the R-L-C circuit) because resistance arises in
this rather than in a capacitor.
7.3 Concept of Resonance in Parallel Circuit
"Parallel resonant circuit" comprises of a capacitor (C) connected in parallel with an inductive coil having a
resistance R and inductance L which in combination is connected across an a.c. supply.
Consider a parallel resonant circuit with following elements:
a. L = Coil Inductance
b. R = Coil resistance. (usually very small and is neglected compared to other impedances)
c. C = Capacitance (assumed to be loss less)
d. Variable frequency a.c. source
Here a coil (L) and capacitor (C) are connected in parallel with an AC power supply. Let R be the internal
resistance of the coil. When XL equals XC, the reactive branch currents are equal and opposite. Hence they
cancel out each other to give minimum current in the main line. Since total current is minimum, in this state
the total impedance is maximum. Resonant frequency given by:
If R is negligible then,
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Note that any reactive branch current is not minimum at resonance, but each is given separately by dividing
source voltage (V) by reactance (Z). Hence I=V/Z, as per Ohm's law.
· At fr, line current is minimum. Total impedance is maximum. In this state a circuit is called a rejector
circuit.
· Below fr, circuit is inductive.
· Above fr,circuit is capacitive.
Like series resonant circuit, the resonance in a parallel resonant circuit will occur, when the power factor of
the entire circuit becomes unity.
7.4 Comparison of Series and Parallel Resonant Circuits

Table 7.2 Comparison of series and parallel resonant circuits
Series Circuit Parallel Circuit

1. Connection R-L-C series R-L and C
connection connected in parallel
across a.c. across a.c. supply.
supply
2. Circuit Maximum Minimum
current at
resonance
3. Impedance at Minimum (Z = Maximum
resonance R) (Z=L/CR)
4. Magnification Voltage Current
5. Power factor Unity Unity
at resonance
7.5 Application of R-L-C Circuit
1. They are used in many different types of oscillator circuit.

2. Variable tuned circuits: A very frequent use of these circuits is in the tuning circuits of analogue radios.
Adjustable tuning is commonly achieved with a parallel plate variable capacitor which allows the value
of C to be changed and tune to stations on different frequencies.
3. Signal Filters: Can be used to filter a signal by blocking certain frequencies and passing others.
4. Voltage multiplier
5. Pulse discharge circuits
7.6 Applications of Resonance Effect
1. Most common application is tuning. For example, when we tune a radio to a particular station, the LC
circuits are set at resonance for that particular carrier frequency.
2. A series resonant circuit provides voltage magnification.
3. A parallel resonant circuit provides current magnification.
4. A parallel resonant circuit can be used as load impedance in output circuits of RF amplifiers. Due to
high impedance, the gain of amplifier is maximum at resonant frequency.
5. Both parallel and series resonant circuits are used in induction heating.
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Numericals
1. Calculate the resonant frequency for a R-L-C series circuit having L = 25 mH and C = 30µF.
= 184 Hz
2. Calculate the resonant frequency for a R-L-C series circuit having L = 30 mH and C = 50 µF. Also
calculate band width of the circuit if Q-factor is 50.
= 130 Hz
Q = fr/BW
BW = fr/Q = 130/50 = 2.6 Hz
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Lesson 8
POLYPHASE ALTERNATING CURRENT CIRCUITS
8.1 Introduction
In domestic supply line comprise mostly of single phase electricity. Home appliances like T.V., refrigerator,
washing machines are designed to be operated by single phase alternating current. But for individual use
where heavy duty machines have to be operated single phase current is not sufficient. There polyphase a.c. is
needed to run in plant and machinery. Polyphase means a.c. will have two or more than two phases.
Generally 3 phase (also denoted as 3ϕ) alternating systems are employed in the industry.
8.2 Polyphase Systems
8.2.1 Single phase

A generator with one armature winding involves a single phase alternating current. The instantaneous value
of emf induced in the eq. is given as
ea1a2 = Em. Sin (ωt)
8.2.2 Two phase
A two phase alternative (generator) has two windings and the angle between them is 90o. As a result the
phase difference between the two alternating voltages is 90o. And since the number of turns in the two
windings are same the magnitude of e.m.f generated and frequency is same in both the windings. The
instantaneous value of e.m.f induced in the two coils is given as:
ea1a2 = Em Sin ωt
ea1a2 = Em sin (ωt – 90o) or Em sin (ωt – π/2)
8.2.3 Three phase

A three phase system has three windings in the alternator. The windings are placed such that the angle
between them is 120o (Fig. 8.1). Since the windings are identical the magnitude and frequency of alternating
voltage is same for all the three windings. The instantaneous value of e.m.f. indicates in the three windings
are given as:
ea1a2 = Em Sin ωt
eb1b2 = Em Sin (ωt – 120o) or Em Sin (ωt- 2p/3)
ec1c2 = Em Sin (ωt-240o) or Em Sin (ωt- 4p/3)
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Fig. 8.1 Wave form of three phase system
8.3 Comparison of Three phase and Single Phase System
Table 8.1 Comparison of three phase and single phase system

3ϕ System Singleϕ
System
1. Transmission line distribution and voltage Better Poor
regulation
2. Transmission line conductor (wire) Less (Only 75% of what is received for More
requirement for distribution single ϕ system)
3. Vibration due to electrical loads (e.g. Low High
motors)
4. Electrical Machine (e.g. motors, generators,
transformers etc.)
a. Size Small Bulky
b. Construction Simple Complex
c. Performance Better Average
d. Cost Cheaper Expensive
than 3ϕ
e. Efficiency High Low
f. Power factor of motor High (0.7 to 0.8) Low (0.5)
g. Starting of motors Self Starting Not self
starting
8.4 Power Sequence
In a poly phase system, the order in which the phases attain the maximum voltages (emf) is called as phase
sequence. Maximum voltage or emf is attained in the phase sequence of a1a2®b1b2®c1c2. If the direction
notation is reversed then the new phase sequence will be c1c2®b1b2® a1a2.
Note: In 3ϕ induction motor, the direction of rotation depends on phase sequence of the applied voltage.
Direction of the rotation can be reversed by interchanging any two lines.
8.5 Numbering of Phases
The phases can be numbered in three methods according to the phase sequence of system.
a) By numbering 1, 2, 3
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b) By alphabetically a, b, c
c) Colour code (R, Y, B) where R = Red, Y = Yellow, B = Blue
+ ve phase sequence = RYB
- ve phase sequence = RBY or BYR or YRB
8.6 Double Subscript Notation
Voltages in the 3ϕ systems can be denoted using two subscripts. The two subscripts are the two points
between which the voltage or current is being considered. The sequence of subscript gives the direction in
which voltage is denoting or current is flowing.
Example
VRY – It denotes the voltage between points RY and the positive direction of voltage from R to Y.
IRY – It denotes the current flowing from point R towards point Y.
8.7 Inter Connection of Three Phases

Let us first understand the construction of a 3ϕ alternator. It comprises of two main parts stator and rotor.
Stator is the stationary part of the alternator. Stator have three windings. Winding has two terminal marked
on start and finish. A total of six wires will be required to connect the alternator (two for each winding). The
type of connection is very expensive and complex. Instead these six terminals are connected by any of the
two methods.
1. Star or wye (Y) connection (Fig 8.2)
2. Mesh or delta (∆) connection (Fig 8.3)
8.7.1 Star or wye (Y) connection
Here the similar ends (either start or finish) are connected at a point. This point is known as star or neutral
point (N). Line conductors are commonly called by colour code R (Red), Y (Yellow) and B (Blue) and are
shown in Fig 8.1. as RR¢, YY¢ and BB¢. They can also be sequenced as a,b,c or 123.
8.2 Star or Y connection

· Neutral connection: - The wire joining neutral point N is known as neutral connection.
· Phase voltage: - As the name suggests it is the voltage measured between any line and Neutral (N) is
known as phase voltage (Vph). Since the coils are held at 1200.
· Line voltage: - It is the voltage existing between any two phase winding or phases (Vph).
Line voltage = √3 × phase voltage
· Phase current: - Current flowing through any winding or phase is known as phase current.
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· Line current: - Current flowing through any line is known as line current.
For star connection line current = phase current
Note: Star connection is also known as 3 phase 4 wire system. In case neutral wire in not there, it may be
called as 3ϕ 3 wire system.
Power
Output power per phase = Vph Iph Cosϕ

Total output power = 3 Vph Iph Cosϕ
since VL = √3 Vph
Iph = IL
∴ Total output power = √3 VL IL Cosϕ
Where
Vph = Phase voltage
Iph = Phase current
VL = Line voltage
IL = Line current
Cosϕ = Power factor
P = Power
8.7.2 Delta or mesh connection
In delta or Mesh connection the three windings are connected in series pattern (Fig. 8.3). The connections are
made in the following way:
Start of winding a1 → Finish terminal of winding c2
Start of winding b1 → Finish terminal of winding a2
Start of winding c1 → Finish terminal of winding b2
Fig. 8.3 Delta or mesh connection

· Phase voltage – The voltage measured in windings or phases is known as phase voltage.
· In Mesh or Delta ∆ connection
Line voltage (VL) = Phase voltage (Vph)
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· Phase current – Is the current flowing through any winding or phase.
· Line current – Is the current flowing through any line. For ∆ connection:
Line current (IL) = √3 Iph
Where
Iph = phase current
Power
Output power per phase = Vph Iph Cosϕ
For balanced load,
Total power P = 3 Vph Iph Cosϕ
Since Vph = VL and IL = √3 Iph
P = √3 VL IL Cosϕ
True power P = √3 VL IL Cosϕ units Watts (W) or kilowatts (kW)
Apparent power Papp = √3 VL I L units VA or kVA
Reactive power Prec = √3 VL IL Sinϕ units VAR or kVAR
8.8 Differences Between Star(Y) and Delta(∆) Connection

Table 8.2 Differences between star(Y) and delta (∆) connection
Star (Y) Delta (∆)

1. Structure 1. Structure
2. Winding are connected by joining 2. Windings are connected by joining

similar ends dissimilar ends
3. 3ϕ 4 wire system is possible 3. Only 3ϕ 3 wire system possible
4. Provision for neutral 4. No neutral wire
5. Line voltage VL = √3 Vph 5. Line voltage
Where, Vph = Phase voltage VL = Phase voltage Vph
6. Line current IL = Phase current Iph 6. Line current IL = √3 Iph

Where, Iph = phase current
7. Line voltage are at phase difference of 7. Lines current are at phase difference of
1200 1200.
8. Alternators are generally designed as 8. Alternators are not generally connected as
3 ϕ star system because of following Delta system.
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reason
i. Less insulation requirement
ii. Require less number of turns in the
winding
Numericals
1. Calculate line voltage of Y-system if phase voltage is 340 V.
VL = √3 Vph
VL = √3 X 340
VL = 588.89 V
2. Calculate line current of Δ-system if phase current is 25 A.

IL = √3 Iph
IL = √3 X 25
IL = 43.3 A
3. Calculate total power in a Y-system if line voltage and line current is 440 V and 25 A respectively.
Consider power factor as 0.65.
Total output power = √3 VL IL Cosϕ
= √3 X 440 X 25 X 0.65
= 12.38 kW
4. For a star connected system calculate the line voltage and output power if phase voltage = 410 v and
line current is 7.5 A. Take power factor as 0.86.
Solution
Given
Vph = 410 v
IL = 7.5 A
Cos Φ = 0.86
= 710.14 v
Total outer power =
= 7933 w
5. For a data connected system calculate the line current and output power if phase voltage is 440 v
and phase current is 5A. Take power factor as 0.75. Also calculate the reactive power.
Solution
Vph = 440 v
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IL = 5 A
Cos Φ = 0.76
= 8.66 A
Output power p = 3 Vph Iph cosΦ
P = 4950 w
Reactive power prec =
prec = 3 Vph Iph Sin Φ
Cos Φ = 0.75
Φ = 41.40°
Sin Φ = 0.661
Prec =
= 4362.6 W
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Lesson 9
STAR DELTA TRANSFORMATION
9.1 Transformations
Alternating voltage and current can be shown using phasor diagram. The problems can be analysed by using
following two mathematical forms:
9.1.1 Rectangular form
Consider a voltage phasor V. The magnitude of the phasor is V and having θ angle from reference line OX.
Fig. 9.1 Voltage phasor denoted by OV
Voltage phasor V = a + jb
Magnitude of phasor
9.1.2 Polar form

In polar form the phasor can be represented by the magnitude and the angle with the reference axis.
V = V∠ θ°
9.2 Conversion Methods

1. To convert Rectangular to polar form:
Rectangular form V = a + jb
Polar form = V ∠ θ°
2. To convert Polar to Rectangular form:

Rectangular form = V ∠ θ°
a = V cos θ
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b = V sin θ
Polar form = a + jb
9.3 Numerical
Q.1 Convert 100 + j 50 to polar form:
Magnitude =
= 111.80
Phase angle =
= 26.56°
Polar form = 111.80∠ 26.56°
Q.2 Convert 100∠ 14.47° to rectangular form.
a = V cosθ
= 100 cos14.47°
= 96.82
b = V sin θ
=100 sin 14.47°
= 25
Rectangular form = 96.82 + j25
Q.3 Convert 200−j50 and −25−j20 into polar forms.

1. 200-j50 into polar
Magnitude =
= 206.15
Phase angle
= −14.03°
Polar form = 206.15∠−14.03°
2. −25−j20 into polar
Magnitude =
= 32.01
Phase angle
= 38.65°
Polar form = 32.01∠38.65°
9.4 Adding and Subtraction of Phasors

The rectangular form is the simplest method for addition or subtraction of Phasors. If the phasors are
represented in polar form, they should be first converted to rectangular form and then addition or subtraction
be carried out.
(i) Addition: For the addition of phasors in the rectangular form, the real components are added together
and the complex numbers (j components) are added together. Consider two voltage phasors:
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V1 = a1 + jb1; V2 = a2 + jb2
Resultant Voltage V = V1 + V2 = (a1 + jb1) + (a2 + jb2)
= (a1 + a2) + j(b1 + b2)
Magnitude of resultant, V
Angle from OX-axis,

(ii)Subtraction is done similar to what was done in phasor addition
V = V1 −V2 = (a1 + jb1) − (a2 + jb2)
= (a1 − a2) + j(b1 − b2)
Magnitude of resultant voltage,
Angle from OX-axis,
9.5 Multiplication and Division of Phasors

Multiplication and division of phasor is done in polar form as the method is simpler compared to what is
done in rectangular form. Consider two phasor:
V1 = a1 + jb1 = V1∠θ1
V2 = a2 + jb2 = V2∠θ2
9.5.1 Multiplication
(i) Rectangular form,

V1 × V2 = (a1 + jb1) (a2 + jb2)
= a1a2 + ja1b2 + ja2b1 + j2b1b2
= (a1a2−b1b2) + j(a1b2 + a2b1) (as j2=−1)
Magnitude of resultant
Angle w.r.t. OX-axis,
(ii) Polar form. To multiply the phasors that are in polar form, multiply their magnitudes and add the
angles (algebraically).
V1 × V2 = V1∠θ1× V2 ∠θ2 = V1V2∠ θ1+ θ2
Multiplication of phasors becomes easier when they are expressed in polar form.
9.5.2 Division
(i) Rectangular form,
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(ii) Polar Form. To divide the phasors that are in polar form, the magnitude of phasors are divided and
denominator angle is subtracted from the numerator angle.
9.6 Transformation
9.6.1 Star to delta (Y/∆) transformation
In any electrical system a star Y connection may be replaced by an equivalent ∆-connected system. A 3-
phase star system having voltage VL and line current IL may be replaced by a ∆-connected system having
phase voltage VL and phase current IL/√3. Y-connected load having branch impedances each of Z∠∅ may be
replaced by an equivalent ∆-connected load having phase impedance is 3Z∠∅ (Fig. 1.2).
Fig. 9.2 Star to delta (Y/∆) transformation
For a balanced star-connected load, let
VL = line voltage;
IL = line current;
Z∠∅ = impedance per phase
Then for an equivalent ∆-connected system,
Phase voltage Vph = VL

Phase current Iph = IL / √3
Zph = 3Z∠∅
ZY = VL / (√3 IL)
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9.6.2 Delta to star (∆/Y) transformation
Fig. 9.3 Delta to star (∆/Y) transformation

Now, in the equivalent ∆-connected systems, the line voltages and currents must have the same values as in
the Y-connected system, hence we must have
VL= Vph
Iph = IL / √3
Z∆ = VL / (IL / √3) = √3 VL/ IL = 3ZY
Z∆ ∠ ∅ = 3 ZY∠ ∅ (∵VL/ IL = 3ZY)
Z∆ = 3 ZY or ZY = Z∆ /3
Numerical
1. A 220 V 3 phase Y connected load is shown in following diagram. The phase sequence is RYB.
Calculate the line currents and neutral line current.
ZR = (20 + j10) = 22.36∠26.56o
ZY = (18 + j6) = 18.97∠18.43o
ZY = (25 + j5) = 25.49∠11.30o
Let line voltages with difference of phase angle 120o
VRN = 220∠0o
VYN = 220∠─120o
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VBN = 220∠─240o
Line currents:
IR = VRN/ZR = =9.83∠─26.56o = 8.79 ─ j4.39 A
IY = VYN/ZY = =11.59∠─138.43o = ─ 8.67 ─ j7.69 A
IB = VBN/ZB = =8.63∠─251.3o = ─ 2.76 + j8.17 A
IN = IR + IY + IB
= 8.79 ─ j4.39 ─ 8.67 ─ j7.69 ─ 2.76 + j8.17
IN = ─ 2.64 + j4.87 = 5.53∠118.46o A
2. Consider 75 ohm resistors are connected in star and then in delta. If line voltage VL = 440 V
calculate line and phase current in star and delta system.
Solution
Star connection
Phase voltage Vph = VL/√3 = 440/√3 = 254.03 V
Phase current Iph = Vph / Z ph = 254.03/75 = 3.38 A
Line current IL = Phase current Iph = 3.38 A
Delta connection
Phase voltage Vph = Line voltage VL = 440 V
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Phase current Iph = Vph / Zph = 440/75 = 5.86 A
Line current IL = Iph X √3 = 5.86 X √3 = 10.14 A
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Module 3. Transformers
Lesson 10
TRANSFORMER THEORY-I
10.1 Introduction
Transformer is used to increase or decrease the voltage. Transformer is an important electrical machine in a
power system (Fig. 10.1). A transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to
another through inductively coupled conductors—the transformer's coils. A varying current in the first or
primary winding creates a varying magnetic flux in the transformer's core and thus a varying magnetic field
through the secondary winding. This varying magnetic field induces a varying electromotive force (EMF), or
"voltage", in the secondary winding. This effect is called inductive coupling.
Fig. 10.1 A pole mount transformer
Electrical power is generated at power plant (Thermal/Hydel/Nuclear) generally at 11 kV. The voltage is
stepped up to 220 kV or 400 kV for transmission to long distances. It is done to reduce loss and increase
distribution efficiency. Transformer can be broadly classified as:
10.1.1 Step up transformer
When output voltage is greater than input voltage (V2>V1).
Fig. 10.2 Step up transformer
10.1.2 Step down transformer

When output voltage is less than input voltage (V2<V1).
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Fig. 10.3 Step down transformer

10.2 Principle of Operation
Transformer works on the principle of electromagnetic induction. The basic elements of a transformer are
(Fig. 10.3):
1. Steel core: on which primary and secondary winding are done.
2. Primary winding: a.c. supply is connected.
3. Secondary winding: Load is connected.
When primary winding is connected to a.c. voltage V1, an alternating flux is set up in the core. This
alternating flux links with the secondary winding through the steel core. An e.m.f. is induced in the
secondary winding known as mutually induced e.m.f. According to Lenz’s law the direction of induced
e.m.f. V2 is opposite to the applied voltage V1 (Fig.10.4).
Fig. 10.4 Direction of induced emf in secondary coil is opposite to applied voltage
The primary and secondary windings are not connected but due to mutual flux emf is induced in the
secondary coils.
10.3 E.m.f. Equation of a Transformer

Consider a transformer having
N1 number of turns in primary side
N2 number of turns in secondary side
The transfer is updated by a.c input of frequency f. Let Φm be the maximum flux in the transfer core.
Φm = Bm × A
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Where
Φm = Maximum flux in core , Wb
Bm= Maximum flux density
A = area of core
Fig. 10.5 Wave form of alternating flux
From above figure it is evident that flux increase from zero to the maximum value Φm in T/4 seconds.
------------(1) [Since T = 1/f]

We know,
Form factor = r.m.s. value/average value = 1.11
Or, r.m.s value = 1.11 × average value--------(2)
From eqn (1) & (2)

r.m.s value of e.m.f/ turn = 1.11 × 4 f Φm volts
= 4.44 f Φm volts/turn
r.m.s value of induced emf in primary winding having N1 turns
E1 =4.44 f Φm N1 volts-------------(3)
r.m.s value of induced emf in secondary winding having N2 turns
E2 = 4.44 f Φm N2 volts----------(4)
Dividing equation (4) & (5)
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Or
The ratio of secondary voltage (E2) to primary voltage (E1) is known as transformation ratio (K).
· Step up transformer N2 > N1 or K > 1

· Step down transformer N1 > N2 or K < 1
In case of an ideal transformer

Input power = output power
or
-----------(6)
From (5) & (6)
10.3.1 Turn ratio
The ratio of secondary to primary turns is called turn ratio,

turn ratio= N2/N1.
If N2>N1 transformer is step-up transformer
If N2<N1 transformer is step-down transformer.
The relationship between transformation ratio and turn ratio is given as:
10.4 Working
When an alternating voltage V1 is applied to the primary, an alternating flux is set up in the core. The
alternating flux links both the windings and induces e.m.f.s E1 and E2 in them according to Faraday’s laws of
electromagnetic induction. The e.m.f. E1 is termed as primary e.m.f. and e.m.f. E2 is termed as secondary
e.m.f.
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Note that magnitude of E2 and E1 depend upon the number of turns on the secondary and primary
respectively. If N2>N1, then E2>E1 (or V2>V1) and we get a step-up transformer. On the other hand, if
N2<N1, then E2<E1 (or V2<V1) and we get a step-down transformer. If load is connected across the
secondary winding, the secondary e.m.f. E2 will cause a current I2 to flow through the load. Thus, a
transformer enables us to transfer a.c. power from one circuit to another with a change in voltage level. The
following points may be noted carefully:
· The transformer action is based on the laws of electromagnetic induction.

· There is no electrical connection between the primary and secondary. The a.c. power is transferred from
primary to secondary through magnetic flux.
· The transformer cannot work on d.c. power.
· There is no change in frequency i.e. output power has the same frequency as the input power.
· The losses that occur in a transformer are:
a) Core losses-eddy current and hysteresis.

b) Copper losses-in the resistance of the windings.
In practice, these losses are very small so that output power is nearly equal to the input primary power. In
other words, a transformer has very high efficiency.
10.5 Application of Transformer

10.5.1 Power distribution
Big generating stations are located at hundreds or more km away from the load center (where the power will
be actually consumed). Long transmission lines carry the power to the load centre from the generating
stations. Generator is a rotating machines and the level of voltage at which it generates power is limited to
several kilo volts only a typical value is 11 kV. To transmit large amount of power (several thousands of
mega watts) at this voltage level means large amount of current has to flow through the transmission lines.
The cross sectional area of the conductor of the lines accordingly should be large. Hence cost involved in
transmitting a given amount of power raises many folds. Not only has that, the transmission lines had their
own resistances. This huge amount of current will cause tremendous amount of power loss or I2R loss in the
lines. This loss will simply heat the lines and becomes a wasteful energy. In other words, efficiency of
transmission becomes poor and cost involved is high. The above problems may address if we could transmit
power at a very high voltage say, at 200 kV or 400 kV or even higher at 800 kV. But as pointed out earlier, a
generator is incapable of generating voltage at these levels due to its own practical limitation. The solution to
this problem is to use an appropriate step-up transformer at the generating station to bring the transmission
voltage level at the desired value as depicted in figure 10.6 where for simplicity single phase system is
shown to understand the basic idea.
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Fig. 10.6 Power transmission system
Obviously when power reaches the load centre, one has to step down the voltage to suitable and safe values
by using transformers. Thus transformers are an integral part in any modern power system. Transformers are
located in places called substations. In cities or towns you must have noticed transformers are installed on
poles – these are called pole mounted distribution transformers. These type of transformers change voltage
level typically from 3-phase, 6 kV to 3-phase 440 V line and then to 220 V line.
10.5.2 Domestic use
Small transformers are used in the mobile charger, emergency light etc to bring 220 V domestic supply to
low voltage may be 4.5 V or 6 V.
10.6 Construction of Transformer

1. Steel core: Silicon steel in the form of thin laminations is used for the core material. The core is
laminated to minimize the eddy current loss. These laminations are coated with a thin layer of insulating
varnish, oxide or phosphate. The thickness of laminations ranges from 0.35 mm to 0.5 mm. The
construction can be core type or shell type:
a) Core type: In a core type construction the winding surrounds the core. The laminations are cut in L
shape and are assembled in form of rectangular frame (Fig. 10.7). To prevent flux leakage primary and
secondary windings are placed overlapping on the limbs of core.
Fig. 10.7 Core type transformer
b) Shell type: In case of shell-type transformer, individual laminations are cut in the form of long strips
of E’s and I’s as shown in fig 10.8. In order to avoid high reluctance at the joints where the laminations
are butted against each other, the alternate layers are stacked differently to eliminate continuous joints.
Fig. 10.8 Shell type transformer
In a shell-type transformer, the core has three limbs, the central limb carries whole of the flux, where as
the side limbs carry half of the flux. Therefore, the width of the central limb as about double to that of
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the other limbs. Both of the primary and secondary windings are placed on the central limb side by side
or concentrically. The low voltage winding is placed nearer the core and the high voltage winding is
placed outside the low voltage winding to reduce the cost of insulation placed between core and low
voltage winding. In this case also the windings are form-wound in cylindrical shape and the core
laminations are inserted later on.
2. Windings: Windings form another important part of transformers. In a two winding transformer two
windings would be present. The one which is connected to a voltage source and creates the flux is called
primary winding. The second winding where the voltage is induced by induction is called a secondary. If
the secondary voltage is less than that of the primary the transformer is called a step down transformer.
If the secondary voltage is more then it is a step up transformer. A step down transformer can be made a
step up transformer by making the low voltage winding as its primary. Hence it may be more
appropriate to designate the windings as High Voltage (HV) and Low Voltage (LV) windings. The
winding with more number of turns will be a HV winding. The current on the HV side will be lower as
V-I product is a constant and given as the VA rating of the machines. Also the HV winding needs to be
insulated more to withstand the higher voltage across it. HV also needs more clearance to the core, yoke
or the body. These aspects influence the type of the winding used for the HV or LV windings.
a. Primary winding: a.c. supply is connected.
b. Secondary winding: Load is connected.
3. Container/tank: It forms the outer covering and body of the transformer. It is filled with oil in case of
oil cooled transformers.
4. Bushings: Are required for connecting the ends of the winding to the external circuit. Bushings are
made of porcelain and it insulate the terminals from the transformer body. Two separate bushings are
provided for High Voltage (HV) and Low Voltage (LV) connections (Fig. 10.9).
Fig. 10.9 Outer construction of a transformer
5. Cooling arrangement: Heat is produced in a transformer by the iron losses in the core and I2R loss
in the windings. To prevent undue temperature rise, this heat is removed by cooling. Type of cooling
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methods used are:
· Dry type transformer: Natural air circulation, air blast

· Liquid (oil) immersed: self-cooled, forced air cooled, forced water cooled, forced oil cooled
a) In small transformers (below 50 kVA), natural air cooling is employed i.e. the heat produced is
carried away by the surrounding air.
b) Medium size power or distribution transformers are generally cooled by housing them in tanks
filled with oil. The oil serves a double purpose, carrying the heat from the windings to the surface
of the tank and insulating the primary from the secondary. Self oil cooled transformer have cooling
tubes on the outer body. Due to heat dissipation from the winding convective circulation of oil
occurs in the cooling tubes.
c) For large transformers, external radiators are added to increase the cooling surface of the oil filled
tank. The oil circulates around the transformer and moves through the radiators where the heat is
released to surrounding air. Sometimes cooling fans blow air over the radiators to accelerate the
cooling process (Fig. 10.10).
Fig. 10.10 Oil cooled transformer

Numericals
1. Calculate transformation ratio if the voltage in the primary and secondary coil are 11000 and 440
volts respectively.
transformation ratio
2. Calculate the number of turns in the secondary coils of a transformer if transformation ratio is 10
and number of turns in primary side is 2500.
Given
K = 10
N1 = 2500
K = N1 / N2
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N2 = 10 * 2500
= 25000 turns.
3. If the number of turns in the primary and secondary windings of the transformer is 500 and 1000
respectively. Find the voltage in the secondary side of transformer. The primary side voltage is 220 V.
transformation ratio K = N1 / N2 = 500/1000 =0.5
E2 = 110 V
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Lesson 11
TRANSFORMER THEORY-II
11.1 Three-Phase Transformer

In commercial power network and distribution system three-phase transformers are required to transform the
three-phase voltage. Step up and step down of voltage is known as transformation. In a three-phase system, the
voltage is lowered or raised either by a bank of three single-phase transformers or by one 3-phase transformer.
The windings of either core-type or shell-type three-phase transformers may be connected in either wye or
delta. Four possible combinations of connections for the three-phase, two-winding transformers are Y-Y, Δ-Δ,
Y-Δ or Δ-Y. A three-phase transformer, compared to a bank of three single-phase transformers, for a given
rating will weigh less, cost less, require less floor space, and have somewhat higher efficiency.
11.2 Classification of Transformer

Transformers can be classified according to:
11.2.1 Core construction: core type, shell type.
11.2.2 Winding arrangement: Helical, disc, cross-over, sandwich.
11.2.3 Cooling system: Dry type, oil cooled.
11.2.4 Power capacity: from a fraction of a volt-ampere (VA) to over a thousand MVA
11.2.5 Duty of a transformer: continuous, short-time, intermittent, periodic, varying
11.2.6 Voltage class: from a few volts to hundreds of kilovolts
11.2.7 Number of phases: Single phase/polyphase
11.2.8 Step up/step down
11.2.9 Application: such as power supply, impedance matching, output voltage and current stabilizer or circuit isolation
11.2.10 According to method of mounting: Pole, platform, subway
11.2.11 According to purpose: Constant-voltage, variable-voltage, current, constant-current
11.2.12 According to service
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Fig. 11.1 Power distribution system
a. Power transformer: Used for power generation and transmission at power stations. These are of step up type.
b. Distribution transformers: These are step down type transformer (16 to 2500 kVA) used to distribute power to
domestic or industrial units. A distribution transformer is a transformer that provides the final voltage transformation in
the electric power distribution system, stepping down the voltage used in the distribution lines to the level used by the
customer. If mounted on a utility pole, they are called pole-mount transformers (or colloquially a pole pig). If the
distribution lines are located at ground level or underground, distribution transformers are mounted on concrete pads and
locked in steel cases, thus known as pad-mount transformers. Because of weight restrictions transformers for pole
mounting are only built for primary voltages under 30 kV. Distribution transformers are classified into different
categories based on certain factors such as:
Type of insulation: Liquid-immersed distribution transformers or dry-type distribution transformers
Number of Phases: Single-phase distribution transformers or three-phase distribution transformers
Voltage class (for dry-type): Low voltage distribution transformers or medium voltage distribution transformers
Basic impulse insulation level (BIL): for medium-voltage, dry-type.
11.3 Efficiency of Transformer

The efficiency of a transformer is expressed as:
Efficiency = (output/Input) x 100%
= (input - 1osses)/input x 100%
= [l - (losses/input)] x 100%
Where, input, output and losses are all expressed in units of power.
11.4 Equivalent Circuit of Transformer
A transformer can be depicted in terms of equivalent circuit (Fig. 11.2). But it is not very convenient for use
due to the presence of the ideal transformer of turns ratio T1 : T2. If the turns ratio could be made unity by
some transformation the circuit becomes very simple to use. This is done here by replacing the secondary by a
`hypothetical' secondary having T1 turns which is `equivalent ' to the physical secondary. The equivalence
implies that the ampere turns, active and reactive power associated with both the circuits must be the same. As
the ideal transformer in this case has a turns ratio of unity the potentials on either side are the same and hence
they may be conductively connected dispensing away with the ideal transformer. This particular equivalent
circuit is as seen from the primary side (Fig. 11.3). It is also possible to refer all the primary parameters to
secondary by making the hypothetical equivalent primary winding on the input side having the number of
turns to be T2 (Fig. 11.4).
Fig. 11.2 Equivalent circuit of transformer
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Fig. 11.3 Equivalent circuit of transformer referred to primary side
Fig. 11.4 Equivalent circuit of transformer referred to secondary side

11.5 Auto transformer
An autotransformer (sometimes called “auto step down transformer”) is an electrical transformer with only one winding.
The ‘auto’ prefix refers to the single coil acting on itself rather than any automatic mechanism. In an autotransformer
portions of the same winding act as both the primary and secondary. The winding has at least three taps where electrical
connections are made. An autotransformer can be smaller, lighter and cheaper than a standard dual-winding transformer
however the autotransformer does not provide electrical isolation. The primary voltage is applied across two of the
terminals, and the secondary voltage taken from two terminals, having one terminal in common with the primary voltage
(Fig. 11.5). The primary and secondary circuits therefore have a number of windings/turns in common. Since the volts-
per-turn is the same in both windings, each develops a voltage in proportion to its number of turns. In an
autotransformer, part of the current flows directly from the input to the output, and only part is transferred inductively,
allowing a smaller, lighter, cheaper core to be used.
Fig. 11.5 Single-phase tapped autotransformer with output voltage range of 40%–
115% of input
11.5.1 Operation
An autotransformer has a single winding with two end terminals, and one or more terminals at intermediate tap points.
One end of the winding is usually connected in common to both the voltage source and the electrical load. The other end
of the source and load are connected to taps along the winding. Different taps on the winding correspond to different
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voltages, measured from the common end. In a step-down transformer the source is usually connected across the entire
winding while the load is connected by a tap across only a portion of the winding. In a step-up transformer, conversely,
the load is attached across the full winding while the source is connected to a tap across a portion of the winding.
As in a two-winding transformer, the ratio of secondary to primary voltages is equal to the ratio of the number of turns
of the winding they connect to. For example, connecting the load between the middle and bottom of the autotransformer
will reduce the voltage by 50%.
11.5.2 Limitations
An autotransformer does not provide electrical isolation between its windings as in an ordinary transformer. A failure of
the insulation of the windings of an autotransformer can result in full input voltage applied to the output. These are
important safety considerations when deciding to use an autotransformer in a given application.
Because it requires fewer windings and a smaller core, an autotransformer for power applications is typically lighter an
less costly than a two-winding transformer, up to a voltage ratio of about 3:1; beyond that range, a two-winding transforme
is usually more economical. In three phase power transmission applications, autotransformers have the limitations of no
suppressing harmonic currents. In practice, losses in standard transformers and autotransformers are not perfectl
reversible; one designed for stepping down a voltage will deliver slightly less voltage than required if used to step up. Th
difference is usually slight enough to allow reversal where the actual voltage level is not critical.
11.5.3 Variable Transformer
A variable autotransformer is made by exposing part of the winding coils and making the secondary connection through
a sliding brush, giving a variable turns ratio. By exposing part of the winding coils and making the secondary connection
through a sliding brush, an almost continuously variable turns ratio can be obtained, allowing for very smooth control of
voltage. Applicable only for relatively low voltage designs, this device is known as a variable AC transformer, or
commonly by the trade name of VARIAC.
As with two-winding transformers, autotransformers may be equipped with many taps and automatic switchgear to
allow them to act as automatic voltage regulators, to maintain a steady voltage during a wide range of load conditions.
They can also be used to simulate low line conditions for testing.
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Lesson 12
VECTOR DIAGRAM AND LOSSES
12.1 Vector Diagram without Load
Let us consider a transformer without load (Fig. 12.1). Primary winding of the transformer is supplied with
sinusoidal alternating voltage V1 and current Im flows through it. This current Im lags behind the applied
voltage V1 by 900 as primary coils exhibit pure inductance. Magnetic flux produced in the core is in
phase with Im. Emfs E1 and E2 are induced in the primary and secondary winding of the transformer
respectively. Phasor diagram of E1 and E2 are shown in Fig. 12.2 and 12.3. When transformer is on no load,
a small current I0 (2-10% of Im) known as exciting current is taken up by the primary winding. This current
I0 lags behind the voltage vector V1 by an angle .
Fig. 12.1 Transformer under no load condition
Fig. 12.2 Phasor diagram for the primary side of transformer
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12.3 Phasor diagram for the secondary side of transformer
12.2 Vector Diagram with Load
Consider a transformer with load (Fig. 12.4). I2 current flows through the secondary winding and magnitude
of I2 depends on the terminal V2 voltage and impedance of the load. The phase angle of secondary current I2
depends upon the nature of load i.e. whether the load is resistive, inductive or capacitive. I0 is the no load
current. The secondary current I2 is in phase, lags behind and leads the secondary terminal voltage for
resistive, inductive and capacitive load respectively.
Fig. 12.4 Transformer with load
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12.5. Phasor diagram for the primary side of transformer
12.6 Phasor diagram for the secondary side of transformer
12.3 Losses in Transformer
There are certain losses in a transformer which are as follows:

12.3.1 Iron losses
Iron core of the transformer is subjected to alternating flux which causes eddy current and hysteresis loss in
it. The sum of these two losses is known as iron or core loss. The iron losses depend upon the construction
material of core, frequency of a.c. supply, maximum flux density in the core, volume of the core etc. The
value of iron looses is very small compared to copper loss.
a Eddy current loss
Due to the alternating magnetic flux current is induced in the core of the transformer which is known as eddy
current. If transformer core was made of solid material (Fig. 12.7) the magnitude of eddy current and thus
losses would be very high. Therefore core of the transformer is made of laminated sheets (Fig.12.8).
Eddy current loss

Where A is constant
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Fig. 12.7 Solid transformer core (high eddy current loss)
Fig. 12.8 Laminated transformer core (low eddy current loss)

b. Hysteresis losses
When the steel core of the transformer is magnetized and demagnetized by the alternating flux heat is
generated. This causes hysteresis losses.
Hysteresis loss
Where A and B are constants
12.3.2 Copper loss due to winding resistances

The primary and secondary windings are made of copper wires which has certain resistance. If resistance of
primary and secondary windings are R1 and R2 respectively, Copper loss will be given as:
Total copper loss = I12R1 + I22R2

Where,
I1 and I2 are current flowing through primary and secondary winding respectively.
12.3.3 Leakage flux losses
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Magnetic flux is produced in both the windings of the transformer (primary and secondary). The flux
which links both the winding is the useful flux and is called mutual flux. The fluxes which do not link with
the other winding are known as leakage flux.
12.3.4 Stray losses
Losses caused due to eddy current in channels, bolts etc.

12.4 Transformer Test
The performance of a transformer can be determined by:

1. Open-circuit or no-load test.
2. Short-circuit or impedance test.
12.4.1 Open-circuit or no-load test
Open-circuit or no-load test is done to determine:
i. No-load loss or core loss.
ii. No-load current I0 by which equivalent resistance R0 and leakage resistance X0 can be calculated
For no load test, one of the transformer winding is kept open and the other is connected to voltage source at
rated frequency (Fig. 12.9). No-load current (I0) is measured using ammeter. No-load power (P0) is measured
by wattmeter.
Fig. 12.9 Diagram for open-circuit test

Primary no-load current I0 in Low Voltage (LV) winding is very small 2 to 10% of rated load current due to
which the copper loss (Io2R1) is negligibly. As the secondary side is open, no current flows in secondary so
copper loss or winding loss is zero. Thus the power measured by wattmeter is due to core loss.
No load input power = P0 = V1 I0 cosϕ0
Where,
P0 = No load input power = Core loss or iron loss
cosϕ0 =no-load power factor = = P0/V1I0
I0 = no-load current
V1 = primary voltage
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No-load current I0 has two components and is given as:
a. No-load current wattful component (iron loss component),
b. No-load current magnetizing component (produces magnetic flux in core),
No-load resistance is given by
No-load reactance is given by,
No-load current I0 drawn by the transformer is the exciting current. Admittance Y0 of the transformer is
given by:
The exciting core loss conductance ,
The exciting or magnetising susceptance ,
12.4.2 Short-circuit or impedance test

This test is done to measure:
(i) Full-load loss or copper loss (in the winding)
(ii) Equivalent resistance and reactance referred to measuring side.

In this test, the secondary (low-voltage winding) is short-circuited by a thick wire (Fig. 12.10) and low
voltage i.e. 5 to 10% of rated primary voltage is applied to the primary winding.
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Fig. 12.10 Diagram of short-circuit test
The low input voltage is gradually raised till at voltage VSC, full-load current I1 flows in the
primary. As the input voltage is small the magnetic flux linking the primary and secondary
side is very small. Thus iron losses can be neglected. The wattmeter only measures the
copper loss. Fig. 12.11 shows the equivalent circuit of a transformer on short circuit as referred to primary
side. As no-load current I0 is small it is neglected in the equivalent circuit.
Fig. 12.11a Equivalent circuit of transformer under short circuit condition.
Fig. 12.11b Equivalent circuit of transformer under short circuit condition.
Full load copper loss = W (wattmeter reading)
VSC= Applied voltage applied so that full-load current I1 flows in the primary winding
I1 = reading of the ammeter on the primary side
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Total impedance as referred to primary side
Total resistance as referred to primary side
Total reactance as referred to primary side
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Lesson 13
VOLTAGE REGULATION AND EFFICIENCY OF TRANSFORMER
13.1 Voltage Regulation
The electrical equipments are designed to be operated at a certain voltage. A tolerance limit is provided so
that equipment may operate between this range. Transformers connect equipments and machines to the
supply. If the terminal voltage drops too low below the rated value due to the load currents, it may affect the
performance of the equipments. This is not desirable. It is therefore important to specify and quantify that
there is a voltage drop when certain load current is taken up from the transformer. Voltage regulation is
quantified using two terms:
a. Regulation down
b. Regulation up
13.2 Regulation Down
Regulation down is the change in terminal voltage when a load current at any power factor is applied,
expressed as a fraction of the no-load terminal voltage.
Where,
Vnl = no-load terminal voltage
Vl = load terminal voltage
13.3 Regulation Up
Regulation up is the ratio of the change in the terminal voltage when a load at a given power factor is
removed, and the load voltage.
Where,
Vnl = no-load terminal voltage.
Vl = load voltage.
13.4 Efficiency of Transformer

A practical transformer has following losses:
13.4.1 Iron losses

Since the iron core is subjected to alternating flux, the eddy current and hysteresis loss occurs in it. These
two losses together are known as iron losses or core losses. The iron losses depend upon the supply
frequency, maximum flux density in the core, volume of the core etc. It may be noted that magnitude of iron
losses is quite small in a practical transformer.
13.4.2 Winding resistances
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Since the windings consists of copper conductors, it immediately follows that both primary and secondary
will have winding resistances. The primary resistance R1 and secondary resistance R2 act in series with the
respective windings
13.4.3 Leakage reactances
Both primary and secondary currents produce flux. The flux which links both the winding is the useful flux
and is called mutual flux. However, primary current would produce some flux which would not link the
secondary winding. Similarly, secondary current would produce some flux that would not link the
primary winding. The flux such as or which links only one winding is called leakage flux. The leakage
flux paths are mainly through the air.
The dielectric losses take place in the insulation of the transformer due to the large electric stress. In the case
of low voltage transformers this can be neglected. For constant voltage operation this can be assumed to be a
constant.
The stray load losses arise out of the leakage fluxes of the transformer. These leakage fluxes link the metallic
structural parts, tank etc. and produce eddy current losses in them. Thus they take place 'all round' the
transformer instead of a definite place, hence the name 'stray'. Also the leakage flux is directly proportional
to the load current unlike the mutual flux which is proportional to the applied voltage. Hence this loss is
called 'stray load' loss. This can also be estimated experimentally. It can be modeled by another resistance in
the series branch in the equivalent circuit. The stray load losses are very low in air-cored transformers due to
the absence of the metallic tank.
Iron and copper losses are wasted as heat and temperature of the transformer rises. Therefore output power
of the transformer will be always less than the input power drawn by the primary from the source and
efficiency is defined as
Input power =
Output power =
13.4.4 Condition for maximum efficiency
Copper loss Pc =
Iron losses Pi = Pe + Ph
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Where,
Pe = Eddy current loss
Ph = Hysteresis loss
Or,
Differentiating the above equation by
For maximum efficiency
Or,
Pi =
Condition for maximum efficiency of transformer lies when iron loss is equal to copper loss. i.e.
Pi = Pc
13.5 All Day Efficiency

Heavy duty transformers are classified into power transformers and distribution transformers. Power
transformers are used at the power generation stations and are operated as per need. In a power station there
may be number of generators and transformers. Power transformers will be operated depending on the power
generated. Thus, in a particular instant all the power transformers may not be put in use. Distribution
transformers on the other hand are used in electrical network systems for power distribution. These have to
be operated round the day (24 hours). There will be power loss due to operation of such transformers. The
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energy efficiency of these transformers is measured considering a 24 hour operation and is known as “All
day efficiency”
Numericals
1. Calculate regulation down value if the no load terminal voltage is 230 V and load voltage is 220 V
= 4.3 %
1. Calculate regulation up value if the no load terminal voltage is 240 V and load voltage is 210 V
= 14.2 %
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Module 4. Alternators
Lesson 14
CONSTRUCTION AND TYPES OF ALTERNATORS
14.1 Introduction
Electrical machines (generators and motors) operated by alternating current are known as synchronous
machines. An alternator is an electromechanical device that converts mechanical energy to electrical energy
in the form of alternating current. A.C. generators are also called as alternators. A.C. generators are used in
to generate electricity in hydroelectric (Fig. 14.1) and thermal plants. Alternators are also used in
automobiles to generate electricity (Fig. 14.2).
Fig. 14.1 Alternator/A.C. generator in a hydroelectric station
Fig. 14.2 Alternator mounted on an automobile engine

14.2 Construction
A.C. generator has mainly two parts
a. Stator
b. Rotor
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Fig. 14.3 Parts of an alternator

14.2.1 Stator
The Stationary part of the alternator is known as stator. It provides housing and support for the rotor. Slots
are provided in the inner side of the stator to fix poles or windings (Fig. 14.4).
Fig. 14.4 Slots in stator

14.2.2 Rotor
It is the rotating part of an alternator.
14.3 Terms used in Alternator
1. Armature− The part of the alternator where emf is induced.
2. Winding- Insulated copper wires are wound over steel structure to induce magnetic field when current
is supplied.
3. Slip rings- Two rings are provided to supply current to the rotor winding.
4. Brushes-The brushes rest on the slip ring to provide contact for supplying current.
5. Pole-Made of cast iron or steel of good magnetic quality. Act as north or South Pole alternately.
6. Prime mover- The mechanical system to provide rotation to the alternator is known as prime mover
14.4 Arrangement of Synchronous Generator
Two possible arrangement of armature in an alternator are:
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1. Stationary armature winding and rotating poles.
2. Stationary poles and rotating armature winding.
14.4.1 Stationary armature winding and rotating poles
The stator is provided with slots where the armature winding along with the insulation is placed. The rotor
has magnetic poles arranged alternately as North (N) and South (S). The numbers of poles vary according to
the speed of the prime mover.
Fig. 14.5 Salient pole type alternator
14.4.2 Stationary poles and rotating armature winding

In this type of arrangement the poles are fixed in the stator and the armature winding is provided on the rotor.
Fig. 14.6 Stationary poles and rotating armature winding
First type of arrangement i.e. stationary armature winding and rotating poles are preferred over the second
arrangement (stationary poles and rotating armature winding) because of the following reasons:
1. More space is available for armature windings, therefore more coils and insulator can be provided. This
allows achieving voltages as high as 33kV.
2. Less number of slip rings is required.
3. Simple in design and construction.
4. Less rotor weight and reduced mechanical power required to move rotor.
5. Reduced chances of burning of windings.
When an alternator is operated heat is generated in the windings. Slots and fan are provided for air
circulation. This helps in ventilation and removal of heat from the windings and thus protects the armature
winding.
14.5 Rotor Construction

Rotors are of two types:
1. Salient (or projected) pole type.
2. Smooth cylindrical or non-salient type.
14.5.1 Salient (or projected) pole type.

As the name suggests, the poles are made with projections. This type of rotor is used for low to medium
speed/rpm alternators, were more number of poles are required may be 20 or 30 poles. Such alternator can be
identified by large diameter and short length. The pole is made of steel or cast iron and the pole winding is
excited by a D.C. generator driven by the shaft of alternator.
Fig. 14.7 Salient pole type rotor
14.5.2 Smooth cylindrical or non-salient type rotor
Such rotors are used for high speed alternators. The rotor is made of steel cylinder with number of slots cut
on the periphery of the cylinder. The field windings are placed in the slots. The chart area acts as the pole.
These axial alternators have more length and smaller diameter.
Fig. 14.8 Smooth cylindrical or non salient type rotor
Fig. 14.9 3D view of smooth cylindrical or non-salient type rotor
Lesson 15
PRINCIPLES OF ALTERNATORS
15.1 Principle of Operation
In alternators, a rotating magnet, called the rotor turns within a stationary set of conductors wound in coils on
an iron core, called the stator. The field cuts across the conductors, generating an induced EMF
(electromotive force), as the mechanical input causes the rotor to turn.
The rotating magnetic field induces an A.C. voltage in the stator windings. Often there are three sets of stator
windings, physically offset so that the rotating magnetic field produces a three phase current, displaced by
one-third of a period with respect to each other.
The rotor's magnetic field may be produced by induction (as in a "brushless" alternator), by permanent
magnets (as in very small machines), or by a rotor winding energized with direct current through slip rings
and brushes. The rotor's magnetic field may even be provided by stationary field winding, with moving poles
in the rotor. Permanent magnet machines avoid the loss due to magnetizing current in the rotor, but are
restricted in size, due to the cost of the magnet material. Since the permanent magnet field is constant, the
terminal voltage varies directly with the speed of the generator.
An automatic voltage control device controls the field current to keep output voltage constant. If the output
voltage from the stationary armature coils drops due to an increase in demand, more current is fed into the
rotating field coils through the voltage regulator (VR). This increases the magnetic field around the field
coils which induces a greater voltage in the armature coils. Thus, the output voltage is brought back up to its
original value.
According to Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic, induced emf is generated when a coil is rotated in any
magnetic field. The magnitude of the induced emf in the coil rotating in a magnetic field in given as:
emf (e) = B l v N sin θ
Where,
e = induced emf in volt.
B = Magnetic field flux density, Wb/m2
l = length of the wire in the coil.
v = Velocity of rotation
N = Number of turns in the coils.
Fig. 15.1 Two sides of coil in an alternator

Since the coil has two sides (Fig. 15.1):
Total emf generated e = 2 B l v N sin θ
Since the angular velocity of the spinning coil is ω = v/r and in this case r = W/2, then v = ωW/2 . ω is in
radians/sec, so if θ = 0 at t = 0, then θ = ωt , and our expression for e becomes,
e = 2BLv sin θ
= 2BL(ωW/2) sin ωt
= (LW)Bω sin ωt
Where,
W = width of the coil
L = length of the coil
N = Number of turns or loops
For a coil of N loops and identifying A = LW (valid for any planar shape),
e = NABω sin ωt
= eo sin ωt
Where,
eo = maximum emf = NABω
An A.C. generator converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. The mechanical system to provide
rotation to the alternator is known as the prime mover (Fig. 15.2). Thus an alternator can be operated using a
steam turbine, hydraulic turbine or a diesel/kerosene engine.
Fig. 15.2 Prime mover for an alternator
Fig. 15.3 3∅ alternator
Fig 15.3 shows a 3∅ alternator. When the rotor rotates, the stator winding are cut by the magnetic flux of the
poles. Since the poles are arranged alternately North (N) and South (S) on the rotor the emf induced is of
alternating type.
15.2 Relationship between Speed, Frequency and Number of Poles.
Following equation gives the relation between speed, frequency and number of poles
Where
P = no. of poles
N = r.p.m.
The output frequency of an alternator depends on the number of poles and the rotational speed. The speed
corresponding to a particular frequency is called the synchronous speed for that frequency (Table 15.1).
Table 15.1 Rotational speed and poles required for producing A.C. at different frequencies
Poles r.p.m for r.p.m for r.p.m for

50 Hz 60 Hz 400 Hz
2 3,000 3,600 24,000
4 1,500 1,800 12,000
6 1,000 1,200 8,000
8 750 900 6000
10 600 720 4800
12 500 600 4000
14 429 515 3429
16 375 450 3000
18 333 400 2667
20 300 360 2400
40 150 180 1200
In India the frequency of alternating current is 50 Hz. This value is the standard frequency for generation and
distribution of electricity. Electrical appliances are designed accordingly to work at 50 Hz.
Suppose a steam turbine rotates at 1000 rpm. Number of poles required in an alternator to generate 50 Hz
alternator current is:
Similarly table 15.2 denotes the rotational speed required for alternator with different number of poles for
producing a.c. at 50 Hz:
Table 15.2 Rotational speed and poles required for producing a.c. at 50 Hz frequency
No. of poles in 2 4 6 8 10 12 16 20
alternator
Speed (rpm) 3000 1500 1000 750 600 500 375 300
Numericals
1. Calculate the frequency of the alternating current if speed = 300 rpm and numer of poles = 8.
Where
P = no. of poles
N = r.p.m.
= 20 Hz
2. A generator with a circular coil of 75 turns of area 3.0 x 10-2 m2 is placed in a 0.20 T magnetic field
and rotated with a frequency of 60 Hz. Find the maximum emf which is produced during a cycle.
Solution:
N = 75, A = 3.0 x 10-2 m2, B = 0.20 T and f = 60 Hz .
Since ω = 2πf = 2π(60) = 377 radians/s

eo = (75)(3.0 x 10-2)(0.20)(377) = 170 V
Lesson 16
E.M.F. IN ALTERNATORS, CIRCUIT BREAKERS
16.1 E.M.F in Alternators
In an alternator, let,
No. of poles=P
Rotor speed in rpm=N
Frequency of the induced e.m.f=f
Number of turns in the coils=T
Flux per poles= Wb
In one rotation of the rotor the flux cut by the conductor= p Webers………… (1)
Number of rotation in a min=N
Total number of conductor or coil sides per phase=2T

Then average e.m.f
From equation 4 and 5
From equation 6 and 7
16.2 Circuit Breakers

Before moving into the topic of circuit breakers we need to first know the hazards available with electric
current. Electricity has become a necessity for life. But with all the usefulness, electric power has certain
dangers. An electric shock can cause hazards to man. The effect of an electric shock depends on the
magnitude of current passing through the human body and duration of contact. Electric shock can sometimes
be dangerous to life. The consequences of electric shock are listed below (Table 16.1):
Table 16.1 Consequences of electric shock
Electric current intensity (A) Consequence to human body
1. 0.001-0.0075 Slight sensation
2. 0.0075-0.01 Mild sensation
3. 0.01-0.075 Painful sensation
4. 0.075-1 -Difficulty in breathing
-Ventricular fibrillation
-Paralyzing respiratory system
-Severe burns
The effect of electric shocks on human body depends, mainly on faulty current and the time of its action.
Maximum permissible contact voltages with respect to time of disconnection are as follows:
Table 16.2 Maximum permissible contact voltages with respect to time of disconnection
Maximum Permissible Contact Voltage in V Disconnection time in (S)
240 0.04
220 0.05
110 0.2
75 1
50 5
<50
A circuit breaker is an automatic electric switch which protects an electrical circuit from damage caused by
overload or short circuit. It stops the flow of current as soon as it detects a fault condition. In a fuse the wire
is to be placed in the fuse clamp. But in a circuit breaker there is no fuse. It can be reset manually or
automatically to resume normal conditions.
16.3 Ground Fault Circuit Interrupter (GFCI)
GFCI is a special safety circuit used primarily with outdoor circuits and in places where the risk of death by
electric shock is greatest. A GFCI provides protection from potentially lethal ground loops by sensing both
the hot wire (B) and the neutral (N) currents. If the difference between hot wire current IB and the neutral
current IN is more than a few milli amperes then the GFCI disconnects the circuit nearly instantaneously.
Any significant difference between the hot and neutral (return path) currents means that a second path to
ground has been created and a potentially dangerous condition has arisen. GFCI are typically reset table
circuit breakers so that one does not need to replace a fuse every time.
16.4 Miniature Circuit Breaker (MCB)
Once a fault is detected, contacts within the circuit breaker must open to interrupt the circuit; some
mechanically-stored energy (using something such as springs or compressed air) contained within the
breaker is used to separate the contacts, although some of the energy required may be obtained from the fault
current itself. Small circuit breakers may be manually operated; larger units have solenoids to trip the
mechanism, and electric motors to restore energy to the springs.
The circuit breaker contacts must carry the load current without excessive heating, and must also withstand
the heat of the arc produced when interrupting the circuit. Contacts are made of copper or copper alloys,
silver alloys, and other materials. Service life of the contacts is limited by the erosion due to interrupting the
arc. Miniature and molded case circuit breakers are usually discarded when the contacts are worn, but power
circuit breakers and high-voltage circuit breakers have replaceable contacts.
16.4.1 Construction
The 10 ampere DIN rail-mounted thermal-magnetic miniature circuit breaker is the most common style in
modern domestic consumer units and commercial electrical distribution boards throughout Europe. The
design includes the following components:
1. Actuator lever - used to manually trip and reset the circuit breaker. Also indicates the status of the
circuit breaker (On or Off/tripped). Most breakers are designed so they can still trip even if the lever is
held or locked in the "on" position. This is sometimes referred to as "free trip" or "positive trip"
operation.
2. Actuator mechanism - forces the contacts together or apart.
3. Contacts - Allow current when touching and break the current when moved apart.
4. Terminals
5. Bimetallic strip.
6. Calibration screw - allows the manufacturer to precisely adjust the trip current of the device after
assembly.
7. Solenoid
8. Arc divider/extinguisher
Source: Wikipedia.com
Fig. 16.1 Circuit breaker
16.4.2 Application
16.4.2.1 MCB (Miniature Circuit Breaker)

Rated current not more than 100 A. Trip characteristics normally not adjustable. Thermal or thermal-
magnetic operation.
16.4.2.2 MCCB (Molded Case Circuit Breaker)

Rated current up to 2500 A. Thermal or thermal-magnetic operation. Trip current may be adjustable in larger
ratings.
Numerical
1. Calculate average emf generated by an alternator if flux per pole is 0.025 Wb, frequency of the
current is 40 Hz, number of turns in the coil is 100.
= 400 V
2. Calculate the rms value if voltage generated in the above numerical
Module 5. Induction motors
Lesson 17
CONSTRUCTION OF INDUCTION MOTORS
17.1 Introduction
Induction motors work on the principle of electromagnetic induction. Electrical energy from the stator
winding is transferred to the rotor winding by electromagnetic induction. Therefore these are called as
induction motors.
17.2 Types of Induction Motors
17.2.1 Single phase induction motors
It is used for domestic electrical appliances like washing machines, juicer/mixers, refrigerators etc. These
machines are built in small sizes upto 3 hp.
17.2.2 3-Phase induction motor

About 90% of mechanical power in the industry is provided by 3-phase induction motors. e.g. conveyors,
elevators, large capacity pumps etc.
17.2 Constructional Features of a Three Phase Induction Motor
A 3-phase induction motor (Fig. 17.1) consists of two main parts namely stator and rotor (Fig. 17.2).
Fig.17.1 Three phase induction motor
Fig. 17.2 Stator and rotor of three phase induction motor

17.3.1 Stator
It is the outer body of the motor and consists of outer frame, stator core and windings.
17.3.1.1 Outer frame
The outer frame acts as housing for the motor and supports the stator core. It also protects the inner parts of
the motor. Fins are provided on the outer surface of the frame for heat dissipation and cooling of the motor.
Frame is provided with legs/base plate to bolt it on the foundation. Motor housing is the outer cover or frame
of the motor which contains stator, rotor and other parts. Fins are provided on the outer frame to increase
heat dissipation. Housing can be square (Fig. 17.3) or round (Fig. 17.4).
Fig. 17.3 Square motor housing
Fig. 17.4 Round motor housing

Depending on the application it can made of any one of the following material:
a. Aluminum/ Aluminum alloy (Fig. 17.5)
b. Mild Steel (Fig. 17.6)
c. Stainless Steel (Fig. 17.7)
Fig. 17.5 Aluminum motor housing
Fig. 17.6 Mild steel motor housing
Fig. 17.7 Stainless steel motor housing
17.3.1.2 Stator core
It is made of high grade silicon steel stampings of thickness 0.3 to 0.6 mm which are insulated from each
other by a varnish layer. To minimize the hysteresis and eddy current losses core is constructed of steel
stampings of high magnetic permeability. The stampings are assembled one over the other under hydraulic
pressure and are fixed into the frame. The function of stator core is to carry the alternating magnetic field.
Slots are cut on the inner side of the stamping, as shown in fig. 17.9, to accommodate stator winding.
Fig. 17.8 Outer frame
Fig. 17.9 Stator Stamping

17.3.1.3 Stator winding
Coils of insulated wires are inserted into the slots of the stator. Each grouping of coils, together with the core
it surrounds, forms an electromagnet (a pair of poles) on the application of AC supply. The number of poles
of an AC induction motor depends on the internal connection of the stator windings. The three phase stator
windings are connected directly to the three phase power source. Internally they are connected in such a way,
that on applying AC supply, a rotating magnetic field is created. There are six terminals of the stator
winding; two for each phase are connected in the terminal box of the motor. Number of poles depends on the
speed requirement. For lower speed more number of poles are required as,
17.3.1.4 Rotor
It is the rotating part of the motor. There are two types of rotor, which are employed in 3-phase induction
motors.
(i) Squirrel cage rotor
(ii) Phase wound rotor or slip ring rotor
a) Squirrel cage rotor
The term squirrel cage comes from the shape of the rotor which resembles the shape of the cage of squirrel
animal (Fig. 17.10). Almost 90% of induction motors have squirrel cage rotors. This is because the squirrel
cage rotor has a simple and rugged construction. The rotor consists of a cylindrical laminated core with
axially placed parallel slots for carrying the conductors. Each slot carries a copper, aluminum, or alloy bar.
These rotor bars are permanently short-circuited at both ends by means of the end rings (Fig. 17.11). As the
rotor bar ends are permanently short circuited, it is not possible to add any external resistance in the rotor
circuit.
The slots and bars of the rotor are generally not constructed parallel to the shaft (Fig. 17.11) but are skewed
(Fig. 17.12). Here skewed means that the bars and slots are constructed at an angle (Fig. 17.13). Circuit
diagram of squirrel cage induction motor is shown in fig. 17.14.
Fig. 17.10 Rotor resembles the cage of squirrel animal
Fig. 17.11 Rotor assembly with parallel bars
Fig. 17.12 Rotor assembly with skewed bars
Fig. 17.13 Bars and slots of rotor assembly (Skewed)
Skewing of rotor has the following advantages:

(a) It results in a smoother torque curves for different positions of the rotor,
(b) Quiet running of a motor by reducing magnetic humming.
(c) Helps to reduce magnetic locking of the stator and rotor. The rotor teeth tend to remain locked under the
stator teeth due to direct magnetic attraction between the two. This happens when the number of stator
teeth is equal to the number of rotor teeth.
(d) It increases the rotor resistance due to increased length of the rotor bar conductors.
Fig. 17.14 Electrical circuit diagram of squirrel cage induction motor

b) Phase wound rotor or slip ring rotor
An alternate design, called the wound rotor, is used when variable speed is required. The rotor consists of a
laminated cylindrical core having slots at the outer periphery and carries a 3-phase insulated winding. In this
case, the rotor has the same number of poles as the stator and the windings are made of wire, connected to
slip rings on the shaft (Fig. 17.15). Carbon brushes connect the slip rings to an external controller such as a
variable resistor that allows changing the motor's slip rate. Depending upon the requirement any external
resistance can be added in the rotor circuit. The motors using this type of rotor are known as phase wound or
slip ring induction motors. Electrical circuit diagram of slip ring induction motor is shown in Fig. 17.16.
Fig 17.15 Phase wound or slip ring rotor
Fig 17.16 Electrical circuit diagram of slip ring induction motor
Numerical
1. Calculate synchronous speed of the motor if frequency is 50 Hz and number of poles is 8.
Solution
2. At 50 Hz the motor rotates at 500 rpm. Calculate the frequency of the supply current to obtain
motor speed of 1000 rpm.
Solution
Equating two equations
Lesson 18
PRINCIPLE OF INDUCTION MOTOR
18.1 Induction Motors
Induction motors work on the principle of electromagnetic induction. Electrical energy from the stator
winding is transferred to the rotor winding by electromagnetic induction. Therefore these are called as
induction motors.
Induction motors are widely used for industrial purpose because these motors are probably the simplest, low
cost, high efficiency, low maintenance and most rugged of all electric motors. Two basic parts of induction
motors are the wound stator and the rotor assembly. The rotor consists of laminated, cylindrical iron cores
with slots to accommodate the conductors/windings. Fig 18.1 shows a induction motor. Types and detailed
construction of induction motor will be taken up in the next lesson.
Fig. 18.1 Construction of the rotor
18.2 Production of Rotating Field
Consider a 3-phase induction motor having three windings placed 1200 electrically apart. When 3-phase
supply is given to the 3-phase winding, a rotating magnetic field of constant magnitude is set up by the stator.
The speed of rotating field is that of the magnetic flux developed in the stator winding. The stationary rotor
is effected by this magnetic field and emf is induced in the rotor windings. The conductors/windings of the
rotor are short circuited at its end and therefore current is set up in the windings. Flow of current in the
windings will set up a magnetic field in the rotor. Rotor windings will experience a thrust force according to
Flemming right hand rule and rotor assembly starts rotating in the same direction in which the stator field is
rotating. To reverse the direction of rotation of rotating field the connections of any two supply terminals are
inter-changed.
The three-phase induction motor operates on the principle of a rotating magnetic field. The following
discussion shows how the stator windings can be connected to a three-phase ac input and have a resultant
magnetic field that rotates. Fig. 18.2 a-c shows individual windings for each phase . Figure 18.2 d shows
how the three phases are tied together in a Y-connected stator. The dot in each diagram indicates the common
point of the Y-connection. You can see that the individual phase windings are equally spaced around the
stator. This places the windings 120º apart.
Fig. 18.2 Three phase stator

The three-phase input voltage to the stator of figure 18.2 is shown in the graph of figure 18.3. Use the left-
hand rule for determining the electromagnetic polarity of the poles at any given instant. In applying the rule
to the coils in figure 18.2, consider that current flows toward the terminal numbers for positive voltages, and
away from the terminal numbers for negative voltages.
The results of this analysis are shown for voltage points 1 through 7 in figure 18.3. At point 1, the magnetic
field in coils 1-1A is maximum with polarities as shown. At the same time, negative voltages are being felt in
the 2-2A and 3-3A windings. These create weaker magnetic fields, which tend to aid the 1-1A field. At point
2, maximum negative voltage is being felt in the 3-3A windings. This creates a strong magnetic field which,
in turn, is aided by the weaker fields in 1-1A and 2-2A. As each point on the voltage graph is analyzed, it can
be seen that the resultant magnetic field is rotating in a clockwise direction. When the three-phase voltage
completes one full cycle (point 7), the magnetic field has rotated through 360º .
Fig. 18.3 Three phase rotating field

18.3 Slip
The speed at which the magnetic field rotates is the synchronous speed of the motor and is determined by the
number of poles in the stator and the frequency of the power supply.
Where:
Ns = synchronous speed
f = frequency
P = number of poles
Synchronous speed is the absolute upper limit of motor speed. At synchronous speed, there is no difference
between rotor speeds and rotating field speed, so no voltage is induced in the rotor bars, hence no torque is
developed. Therefore, when running, the rotor must rotate slower than the magnetic field. The rotor speed is
just slow enough to cause the proper amount of rotor current to flow, so that the resulting torque is sufficient
to overcome winding and friction losses, and drive the load. This difference between the rotor speeds (N) and
rotating magnetic field speed (Ns), called slip, is normally referred to as a percentage of synchronous speed:
Where,
%S= Percent slip
S= Fractional slip
Ns = synchronous speed
N = actual rotor speed
Rotor speed, N = Ns (1−S)
The difference between synchronous speed and rotor speed is called slip speed:
Slip speed = Ns−N
The difference between the rotor speed and synchronous speed of flux determine the rate at which the flux is
cut by the rotor conductors and hence the magnitude of induced e.m.f. e2 ∝ Ns−N
Since,
Rotor current, i2 ∝ e2
and torque, T ∝ i2
T∝ (Ns-N)
or T= K (Ns-N)
or
or T = K’ S
or T∝S
Thus, greater the slip greater will be the induced e.m.f. and thus motor will develop higher torque. At no-
load conditions, induction motor requires small torque to meet with the mechanical, iron and other losses,
therefore, slip is small. When the motor is loaded, greater torque is required to drive the load, therefore, the
slip increases and rotor speed decreases slightly. Slip in an induction motor adjusts itself to such a value so as
to meet the required moving torque under normal operation. The value of slip varies from about 6% for small
motors and 2% for large motors.
18.4 Frequency of Rotor Current
The frequency of rotor currents depends upon the relative speed between rotor and stator field. When the
rotor is stationary, the frequency of rotor currents is the same as that of the supply frequency but when the
rotor starts rotating, the frequency of rotor current will depend on the slip speed (Ns−N).
If (Ns-N) is slip, P no. of poles then the frequency of rotor current fr is given as
Lesson 19
SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
19.1 Single Phase Induction Motor
There are probably more single-phase AC induction motors in use today than the total of all the other types
put together. It is logical that the least expensive, lowest maintenance type motor should be used most often.
The single-phase AC induction motor best fits this description. As the name suggests, this type of motor has
only one stator winding (main winding) and operates with a single-phase power supply. In all single-phase
induction motors, the rotor is the squirrel cage type.
The single-phase induction motor is not self-starting (Fig. 19.1). When the motor is connected to a single-
phase power supply, the main winding carries an alternating current. This current produces a pulsating
magnetic field. Due to induction, the rotor is energized. As the main magnetic field is pulsating, the torque
necessary for the motor rotation is not generated. This will cause the rotor to vibrate, but not to rotate. Hence,
the single phase induction motor is required to have a starting mechanism that can provide the starting kick
for the motor to rotate.
The starting mechanism of the single-phase induction motor is mainly an additional stator winding (start/
auxiliary winding) as shown in Figure 19.2. The start winding can have a series capacitor and/or a centrifugal
switch. When the supply voltage is applied, current in the main winding lags the supply voltage due to the
main winding impedance. At the same time, current in the start winding leads/lags the supply voltage
depending on the starting mechanism impedance. Interaction between magnetic fields generated by the main
winding and the starting mechanism generates a resultant magnetic field rotating in one direction. The motor
starts rotating in the direction of the resultant magnetic field.
Once the motor reaches about 75% of its rated speed, a centrifugal switch disconnects the start winding.
From this point onward, the single-phase motor can maintain sufficient torque to operate on its own. Except
for special capacitor start/capacitor run types, all single-phase motors are generally used for applications up
to 3/4 hp only. Depending on the various starting techniques, single-phase AC induction motors are further
classified as described in the following sections.
Fig. 19.1 Single phase induction motor (without start mechanism)
Fig. 19.2 Single phase induction motor (with start mechanism)

19.2 Types of Single Phase Induction Motor
19.2.1 Split-phase induction motor

The split-phase motor is also known as an induction start/induction run motor. It has two windings: a start
and a main winding. The start winding is made with smaller gauge wire and fewer turns, relative to the main
winding to create more resistance, thus putting the start winding’s field at a different angle than that of the
main winding which causes the motor to start rotating. The main winding, which is of a heavier wire, keeps
the motor running the rest of the time.
The starting torque is low, typically 100% to 175% of the rated torque. The motor draws high starting
current, approximately 700% to 1,000% of the rated current. The maximum generated torque ranges from
250% to 350% of the rated torque (see Figure 19.8 for torque-speed curve).
Good applications for split-phase motors include small grinders, small fans and blowers and other low
starting torque applications with power needs from 1/20 to 1/3 hp. Avoid using this type of motor in any
applications requiring high on/off cycle rates or high torque.
Fig. 19.3 Split-phase induction motor

19.2.2 Capacitor start induction motor
This is a modified split-phase motor with a capacitor in series with the start winding to provide a start
“boost.” Like the split-phase motor, the capacitor start motor also has a centrifugal switch which disconnects
the start winding and the capacitor when the motor reaches about 75% of the rated speed.
Since the capacitor is in series with the start circuit, it creates more starting torque, typically 200% to 400%
of the rated torque. And the starting current, usually 450% to 575% of the rated current, is much lower than
the split-phase due to the larger wire in the start circuit. Refer to Figure 19.8 for torque-speed curve.
A modified version of the capacitor start motor is the resistance start motor. In this motor type, the starting
capacitor is replaced by a resistor. The resistance start motor is used in applications where the starting torque
requirement is less than that provided by the capacitor start motor. Apart from the cost, this motor does not
offer any major advantage over the capacitor start motor. They are used in a wide range of belt-drive
applications like small conveyors, large blowers and pumps, as well as many direct-drive or geared
applications.
Fig. 19.4 Capacitor start induction motor

19.2.3 Permanent split capacitor (capacitor run) induction motor
A permanent split capacitor (PSC) motor has a run type capacitor permanently connected in series with the
start winding. This makes the start winding an auxiliary winding once the motor reaches the running speed.
Since the run capacitor must be designed for continuous use, it cannot provide the starting boost of a starting
capacitor. The typical starting torque of the PSC motor is low, from 30% to 150% of the rated torque. PSC
motors have low starting current, usually less than 200% of the rated current, making them excellent for
applications with high on/off cycle rates. Refer to Figure 19.8 for torque-speed curve.
The PSC motors have several advantages. The motor design can easily be altered for use with speed
controllers. They can also be designed for optimum efficiency and High-Power Factor (PF) at the rated load.
They’re considered to be the most reliable of the single-phase motors, mainly because no centrifugal starting
switch is required.
Permanent split-capacitor motors have a wide variety of applications depending on the design. These include
fans, blowers with low starting torque needs and intermittent cycling uses, such as adjusting mechanisms,
gate operators and garage door openers.
Fig. 19.5 Permanent split capacitor (capacitor run) induction motor
19.2.4 Capacitor start/capacitor run induction motor

This motor has a start type capacitor in series with the auxiliary winding like the capacitor start motor for
high starting torque. Like a PSC motor, it also has a run type capacitor that is in series with the auxiliary
winding after the start capacitor is switched out of the circuit. This allows high overload torque.
This type of motor can be designed for lower full-load currents and higher efficiency (see Figure 19.8 for
torque-speed curve). This motor is costly due to start and run capacitors and centrifugal switch. Application
of these motors include air compressors, high-pressure water pumps, vacuum pumps and other high torque
applications requiring 1 to 10 hp.
Fig. 19.6 Capacitor start/capacitor run induction motor
19.2.5 Shaded-pole induction motor
Shaded-pole motors have only one main winding and no start winding. Starting is by means of a design that
rings a continuous copper loop around a small portion of each of the motor poles. This “shades” that portion
of the pole, causing the magnetic field in the shaded area to lag behind the field in the unshaded area. The
reaction of the two fields gets the shaft rotating.
Because the shaded-pole motor lacks a start winding, starting switch or capacitor, it is electrically simple and
inexpensive. Also, the speed can be controlled merely by varying voltage, or through a multi-tap winding.
Mechanically, the shaded-pole motor construction allows high-volume production. In fact, these are usually
considered as “disposable” motors, meaning they are much cheaper to replace than to repair.
The shaded-pole motor has many positive features but it also has several disadvantages. Its low starting
torque is typically 25% to 75% of the rated torque. It is a high slip motor with a running speed 7% to 10%
below the synchronous speed. Generally, efficiency of this motor type is very low (below 20%).
The low initial cost suits the shaded-pole motors to low horsepower or light duty applications. Perhaps their
largest use is in multi-speed fans for household use. But the low torque, low efficiency and less sturdy
mechanical features make shaded-pole motors impractical for most industrial or commercial use, where
higher cycle rates or continuous duty are the norm. Figure 19.8 shows the torque-speed curves of various
kinds of single-phase AC induction motors.
Fig. 19.7 Shaded-pole induction motor
Fig. 19.8 Torque-speed curves of different types of single-phase induction motors
Lesson 20
PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF INDUCTION MOTORS
20.1 Important Terms and Definitions
20.1.1 Torque
Torque is the turning force through a radius and the units is in Nm.
20.1.2 Slip
The difference between synchronous speed and rotor speed is called slip speed or simply slip:
Slip speed (S) = Ns−N

And T∝S
From above equation greater the slip greater will be the induced e.m.f. and thus motor will develop higher
torque.
20.2 Expression for Torque
Torque developed by an induction motor is given by the following equation:
Where,
m = number of phases
S = Slip
E2s = Induced emf in rotor when rotor is stationary
R2 = Resistance of rotor
X2s = Leakage reactance of rotor when rotor is stationary
20.3 Condition for Maximum Torque

Condition for maximum torque is given by,
R2 = S X2s …………...…..equ. 1
Where,
S = Slip
Or, Slip S = R2/X2s ……………..equ. 2
Substituting value of equ. 2 into expression for torque in section 20.2,
From the above equation it is evident that to achieve higher torque, the value of leakage reactance of the
rotor should be minimum. Therefore rotor conductors are placed close to the outer periphery of the rotor and
the air gap between rotor and stator is kept as small as possible.
20.4 Starting Torque

At start of motor rotor is stationary and the value of slip (Ns−N) is one i.e. S=1. Thus,
Where,
m = number of phases
E2s = Induced emf in rotor when rotor is stationary
We know Condition of maximum torque, R2 = S X2s and for heavy loaded induction motors, sometimes
maximum torque is required at start. For maximum torque during starting placing S= 1
R2 = X2s
To obtain maximum torque at start, the value of rotor resistance must be equal to rotor leakage reactance at
standstill. External resistance is added in the rotor circuit at the start of motor to get higher torque. Addition
of variable resistance is only possible in case of slip ring induction motors. Therefore slip ring induction
motors used for heavy loads applications like in cranes, conveyors, mechanical jacks, elevators etc.
20.5 Torque-Slip Characteristics
Torque-slip curve can be plotted (fig. 20.1) by considering different cases for the following torque expression
discussed in section 20.2:
Case 1: When rotor speed N = Synchronous speed Ns
Slip S = 0 and Torque T = 0
Fig. 20.1 Torque slip characteristics
Case 2: When rotor speed N close to Synchronous speed Ns i.e. very low slip
When S is very small then can be neglected.
From torque equation:
Where K = constant
Or, S
Thus at very small value of slip S, torque (T) is directly proportional to S and straight line can be observed.
Case 3: Maximum value of torque
When Slip S = R2/X2s
Case 4: At high slip
When value of slip increases further beyond the maximum torque value of slip,
Or,
At higher value of slip, torque is inversely proportional to slip.

20.6 Torque Speed Characteristics
It's important to understand some details of motor performance as shown by a typical Torque-Speed curve in
the Figure 20.2. The plot shows what happens in terms of output torque and motor speed when a motor is
started with full voltage applied. The motor is initially at zero speed and develops locked-rotor torque (Point
A). As the motor accelerates, some motor designs produce a slight dip in torque. If they do, the lowest point
on this curve is called the pull-in or pull-up torque (Point B). As the speed increases further, the torque
generally increases to the highest point on the curve (Point C), which is called the pullout or breakdown
torque. Finally, when the motor is loaded to its full-load torque, the motor speed stabilizes (Point D). If the
motor isn't driving anything, its speed goes up to its no-load speed or synchronous speed (Point E). For
example, on a four-pole motor operating at 60 Hz, the no-load speed might be 1,799 RPM and synchronous
speed would be 1,800 RPM. Each of these points (A, B, C, and D) has absolute values (usually expressed in
pound-feet). However, they're frequently given in terms of a percentage of the full-load torque. Torque speed
curve varies when external resistance is added to the rotor winding (Fig. 20.3).
Fig. 20.2 Torque speed curve for induction motor
Fig.20.3 Torque speed curve for induction motor

20.7 Losses in an Induction motor
The major losses in an induction motor can be classified as stator and rotor losses (Fig. 20.4 and Table 20.1):
20.7.1 Stator losses

Losses occurring in the stator of an induction motor are called stator losses.
i. Stator copper losses – I21 R1 per phase
ii. Stator iron losses – Hysteresis and eddy current losses.
20.7.2 Rotor losses
Losses occurring in the rotor of an induction motor are called rotor losses.
i. Rotor copper losses – I22 R2 per phase
ii. Rotor iron losses –These losses small and can be neglected.
20.7.3 Mechanical losses
The sums of winding and friction losses are called mechanical losses.
Fig. 20.4 Losses in an Induction motor
Table 20.1 Percentage of losses in an induction motor

Name Percent Description Fixed or How to reduce
of Variable
total loss
Losses
Core Losses 15-15% Energy required to Fixed Improved
magnetize core. permeability
steel,
lengthening
core, using
thinner
laminations in
the core.
Windage 5-15% Losses due to bearing Fixed Lower friction
and Friction friction and air bearings,
resistance, which is improve fan
primarily caused by the design and air
cooling fan. flow.
Stator Losses 25-40% Heating due Variable Increasing the
to current volume of
flow copper wire in
through the resistance the stator,
of the stator winding. through
improved
stator slot
designs, and
by using
thinner
insulation.
Rotor Losses 15-25% Heating due Variable Increasing the
to I2R losses in the size of rotor
rotor conductive conductive
bars. bars and end
rings to
reduce
resistance.
Additional Load 10-20% Leakage Variable Various
Losses fluxes design and
induced by manufacturing
load currents and details.
various
other minor
losses.
Lesson 21
STARTING AND SPEED CONTROL OF INDUCTION MOTOR
21.1 Need of a Starter
The main problem in starting induction motors having large or medium size lies mainly in the requirement of
high starting current when directly started from the main supply. As a consequence there will be a large
voltage drop in the distribution line and will affect operation of other electrical machines, which is
undesirable. Purpose of the starter is to limit the initial peak current drawn by the induction motor.
21.2 Starters for Squirrel Cage Induction Motors
Starters for squirrel cage induction motors can be classified as follows:

1. Direct On Line (D.O.L) Starter;
2. Star/Delta Starter;
3. Auto-transformer Starter.
21.2.1 Direct on line (D.O.L) starter

In this method stator is directly connected to the main power supply. The current drawn by motor, depending
on its design class, will be from 5 to 7 times the nominal current rating. Since this amount of current flows
only for a short period of time, it would not damage the squirrel cage motor, but it may cause undesirable
drop in supply voltage, power factor and subsequently affects the performance of other equipment connected
to the same supply. For this reason, the supply authorities limit the size of motor upto 5 H.P. which can be
started by this starter.
Fig. 21.1 Direct online starter

A direct on line Starter essentially consists of a contactor having four normally open (N.O.) contacts and a
energizing coil also known as no-volt coil. The function of this coil is to keep together the N.O. contacts
when starter is switched on. In case power supply fails, no-volt coil de-energizes and the circuit is open. The
motor will not start automatically if the power supply is resumed and starter has to be switched ON once
gain. Two push buttons ON and OFF are provided on the starter to start and stop the motor. To protect motor
against overload, thermal or magnetic over-load coils are connected in each phase.
21.2.1.1 Start condition
ON button of starter completes the circuit of the no volt coil and it is energized. The four N.O. contacts are
brought together by the bar connected to no volt coil and the motor starts.
21.2.1.2 Stop condition
To stop the motor, OFF push button is pressed which de-energies the no volt coil opening the main contacts.
21.2.2 Star-delta starter
This method is used for motors that are designed to operate with Δ (delta) connection. The components
normally consist of three contactors, an overload relay and a timer for setting the time in the star-position at
starting position (Fig. 21.2). The phases of stator are initially (star) connected using a relay switch (K3).
Once up to a particular running speed a double throw switch (K2) changes the winding arrangements from
Y to Δ whereupon full running torque is achieved (Fig. 21.3). In this method the starting voltage across each
phase is VL/ and thus the starting current is lower which leads to a smaller starting torque. Such an
arrangement means that the ends of all stator windings must be brought to terminations outside the casing of
the motor. The starter is provided with overload and under voltage protection devices.
L: Line conductor
N: Neutral conductor
F1: Fuses
F2: Thermal overload cut-out
K1: Main contactor
K2: Delta contactor
K3: Star contactor
M1: Three-phase motor
Fig. 21.2 Star-delta starter
Fig. 21.3 Start and running configuration of rotor winding

The received starting current is about 30 % of the starting current during direct on line start and the starting
torque is reduced to about 25 % of the torque available at a D.O.L start. This starting method only works
when the application is light loaded during the start. If the motor is too heavily loaded, there will not be
enough torque to accelerate the motor up to speed before switching over to the delta position. When starting
up, the load torque is low at the beginning of the start and increases with the square of the speed. When
reaching approximately 80-85% of the motor rated speed the load torque is equal to the motor torque and the
acceleration ceases. To reach the rated speed, a switch over to delta position is necessary, and this will very
often result in high transmission and current peaks. In some cases the current peak can reach a value that is
even bigger than for a D.O.L start. Applications with a load torque higher than 50% of the motor rated torque
will not be able to start using the star-delta starter.
21.3.3 Auto transformer starter
This is another starting method that reduces the starting current and starting torque but contrary to Star-Delta
starting where this starting method needs three wires and three terminals on the motor. Autotransformers are
generally equipped with taps at each phase in order to adapt the starting parameters to the application starting
requirement. During starting, the motor is connected to the autotransformer taps. With the star and
autotransformer contactors closed, the motor is under reduced voltage. Consequently the torque is reduced as
the square of the applied voltage. When the motor reaches the 80 to 95% of the nominal speed, the star
contactor opens. Then the line contactor closes and the autotransformer contactor opens. The motor is never
disconnected from the power supply during starting (closed transition) and reduces transient phenomena.
Taps on the autotransformer allow for selection of the motor with 50%, 65%, or 80% of the current inrush
seen during a full voltage start. The resulting starting torque will be 25%, 42%, or 64% of full voltage values,
as will be the current draw on the line. Thus, the autotransformer provides the maximum torque with
minimum line current.
In this method, quite less current is drawn from supply as compared to previous method, but the extra
equipment is still required. On the other hand, the starting torque is small as a result of low amount of
voltage at starting instant, so this method is not useful for high inertia loads.
AT: Auto transformer1, 2, 3: Switches

Fig. 21.4 Auto transformer starter
21.4 Starting Method of Slip Ring Induction Motor

If it is necessary to start a three phase induction motor on load then a wound rotor machine also known as
slip ring motor will normally be selected. Such a machine allows an external resistance to be connected to
the rotor of the machine through slip rings and brushes. A 3-phase rheostat is connected in series with the
rotor circuit through brushes (Fig.21.5). At start-up the rotor resistance is set at maximum but is reduced as
speed increases until eventually it is reduced to zero and the machine runs as if it is a cage rotor machine. By
inserting external resistance in the rotor circuit, not only the starting current is reduced but at the same time
starting torque is increased due to improvement of power factor.
Fig. 21.5 Starting of slip ring induction motor using variable resistance
L: Line conductor
N: Neutral conductor
F1: Fuses
F2: Thermal overload cut-out
K1: Main contactor
K2: Resistance circuit contactor
R1: Starting resistance
M1: Three-phase motor
Fig. 21.6 Starting of slip ring induction motor using fixed starting resistance
21.5 Soft Starter
When starting, an AC Induction motor develops more torque than is required at full speed. This stress is
transferred to the mechanical transmission system resulting in excessive wear and premature failure of
chains, belts, gears, mechanical seals, etc. Additionally, rapid acceleration also has a massive impact on
electricity supply charges with high inrush currents drawing +600% of the normal run current (Fig. 21.7).
The use of Star Delta only provides a partial solution to the problem. If the motor slow down during the
transition period, the high peaks are repeated and can even exceed direct on line current.
Fig. 21.7 Comparison of current drawn by DOL, Star delta and soft start methods
A soft starter shown in fig. 21.8 is a solid state motor starter that is used to start or stop a motor by notching
the voltage waveform, thereby, reducing the voltage to each phase of a motor and gradually increasing the
voltage until the motor gets up to full voltage/speed all at a fixed frequency. The profile of the increase of
voltage depends on the application. The voltage is reduced and controlled by 3 pairs of back-to-back silicon-
controlled rectifiers (SCRs), which are a type of high speed thyristor. A soft starter takes the place of a
contactor and can also take the place of an overload relay in a standard motor starting application.
Fig. 21.8 Soft starter

In general, there are two reasons to use a soft starter: the power distribution network may not be able to
handle the inrush current of the motor and/or the load cannot handle the high starting torque. As a rule of
thumb, a motor utilizes around 600-800% of its full load current (FLA) to start. This current is referred to as
inrush current or locked-rotor current. If a large motor is on a smaller power distribution network or on a
generator system, this inrush current can cause the system voltage to dip, or to “brown out”. Brown outs can
cause problems with whatever else is connected to the system, such as computers, lights, motors, and other
loads. Another problem is that the system may not even be able to start the motor because it cannot source or
supply enough current. Most industrial businesses run during the day can be fined or charged extra
(Maximum Demand Charges) during this peak usage time for large transients caused by large horsepower
(hp)/Kilowatt (kW) motor start ups. These Maximum Demand Charges can add up very quickly, especially if
the motor needs to be started multiple times during any given day. The inrush current can be controlled one
of two ways with a soft starter: either with a current limit (discussed later) or reduced linearly with the
reduced voltage
21.6 Comparison of Different Starting Methods
21.6.1 Direct on-line starting
· Three-phase motor with low to medium power rating

· 3 conductors to the motor
· High starting torque
· High current peak
· Voltage dip
· One simple switching device
21.6.2 Star-delta start-up
· Three-phase motor with low to high power rating

· Six conductors to the motor
· Reduced starting torque, 1/3 of the nominal torque
· High mains load due to current peak during switchover from Y to Δ
· High mechanical stress due to torque surge during switchover from Y to Δ
· Two or three switching devices, more maintenance
21.6.3 Autotransformer starter
· lower relative cost (costs about 66% of a similar sized solid-state starter)
· Includes solid-state motor protection relays and vacuum contactors.
· Disadvantages include its non-continuous acceleration and inflexibility
21.6.4 Starting method using external resistance (Slip ring induction motor)
· Additional resistance is used only for starting,

· Resistance is rated for intermittent duty,
· Resistance is to be decreased in steps, as the motor speed increases.
· Finally, the external resistance is to be completely cut out.
· Additional cost of the external resistance is to be incurred,
· Decrease of starting current, along with increase of starting torque both being advantageous
· Only used in case higher starting torque is needed to start induction motor with high load torque.
21.6.5 Soft start-up
· Three-phase motor with low to high power rating

· 3 conductors to the motor
· Variable starting torque
· No current peak
· No torque peaks
· Negligible voltage dip
· One simple switching device
· Optional: Guided soft stop, protective functions, etc.
· Zero maintenance
Module 6. D.C. machines
Lesson 22
CONSTRUCTION AND PRINCIPLE OF D.C. GENERATOR
22.1 DC Generator
A D.C. Generator converts mechanical energy into electrical energy (d.c. current). A d.c. generator provides
direct current. Difference between a.c. and d.c. is as follows:
A.C. = alternating current
D.C. = direct current
Fig. 22.1 A.C. wave Fig.22.2 D.C. wave form
To understand the working of a d.c. generator, first we need to know the mechanism of current in a coil
rotated in a magnetic field. From faraday laws of electromagnetic induction we know emf induced in the coil
is directly proportional to the rate of change of flux linkage, i.e.
Where
N = number of turns in the coil
= rate of change of flux linkage.

We can see from fig. 22.3 that for 180° rotation of the coil generates +ve emf and for another 180° rotation it
is –ve. Such type of current having +ve and –ve loop is known as alternating current. Please note that the
current is drawn from the coil using slip ring.
Fig. 22.3 A.C. generator
Fig. 22.4 D.C. generator

Consider the same setup of magnetic field and coils fitted with split rings. The function of the split ring is to
make the current unidirectional. The split ring is cylindrical having two segments separated by an insulator.
The carbon brushes touch the segments as shown in figure 22.4. When the coil will rotate in the magnetic
field it will produce unidirectional current (Fig 22.5). Difference between A.C. and D.C. generator is the
contact type by which current is drawn (Fig. 22.6)
Fig. 22.5 D.C. wave form
Fig. 22.6 Difference between D.C. and A.C. generator
22.2 Construction of D.C. Generator

Parts of the D.C. generator are as follows (Fig. 22.7):
1. Frame
2. Field poles
3. Field coils
4. Armature (core + winding)
5. Commutator
6. Brush assembly
Fig. 22.7 Parts of the D.C. generator

22.2.1 Frame
The frame is also known as yoke and acts as housing for poles, armature etc. It gives mechanical support and
covers the parts of the machine. The yoke also transmit the magnetic flux provided by the poles. Therefore it
is made of steel having higher capacity to carry magnetic flux 1.6 Wb/m2.
22.2.2 Field poles
a. Main poles. It consists of a pole and pole shoes. It is made of laminated sheets to reduce the effect of
eddy current in the poles.
b. Inter poles. Also known as a commutation poles and is situated between two main poles.
Fig. 22.8 Main pole and interpole
1. Main pole with exciter winding

2. Compensation winding
3. Rotor with rotor winding
4. Interpole with interpole winding
5. Rotational direction during generator operation
22.2.3 Field coils
Field coils are pre wound to give proper shape and are placed around the main poles. As the current passes
through the field coils it magnetizes the main pole.
22.2.4 Armature
a. Armature core: Slots are cut in the thin laminated steel disc. A number of disc are arranged in a shape
of cylinder to from the armature core.
b. Armature winding: The winding of the armature are first wound in form of loop. These windings are
of insulated wires. The winding loops are then placed into the slots of armature core. The windings are
also called conductors as they carry electric current. Armature winding are of the following types.
Fig 22.9 Classification of armature winding

22.2.5 Commutator
Commutator is mounted next to armature core and winding on the shaft. It is a cylindrical structure and is
made up of segments separated from each other by thin strip of mica. The segments of the commutator are
connected to the armature winding. The current is then drawn from the Commutator.
22.2.6 Brush assembly
The brush assembly consists of brush, brush holder, studs rocker and bushes. The brushes are made of carbon
graphit or graphite. The function of the brush is to collect current from the commutator.
Lesson 23
TYPES AND CHARACTERISTIC OF D.C. GENERATORS
23.1 Types of D.C. Generators
D.C. generators can be classified as:
1. Permanent magnet type

2. Electromagnet type
23.2 Permanent Magnet Type
In this type of generator the poles are made of permanent magnet. The poles do not require any windings.
Such type of D.C. generators are of small size. These are employed mainly in dynamo in cycles and bikes. It
is not used for industrial purpose because:
a. It would require large magnet which is economically not feasible.

b. Magnetic strength decreases with time so magnetic flux will not remain constant.
23.3 Electromagnet Type

The poles of D.C. generator is magnetized using windings. Electromagnetic type generators can further
classifies as:
(i) Externally exited D.C. generator,

(ii) Self-exited D.C. generator.
23.3.1 External or separately excited D.C. generators

A D.C. generator whose field magnet winding is supplied from an independent external D.C. source (e.g., a
battery etc.) is called a separately excited generator. Fig. (23.1) shows the connections of a separately excited
generator. The voltage output depends upon the speed of rotation of armature and the field current (Eg =PΦ
ZN/60 A). The greater the speed and field current, greater is the generated e.m.f. It may be noted that
separately excited D.C. generators are rarely used in practice. The D.C. generators are normally of self-
excited type
Fig. 23.1 External or separately excited D.C. generators
23.3.2 Self-excited D.C. generators
A D.C. generator whose field magnet winding is supplied with current from the output of the generator itself
is called a self-excited generator. There are three types of self-excited generators depending upon the manner
in which the field winding is connected to the armature, namely;
(i) Series generator
(ii) Shunt generator
(iii) Compound generator
23.3.2.1 Series generator
In a series wound generator, the field winding is connected in series with armature winding so that whole
armature current flows through the field winding as well as the load. (Fig. 23.2) shows the connections of a
series wound generator. Since the field winding carries the whole of load current, it has a few turns of thick
wire having low resistance. Series generators are rarely used except for special purposes e.g., boosters.
Fig. 23.2 Series generator

23.3.2.2 Shunt generator
In a shunt generator, the field winding is connected in parallel with the armature winding so that terminal
voltage of the generator is applied across it. The shunt field winding has many turns of fine wire having high
resistance. Therefore, only a part of armature current flows through shunt field winding and the rest flows
through the load. (Fig. 23.3) shows the connections of a shunt-wound generator.
Fig. 23.3 Shunt generator
23.3.2.3 Compound generator

In a compound-wound generator, there are two sets of field windings on each pole—one is in series and the
other in parallel with the armature. A compound wound generator may be:
(a) Short Shunt in which only shunt field winding is in parallel with the armature winding (Fig. 23.4).
Fig. 23.4 Short shunt generator
(b) Long Shunt in which shunt field winding is in parallel with both series field and armature winding (Fig.
23.5).
Fig. 23.5 Long shunt generator
23.4 Efficiency of d.c. generators

Various power stages in the case of a d.c generator are shown in Fig. 23.6.
Fig. 23.5 Various losses
Mechanical Efficiency
Mechanical losses = Iron + Friction losses
Electrical Efficiency
Overall Efficiency
In general generator efficiency = Output / (Output + losses)

The condtion for maximum efficiency of generator is given by
i.e Variable loss = Constant loss.
Lesson 24
TYPES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF D.C. MOTORS-I
24.1 Introduction
D.C. motor is used to convert electrical energy into mechanical energy. The shaft of the motor rotates when
current is supplied to the motor. Motor are used to operate pumps, lifts, cranes etc. The construction of D.C.
motor is similar to a D.C. generator. When the armature and field winding of a D.C. generator is connected
to a D.C. Source (e.g. battery) it will work like a motor. The advantages of a D.C. motor includes low initial
cost, ease in speed control, high initial torque. D. C. motors require more maintenance and have less useful
life.
24.2 Types of D.C. MOTOR
D.C. motors can be classified into three types according to the connection of field windings to the armature
windings:
1. Shunt wound motor
2. Series wound motor
3. Compound wound motor
24.2.1 Shunt wound motor

Here the field windings are connected in parallel with the armature.
· For constant applied voltage, the field current is constant.
· The speed of the shunt wound makes it almost constant as the flux and back emf are constant.
Therefore it is also considered constant speed machine.
Fig. 24.1 Shunt wound motor
24.2.2 Series wound motor

Since the field winding and armature are connected in series.
One of the characteristic and advantage of D.C. motor is that as the motor is loaded heavily, the speed of the
motor automatically gets reduced.
Fig. 24.2 Series wound motor

24.2.3 Compound motor
In compound wound motor the field (pole) winding comprise of two windings:
a. Shunt field winding
b. Series field windings
The field windings connected in series and shunt this produce the resultant flux to drive the motor. D.C.
compound motor is a combination of the series and the shunt motor. The series field winding is connected in
series with the armature and a shunt field is in parallel with the armature. The combination of series and
shunt winding allow the motor to have the torque characteristics of the series motor and the regulated speed
characteristics of the shunt motor.
Fig. 24.3 Compound motor

24.3 Back E.M.F in D.C. Motors
When the motor is operated magnetic flux is produced by the field winding and armature winding. The flux
produced at the field winding is also known as main flux. As the armature rotates the windings of the
armature (also known as conductor) cuts the flux. Thus an e.m.f is induced in the armature winding whose
direction is opposite to the applied voltage. The induce e.m.f is opposite in direction and opposes the applied
voltage, it is also known as back e.m.f.
Thus relation between applied voltage and back e.m.f is given as follows:
Where,
V = applied voltage
Eb = back e.m.f
Ia = armature current
Ra = armature resistance
24.4 Motor Torque
24.4.1 Torque
It is also known as moment of force. Torque is the tendency of a force to rotate an object about an axis or
pivot. Force is defined as push or pull; similarly a torque can be thought of as a twist.
Fig. 24.4 Shaft of radius r
Consider a shaft of radius r which is rotated by its axis by force F acting on the circumference of the shaft
(Fig. 24.4).
Where
T = Torque
r = radius of shaft
(Or the distance from the axis to the application of force)
F = applied force
24.4.2 Machine torque
One of the basic specifications of an engine is Torque. The power output of an engine can be given as:
Power developed P = Torque rotational speed
Where
P = Power developed
T = Torque
ω = angular velocity in radian/second.
N = rpm (rotation per minute)
24.4.3 Torque in a motor
From equation 1, power developed is given as:
Where,
Ta = Torque developed by the armature
Electrical equivalent of mechanical power developed by the armature is given by
Where,
Eb = back e.m.f
Ia= armature current
Equating equation (2) and (3)
Where, = flux/pole in Weber’s

Z = total number of armature conductors
= number of slots conductors/slot

N = armature rotation r.p.m
P = number of poles
a = number of parallel paths in armature
Placing value of equation (5) into equation (4)
Arranging,
Since Z, p and a are constant for any motor
Case 1: For shunt motors
i.e. flux per pole is changing,
Since Z, p and a are constant for any motor.
Case 2: For series motors
Since field windings carry full armature current, is directly proportional to before saturation.
24.4.4 Shaft torque (Tsh)
The armature torque developed in the motor is not fully available to the shaft due to iron and friction losses.
The torque available at the shaft will be always lower than the armature torque.
The horse power at the shaft is known as brake horse power (B.H.P). B.H.P is calculated using shaft torque.
Note1: The Brake Power mentioned here is metric brake horse power.
1 B. H. P (metric) = 735.5 watt
Do not confuse with Electrical horse power which is equivalent to 746 watt.
Note 2: The difference Tarmature – Tshaft is known as lost Torque.
Lesson 25
TYPES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF D.C. MOTORS-II
25.1 Characteristics of D.C. Motor
The performance of a d.c. motor is expressed using different graphs and curves known as characteristic
curves. Operating characteristics are given by the following curve.
1. Torque - Armature current (Ta - Ia) characteristic also known as electrical characteristic.
2. Speed – Armature current (N -Ia) characteristics.
3. Speed – Torque (N - Ta) characteristics also known as the mechanical characteristic
As per syllabus we will be looking into speed torque (N - Ta) characteristics.
25.2 Speed Torque (N - Ta) Characteristics
25.2.1 Series motor
Fig. 25.1 Speed torque curve for D.C. series motor

· From the plot it is evident that the series motor exhibit high torque at low speed and vice versa.
· Series motor must never be started at no load. Under no load conditions the value of the armature is
very small.
We know,
∅ ∝ Ia ……… (1)
From relation (1) if armature current (Ia) is small, flux would be small. If flux (∅) has a very small value.
The motor speed (N) will become very high to cause changes to the motor part. Therefore series motors are
used in place where “no load” condition doesn’t occur.
25.2.2 Shunt motors
Fig. 25.2 Speed torque curve for D.C. shunt motor

From the plot we can see as the load (Torque) on the shunt motor increase there is slight fall in the motor
speed. Due to insignificant redirection in the speed, shunt motor are considered to be constant speed motor.
Therefore shunt motor will approximately be operated at same speed under no load and full load conditions.
26.3.3 Compound motors
25.3.3.1 Differential – compound motors
Fig. 25.3 Speed torque curve for differential compound motor
Differential compound motor are rarely used due to its poor Torque –speed characteristics. The machine can
be operated at constant speed on medium load. But at very high load / torque the speed is very high to
damage the motor.
25.3.3.2 Cumulative compound motor
Fig. 25.4 Speed torque curve for cumulative compound motor

· In cumulative compound motor speed falls considerably at heavy load / torque.
· When the load / torque is low the motor runs at the safe speed.
· Motor shows the characteristics in between that of series and shunt motor.
To compare performance of different motors, the speed – torque characteristics is shown in same plot.
Fig. 25.5 Speed torque curve for different D.C. motors
Lesson 26
STARTING AND SPEED CONTROL OF D.C. MOTORS
26.1 Need for D.C. Motor Starter
At the time of starting of motor it is at rest and no back e.m.f. is generated. On application of full voltage,
armature winding draws a heavy current due to small armature resistance. This high armature current may
damage the armature windings, commutator and brushes. To prevent high armature current during the
starting of motors, variable resistance is connected in series with the armature winding. The starting
resistance is reduced as the motor speeds up. The resistance is cut off fully when the motor attains full speed.
This arrangement is known as starter. For very small D.C. motor (e.g. 6v, 12v, motor) starter is not required
and it can be started directly. A D.C. Motor starter consists of:
a) External resistance – External resistance is placed in the armature circuit to limit the starting current
drawn by the motor. As the motor accelerates the resistance is gradually removed.
b) No-volt release coil – In case of power failure the starter arm is brought back to the off position.
c) Overload release coil – In case of overloading of motor or any fault the starter circuit is switched off by
overload release coil mechanism.
26.2 Types of Starters
1. Three point starter

2. Four point starter
3. Two point starter
26.2.1 Three point starter

Three point starters have three terminals:
i) Armature terminals A – It is connected to one of the armature winding ends.
ii) Field terminal Z – is connected to one of the field winding of the motor.
iii) Line terminal L – is connected to any of +ve or –ve wire coming from the d.c. source.
26.2.1.1 Operation of the d.c. motor starter
The incoming power is indicated as L1 and L2. The components within the broken lines form the three-point
starter (Fig. 26.1). As the name implies there are only three connections to the starter. The connections to
the armature are indicated as A1 and A2. The ends of the field (excitement) coil are indicated as F1 and F2.
In order to control the speed, a field rheostat is connected in series with the shunt field. One side of the line
is connected to the arm of the starter (represented by an arrow in the diagram). The arm is spring-loaded so,
it will return to the "Off" position when not held at any other position. On the first step of the arm, full line
voltage is applied across the shunt field. Since the field rheostat is normally set to minimum resistance, the
speed of the motor will not be excessive; additionally, the motor will develop a large starting torque.
· The starter also connects an electromagnet in series with the shunt field. It will hold the arm in position
when the arm makes contact with the magnet.
· Meanwhile that voltage is applied to the shunt field, and the starting resistance limits the current to the
armature.
· As the motor picks up speed counter-emf is built up; the arm is moved slowly to short.
Fig. 26.1 Three point starter
26.2.1.2 Limitation
No-volt release coil is connected in series with the field circuit. While exercising speed control through field
regulator, the field current may be weakened to such an extent that no-volt release coil may not be able to
keep the starter lever in the ON position. This may disconnect the motor from the supply when it is not
desired. This limitation is over come in four point starter.
26.2.2 Four point starter
(i) In a four-point starter, the no-volt release is connected directly across the supply line through a
protective resistance R.
(ii) Now the no-volt release coil circuit is independent of the shunt field circuit. Therefore, proper speed
control can be exercised without affecting the operation of non-volt release coil.
(iii) The only difference between a three-point starter and a four-point starter is that of the method in which
no-volt release is connected. However, the working of the two starters is the same.
(iv) It may be noted that the three point starter also provides protection against an open field circuit. This
protection is not provided by the four-point starter. But the possibility of open field circuit is quite
remote.
Fig. 26.2 Four point starter

26.2.3 Two point starter
1. Two point starter is used only for D. C. series motor. The basic construction of two point starter is
similar to that of three point starter except the fact that it has two terminals namely line (L) and field (F).
2. The terminal F is at one end of the series combination of field and the armature winding. The action of
the starter is similar to that of three point starter.
3. The main problem in case of D. C. series motor is it’s over speeding action when the load is less.
4. This can be prevented using two point starters. The no-volt coil is connected in series with the motor so
both currents are equal.
5. At no load situation, load current drawn by the motor decreases. At very low current no-volt coil is
demagnetized and it releases the handle to OFF position.
Fig. 26.3 Two point starter

Module 8. Measuring instruments
Lesson 27
CHARACTERISTICS OF MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
27.1 Introduction
To understand the performance characteristics of a measurement system is very critical to the process of
selection. Characteristics that show the performance of an instrument are accuracy, precision, resolution,
sensitivity etc. It allows users to select the most suitable instrument for specific measuring jobs.
There are two basic performance characteristics of measuring instrument:
1. Static characteristics: value of the measured variable change slowly.

2. Dynamic characteristics: value of the measured variable change very fast.
27.2 Static Characteristics
The static characteristics and parameters of measuring instruments describe the performance of the
instruments related to the steady-state input/output variables only. The various static characteristics and
parameters are destined for quantitative description of the instrument’s perfections and they are well
presented in the manufacturer's manuals and data sheets.
27.2.1 Accuracy
The degree of exactness (closeness) of measurement compared to the true value. This term is used in the
manufacturer specifications for a measurement instrument or device. Accuracy of an instrument is the quality
which characterizes the ability of a measuring instrument to give indications approximating to the true value
of the measured variable. The specifications of the accuracy are given actually in terms of error (in other
words in terms of inaccuracy). Note, that when the accuracy of some measurement device is presented with
percent error, we can estimate the error after measurement.
Example: Let us consider a voltmeter having range from 0 to 200V and accuracy X=± 1% of range. The
voltmeter reading is 100V. We can obtain the limits of absolute error after measurement:
Error = 1% of (200-0) = 2V
Finally for measurement we can write the result of measurement such as:
V = VR ± V= 100V ± 2V
and we say, that the measurement value is between 98 and 102 Volts.
27.2.2 Resolution
The smallest change in a measurement variable to which an instrument will respond.
27.2.3 Range
The input range of an measuring device is specified by the minimum and maximum values of input variable
(Xmin to Xmax) , for example: from -10 to +150 oC (for the measurement device with temperature input).
The output range of an measuring device is specified by the minimum and maximum values of output
variable (Ymin to Ymax) , for example: from 4 to +20 mA (for the measurement element with current output).
27.2.4 Span
The input span of a measuring devices is specified by the difference between maximum Xmax and minimum
Xmin values of input variables: (Xmax - Xmin ). For example, for a measuring devices with input range
from -10 oC to +150 oC the input span is: +150 oC - (-10 oC) = 160 oC.
The output span of a measuring devices is specified by the difference between maximum Ymax and
minimum Ymin values of output variables: (Ymax - Ymin). For example, for a measuring devices with
output range from 4 to +20 mA span is: +20 mA - 4 mA = 16 mA.
27.2.5 Precision
It is a measure of consistency or repeatability, i.e successive reading do not differ. Precision is defined as the
capability of an instrument to show the same reading when used each time (reproducibility of the
instrument). An instrument which is precise may not be necessarily accurate. Difference between accuracy
and precision can be explained by example of a shooter aiming at the target (Fig. 27.1). If all the shots are hit
at the particular point it is said to have high precision.
Fig. 27.1 Accuracy and precision
27.2.6 Bias
Constant error which occurs during the measurement of an instrument. This error is usually rectified through
calibration.
27.2.7 Linearity
· Maximum deviation from linear relation between input and output.

· The output of an instrument has to be linearly proportionate to the measured quantity.
· Normally shown in the form of full scale percentage (% fs).
· The graph shows the output reading of an instrument when a few input readings are entered.
Fig. 27.2 Linearity
27.2.8 Sensitivity
Sensitivity is defined as the ratio of change in output (response) towards the change in input at a steady state
condition.
Where,
= Change in output
= Change in input
Fig. 27.3 Sensitivity
27.2.9 Threshold
When the reading of an input is increased from zero, the input reading will reach a certain
value before change occurs in the output. The minimum limit of the input reading is
‘threshold’.
27.2.10 Expected value

It is the desired value or the most probable value that is expected to obtain.
27.2.11 Error
It is the deviation of the true value from the desired value. Also, Error (e) is the difference between the
measured value and the true value of a variable.
e = measured value - true value
27.2.12 Accuracy
· True Value is the exact value of a variable.

· Measured Value - value of variable as indicated by measurement system
· Accuracy - closeness of agreement between the measured value and the true value.
27.3 Dynamic Characteristics

Previous characteristics assume a steady state conditions. The time response shows the behavior of the
sensor or the instrument at system to the changes in the magnitude of interest by observing the signal output
with time. The step response is used as a basic test and for characterizing the system. The dynamic
characteristics of an instrument are:
· Speed of response
· Dynamic error: The difference between the true and measured value with no static error.
· Lag – response delay
· Fidelity – the degree to which an instrument indicates the changes in the measured variable without
dynamic error (faithful reproduction).
Module 8. Measuring Instruments
Lesson 28
CLASSIFICATION OF INSTRUMENTS
28.1 Introduction
The instrument principally used to measure electrical quantities like current, voltage, energy, power etc are
known as electrical instruments. Tests and measurement are important in design, performance evaluation,
repair and maintenance of electrical equipments systems and circuits. To measure electrical quantities like
current, voltage, resistance etc it is necessary to transform these quantities into a visible indication.
28.2 Analogue and digital instruments
There are basically two types of instruments:

a) Analogue: Magnitude of the electric quantity is indicated by the position of a pointer moving over a
graduated scale.
Fig. 28.1 Analogue measuring device
b) Digital: When the electrical quantity is indicated in form of decimal number.
Fig. 28.2 Digital measuring device
28.3 Classification of Measuring Instruments

Electrical instruments can be classified on the basis of
28.3.1 Function
a) Indicating instruments: Such instrument directly display the value of electrical quantity immediately
at the time when measurement is taken. E.g. Voltmeter, ammeter.
Fig. 28.3 Indicating device
b) Recording instruments: Such instruments are used to record electrical quantities during a period of
time. A pen plots the data on a paper. Digital recording instruments or data loggers are also available.
Fig. 28.4 Recording device (Chart type)
c) Integrating instruments: These instruments measure the total quantities of electricity in a given time.
The best example is energy meter (Fig. 28.5). The data measured and recorded by such instrument is
cumulative.
Fig. 28.5 Integrating instruments (energy meter)

28.3.2 Type mounting
a) Switch board mounted: Such instruments are mounted permanently on the switch board. These are
not completely covered and terminals are placed on the back of the instruments for connections.
Fig. 28.6 Switchboard or panel mounted instruments

b) Portable devices: These are small in size and handy to be carried around easily. Portable devices are
useful for onsite/multi location testing and measurement. Few portable are designed in a manner that it
can also be mounted on the switch board.
Fig. 28.7 Portable device for current and voltage measurement
28.3.3 Principle of operations

a) Moving iron instruments
b) Moving coil instruments
c) Induction instruments
d) Hot wire instruments
e) Electrostatic instruments
f) Electrolytic instruments
28.3.4 Current type
a) A.C. instruments
b) D.C. instruments
28.3.5 Electrical quantity to be measured
a) Voltmeter-Voltage
b) Ammeter-Current
c) Wattmeter-Power
d) Watt Hour meter-Energy measurements
Module 7. Electrical measuring instrument
Lesson 29
PRINCIPLES OF ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT SYSTEM
29.1 Element of a Generalized Measurement System
There are three elements of any electrical measurement system.

1. Deflecting element
2. Controlling element
3. Damping element
29.2 Deflecting Element
The electrical quantity like current, voltage or power produces the deflecting torque. The deflecting torque
carries the pointer to move. There are different mechanisms for deflection like:
a. Coil and soft iron core arrangement.

b. Moving coil and fixed coil system.
c. Moving iron and coil system.
d. Others.
Fig. 29.1 Deflecting element
29.3 Controlling Element

It controls the deflection of the pointer according to the magnitude of the electrical quantities (e.g. current,
voltage etc). If controlling device is not provided the pointer will immediately move to maximum position as
soon as the instrument starts measuring any electrical quantity. The function of the controlling device is also
to bring back pointer to zero position, if the magnitude of measured quantity becomes zero. Controlling
devices are of two types:
1. Spring Control
2. Gravity Control
29.3.1 Spring control
Two spiral spring made of non magnetic material wound in opposite ends is used for controlling deflection.
As the pointer moves one spring gets winded and other is unwound, thus two springs provides controlling
torque. The torsion torque of a spiral spring is proportional to the angle of twist, therefore the controlling
torque is directly proportional to the deflection of the pointer.
TC ∝ θ
Where
TC = Controlling Torque
θ = Deflection of pointer
Fig. 29.2 Control element (spring)

29.3.2 Gravity control
To provide controlling torque two weights are attached:
a. Balance Weight – It balance the weight of the pointer.
b. Control Weight – It provides the controlling torque.
Here the controlling torque is directly proportional to the sin of the angular deflection i.e.
TC ∝ sin θ
The control weight is attached to the pointer spindle in a way that its position can be altered. The controlling
torque can be varied by changing the distance of the control weight from the pointer axle.
Fig. 29.3 Gravity control by balance weight
29.4 Damping Element
The pointer of the measuring instrument will move by the deflection and controlling mechanism. The pointer
will keep moving to and fro (oscillates) and will come to rest after a long period. Thus it has to wait for long
to take the reading from the measuring instrument and it will also result inaccurate result.
To overcome this problem a damping element is provided in the instrument. A damping torque is applied to
the pointer by this damping device which brings the pointer to rest. Oscillation / vibration of the pointer is
eliminated and reading from the instrument can be taken immediately.
Different methods of damping are as follows:

1. Air friction damping
2. Fluid friction damping
3. Eddy current damping
Fig. 29.4 Damping element (Air damping)
Module 7. Electrical measuring instruments
Lesson 30
ENERGY MEASUREMENT
30.1 Introduction
It is important to understand power and power measuring method before starting energy measurement.
Power and energy are related but are different. Power is the rate at which energy is transferred, used, or
transformed. For example, the rate at which a light bulb transforms electrical energy into heat and light is
measured in watts—the more wattage, the more power, or equivalently the more electrical energy is used per
unit time. The instantaneous electrical power P delivered to a component is given by
P(t) = V(t) × I(t)

Where,
P(t) = instantaneous power, measured in watts (joules per second)
V(t) = potential difference (or voltage drop) across the component, measured in volts
I(t) = current through it, measured in amperes
30.2 Power Measurement in 3-Phase Circuits
Power in a 3-phase load (star or delta connected) can be measured in the following methods:
30.2.1 Three-wattmeter method
Fig 30.1 shows three watt meters connected in the following manner:
· Current coil is connected to one line

· Potential coil is connected between that line and some common point.
The sum total of the readings of the three watt meters gives the total power consumed. This method can be
used with balanced and unbalanced load. If neutral wire is available then common point should be at the
neutral wire.
Total power = W1+W2+W3
Fig. 30.1 Connection diagram for Three Wattmeter method
30.2.2 Two-wattmeter method

Two watt meters are connected (Fig. 30.2) such that:
· Current coils of two watt meters are connected in any two lines and
· Potential coil of each joined to the third line.
The sum total of the readings of the two watt meters gives the total power consumed. This method can be
used with balanced and unbalanced load. Precaution in this method is that if neutral wire is available it
should not carry any current. And if it is not so then the neutral of the load should be disconnected from the
neutral of the source.
Total power = W1+W2
Fig. 30.2 Connection diagram for Two Wattmeter method

From the two wattmeter readings ϕ and thus load power factor Cos ϕ can be determined by the following
equation:
Where,
W1 = Watt meter reading (Lower value)
W2 = Watt meter reading (Higher value)
Thus,
Power factor (pf) = Cos ϕ
30.2.3 One-wattmeter method
Fig. 30.3 Connection diagram for one wattmeter method

One wattmeter method is applicable to balanced load. The total circuit power is given by multiplying the
wattmeter reading by three. Advantage of this method is simplicity in connection. The current coil of the
wattmeter is connected in any one line and the potential coil is connected alternately between this and the
other two lines. Sum of the two readings gives the total power taken up by the load.
30.3 Energy Measurement
The energy meter is an electrical measuring device, which is used to record Electrical Energy Consumed
over a specified period of time in terms of units. Electricity meters operate by continuously measuring the
instantaneous voltage (volts) and current (amperes) and finding the product of these to give instantaneous
electrical power (watts) which is then integrated against time to give energy used (joules, kilowatt-hours
etc.).
1. Voltage coil - many turns of fine wire encased in plastic, connected in parallel with load.
2. Current coil - three turns of thick wire, connected in series with load.
3. Stator - concentrates and confines magnetic field.
4. Aluminum rotor disc.
5. Rotor brake magnets.
6. Spindle with worm gear.
7. Display dials - note that the 1/10, 10 and 1000 dials rotate clockwise while the 1, 100 and 10000 dials
rotate counter-clockwise.
Fig. 30.4 Energy Meter
30.3.1 Electromechanical meters

The most common type of electricity meter is the electromechanical induction watt-hour meter. The
electromechanical induction meter operates by counting the revolutions of an aluminium disc which is made
to rotate at a speed proportional to the power. The number of revolutions is thus proportional to the energy
usage. It consumes a small amount of power, typically around 2 watts.
The metallic disc is acted upon by two coils. One coil is connected in such a way that it produces a magnetic
flux in proportion to the voltage and the other produces a magnetic flux in proportion to the current. The
field of the voltage coil is delayed by 90 degrees using a lag coil. This produces eddy currents in the disc and
the effect is such that a force is exerted on the disc in proportion to the product of the instantaneous current
and voltage. A permanent magnet exerts an opposing force proportional to the speed of rotation of the disc.
The equilibrium between these two opposing forces results in the disc rotating at a speed proportional to the
power being used. The disc drives a register mechanism which integrates the speed of the disc over time by
counting revolutions, much like the odometer in a car, in order to render a measurement of the total energy
used over a period of time. The type of meter described above is used on a single-phase AC supply.
Different phase configurations use additional voltage and current coils.
The aluminum disc is supported by a spindle which has a worm gear which drives the register. The register is
a series of dials which record the amount of energy used. The dials may be of the cyclometer type, an
odometer-like display that is easy to read where for each dial a single digit is shown through a window in the
face of the meter, or of the pointer type where a pointer indicates each digit. With the dial pointer type,
adjacent pointers generally rotate in opposite directions due to the gearing mechanism.
The amount of energy represented by one revolution of the disc is denoted by the symbol kWh which is
given in units of watt-hours per revolution. Three-phase electromechanical induction meter, metering 100 A
230/400 V supply. Horizontal aluminium rotor disc is visible in center of meter.
In an induction type meter, creep is a phenomenon that can adversely affect accuracy, that occurs when the
meter disc rotates continuously with potential applied and the load terminals open circuited. A test for error
due to creep is called a creep test.
30.3.2 Electronic meters

Electronic meters display the energy used on an LCD or LED display, and can also transmit readings to
remote places. In addition to measuring energy used, electronic meters can also record other parameters of
the load and supply such as maximum demand, power factor and reactive power used etc. They can also
support time-of-day billing, for example, recording the amount of energy used during on-peak and off-peak
hours.
Module 8. Electric power economics
Lesson 31
MAXIMUM DEMAND CHARGE
31.1 Important Terms and Definitions
31.1.1 Demand
The rate at which electric energy is used in any instant or average over a period of time. Usually expressed in
kilowatts (kW) or kilovolt-amperes (kVA).
31.1.2 Kilovolt amperes (kVA)
A measure of electrical load on a circuit or system. This unit is used to measure apparent electric power. For
billing purposes maximum demand measured in kilowatts (kW) is converted to kilovolt amperes (kVA) by
dividing by the power factor. Maximum demand and capacity charges are billed using kVA rather than kW.
31.1.3 Kilowatt
A measure of electrical power. One kilowatt (kW) equals 1,000 watts.
31.1.4 Kilowatt hour

A measure of electrical energy. One kilowatt hour (kWh) of energy is the energy produced by one kilowatt
acting for one hour. Electricity meters record in kilowatt hours and electrical consumption is billed on
kilowatt hours.
31.1.5 Load factor
Ratio of average energy demand (load) to maximum demand (peak load) during a specific period. Usually
stated as a percentage, or number of hours used.
31.1.6 Maximum demand (MD)

The measure of the highest peak of electricity flow into the site during a half-hour period, in the period of a
month. Measured in either kW or kVA.
31.1.7 Power factor
The ratio of active or real power in kilowatts (kW), to apparent power in kilovolt amperes or
kVA. Power Factor is normally expressed as a figure between zero and one. Unity power factor is 100% (or
1.0) power factor which is the highest available. In practice 0.99 is the highest.
31.1.8 Trivector meter
Trivector meter can measure active power, reactive power, apparent power i.e. with the help of a single meter
we can measure kVA, kW, kVAR. The power triangle is sum of (kW, kVAR, kVA) and the meter which gives
readings all of the above variables is called TRI vector meter.
31.2 Billing of Electricity
The electricity billing by utilities for medium & large enterprises, in High Tension (HT) category, is often
done on two-part tariff structure, i.e. one part for capacity (or demand) drawn and the second part for actual
energy drawn during the billing cycle. Capacity or demand is in kVA (apparent power) or kW terms. The
reactive energy (i.e.) kVArh drawn by the service is also recorded and billed for in some utilities, because
this would affect the load on the utility. Accordingly, utility charges for maximum demand, active energy and
reactive power drawn (as reflected by the power factor) in its billing structure. In addition, other fixed and
variable expenses are also levied. The tariff structure generally includes the following components:
a) Maximum demand Charges
These charges relate to maximum demand registered during month/billing period and corresponding rate
of utility.
b) Energy Charges
These charges relate to energy (kilowatt hours) consumed during month / billing period and
corresponding rates, often levied in slabs of use rates. Some utilities now charge on the basis of apparent
energy (kVAh), which is a vector sum of kWh and kVArh.
c) Power factor penalty or bonus rates, as levied by most utilities, are to contain reactive power drawn
from grid.
d) Fuel cost adjustment charges as levied by some utilities are to adjust the increasing fuel expenses over a
base reference value.
e) Electricity duty charges levied w.r.t units consumed.
f) Meter rentals
g) Lighting and fan power consumption is often at higher rates, levied sometimes on slab basis or on actual
metering basis.
h) Time of Day (TOD) rates like peak and non-peak hours are also prevalent in tariff structure provisions of
some utilities.
i) Penalty for exceeding contract demand
j) Surcharge if metering is at LT side in some of the utilities
Analysis of utility bill data and monitoring its trends helps energy manager to identify ways for electricity bill
reduction through available provisions in tariff framework, apart from energy budgeting. The utility employs
an electromagnetic or electronic trivector meter, for billing purposes. The minimum outputs from the
electromagnetic meters are
• Maximum demand registered during the month, which is measured in preset time intervals (say of 30
minute duration) and this is reset at the end of every billing cycle.
• Active energy in kWh during billing cycle
• Reactive energy in kVARh during billing cycle and
• Apparent energy in kVAh during billing cycle
It is important to note that while maximum demand is recorded, it is not the instantaneous demand drawn, as
is often misunderstood, but the time integrated demand over the predefined recording cycle. As example, in
an industry, if the drawl over a recording cycle of 30 minutes is:
250 kVA for 4 minutes
360 kVAfor 12 minutes
410 kVAfor 6 minutes
380 kVA for 8 minutes
The MD recorder will be computing MD as:
The month’s maximum demand will be the highest among such demand values recorded over the month. The
meter registers only if the value exceeds the previous maximum demand value and thus, even if, average
maximum demand is low, the industry / facility has to pay for the maximum demand charges for the highest
value registered during the month, even if it occurs for just one recording cycle duration i.e., 30 minutes
during whole of the month. A typical demand curve is shown in Figure 31.1 the demand varies from time to
time.
Fig. 31.1 Maximum demand curve

As can be seen from the Figure 31.1 the demand is measured over predetermined time interval and averaged
out for that interval as shown by the horizontal dotted line. Fig. 31.2 shows the peak demand during 24 hour
operation of a plant.
Fig. 31.2 Peak demand during a 24 hour operation

Most electricity boards have changed over from conventional electromechanical trivector meters to electronic
meters, which have some excellent provisions that can help the utility as well as the industry. These
provisions include:
• Substantial memory for logging and recording all relevant events

• High accuracy up to 0.2 class
• Amenability to time of day tariffs
• Tamper detection /recording
• Measurement of harmonics and Total Harmonic Distortion (THD)
• Long service life due to absence of moving parts
• Amenability for remote data access/downloads
Trend analysis of purchased electricity and cost components can help the industry to identify key result areas
for bill reduction within the utility tariff available framework along the following lines.
Table 31.1 Purchased electrical energy trend
Month MD Billing Total Energy Energy MD Energy PF PF Total Average

& Recorded Demand* Consumption Consumption Charge Charge Penalty/ Bills Cost
Year kVA kVA kWh During Peak Rs./kVA Rs./kWh Rebate Rs. Rs./kWh
Hours (kWh) Rs.
Jan.
Feb.
Dec.
31.3 Need for Electrical Load Management
In a macro perspective, the growth in the electricity use and diversity of end use segments in time of use has
led to shortfalls in capacity to meet demand. As capacity addition is costly and only a long time prospect,
better load management at user end helps to minimize peak demands on the utility infrastructure as well as
better utilization of power plant capacities.
The utilities (State Electricity Boards) use power tariff structure to influence end user in better load
management through measures like time of use tariffs, penalties on exceeding maximum demand, night tariff
concessions etc. Load management is a powerful means of efficiency improvement both for end user as well
as utility.
As the demand charges constitute a considerable portion of the electricity bill, from user angle too there is a need
for integrated load management to effectively control the maximum demand.
31.4 Step by Step Approach for Maximum Demand Control
31.4.1 Load curve generation

Presenting the load demand of a consumer against time of the day is known as a ‘load curve’. If it is plotted
for the 24 hours of a single day, it is known as an ‘hourly load curve’ and if daily demands plotted over a
month, it is called daily load curves. A typical hourly load curve for an engineering industry is shown in
Figure 31.3. These types of curves are useful in predicting patterns of drawl, peaks and valleys and energy
use trend in a section or in an industry or in a distribution network as the case may be.
Fig. 31.3 Hourly load curve

31.4.2 Rescheduling of loads
Rescheduling of large electric loads and equipment operations, in different shifts can be planned and
implemented to minimize the simultaneous maximum demand. For this purpose, it is advisable to prepare an
operation flow chart and a process chart. Analyzing these charts and with an integrated approach, it would be
possible to reschedule the operations and running equipment in such a way as to improve the load factor
which in turn reduces the maximum demand.
31.4.3 Storage of Products/in process material/ process utilities like refrigeration

It is possible to reduce the maximum demand by building up storage capacity of products/ materials, water,
chilled water / hot water, using electricity during off peak periods. Off peak hour operations also help to save
energy due to favorable conditions such as lower ambient temperature etc. Example: Ice bank system is used
in milk & dairy industry. Ice is made in lean period and used in peak load period and thus maximum demand
is reduced.
31.4.4 Shedding of non-essential loads

When the maximum demand tends to reach preset limit, shedding some of non-essential loads temporarily
can help to reduce it. It is possible to install direct demand monitoring systems, which will switch off non-
essential loads when a preset demand is reached. Simple systems give an alarm, and the loads are shed
manually. Sophisticated microprocessor controlled systems are also available, which provide a wide variety
of control options like:
■ Accurate prediction of demand

■ Graphical display of present load, available load, demand limit
■ Visual and audible alarm
■ Automatic load shedding in a predetermined sequence
■ Automatic restoration of load
■ Recording and metering
31.4.5 Operation of captive generation and diesel generation sets

When diesel generation sets are used to supplement the power supplied by the electric utilities, it is advisable
to connect the D.G. sets for durations when demand reaches the peak value. This would reduce the load
demand to a considerable extent and minimize the demand charges.
31.4.6 Reactive power compensation
The maximum demand can also be reduced at the plant level by using capacitor banks and maintaining the
optimum power factor. Capacitor banks are available with microprocessor based control systems. These
systems switch on and off the capacitor banks to maintain the desired Power factor of system and optimize
maximum demand thereby.
31.5 Electrical energy conservation in dairy processing plant
1. Power System 4. Refrigeration & A.C.
· Transformer loading · Arresting cold air leakage

· Determination of plant load & load factor · Reducing refrigeration load by keeping
analysis diffusers outside the room.
· Improving power factor · Monitoring system performance
· Identification and minimsing transformer · Ensuring proper refrigerant charge
and system distribution losses · Checking for refrigerant contamination
· Demand management & controls · Automated controls
· Parallel operation of DG/TG sets with grid · Segregation of refrigeration systems
· Use of harmonic filters near equipments · Efficient piping design and insulation
generating harmonics to reduce total · Minimizing heat sources in cold storage
harmonic distortion areas
· Use of vapour absorption machine (VAM)
· Operating ice bank system at night when
atmospheric temperature is low
2. Motors 5. Lighting
· Correct sizing of motors/capacity · Illumination measurement
utilisation · Automatic controls/timers e.g. day light
· Conduct motor load survey and check for linked control
lightly loaded motors · Use of translucent sheets in roof
· Downsizing with an energy efficient motor · Lighting energy savers with voltage
· Use of Energy-efficient motors (4-5% correction
more efficiency) · Replacement with energy efficient lamps
· Speed control using VFD (Decrease of (CFL)
speed by 10% will save about 19% energy) · Electronic ballast
· Ensuring and recording efficiency of · Lamp/retrofit/reflector selection
rewound motors
· Shift from standard delta to star operation 6. Compressed Air
for motors operated below 40% of rated · Prevention of leaks in compressed air
capacity. system
· Restoration of generation capacity of air
3. Fans & Pumps compressor
· Use high efficiency impeller along with · Reduce compressor delivery pressure
cone wherever possible (A reduction of 1 kg/cm2
· Impeller derating using small diameter air pressure would result in 9% input energy
impeller saving)
· Use of energy efficient hollow FRP
impeller with aerofoil design in cooling 7. Water conservation
towers · Reuse of water from coolers, heat
exchangers, evaporators etc
· Condensate recovery
References
BEE. 2005. Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE) guide book. Electrical system In: Energy Efficiency in
Electrical Utilities, pg. 5-15.
Module 7. Electric power economics
Lesson 32
LOAD FACTOR AND POWER FACTOR CORRECTION
32.1 Power Factor Basics
32.1.1 Active & reactive power
Active power, measured in kilowatt (kW), is the real power (shaft power, true power) used by a load to
perform a certain task. However, there are certain loads like motors, which require another form of power
called reactive power (kVAR) to establish the magnetic field. Although reactive power is virtual, it actually
determines the load (demand) on an electrical system. The utility has to pay for total power (or demand) as
depicted in Figure 32.1.
Fig. 32.1 Active, reactive and total power
The vector sum of the active power and reactive power is the total (or apparent) power, measured in kVA
(kilo Volts-Amperes). This is the power sent by the power company to customers. Mathematically it may be
represented as:
The power factor is the ratio between active power (kW) and total power (kVA), or the cosine of the angle
between active and total power. A high reactive power will increase this angle and as a result the power
factor will be lower (See Figure 32. 2).
Fig. 32. 2 Relationship between active, reactive and total power
The power factor is always less than or equal to one. Theoretically, if all loads of the power supplied by
electricity companies have a power factor of one, the maximum power transferred equals the distribution
system capacity. However, as the loads are inductive and if power factors range from 0.2 to 0.3, the electrical
distribution network’s capacity is stressed. Hence, the reactive power (kVAR) should be as low as possible
for the same kW output in order to minimize the total power (kVA) demand.
32.2 Disadvantages of Low Power Factor

Considering fixed power and voltage, the load current is inversely proportional to the power factor. Smaller
the power factor, higher is the load current and vice-versa.
Large current due to poor power factor results in the following disadvantages:
32.2.1 Large kVA rating of equipment
The electrical machinery such as motors, A.C. generators, transformers, distribution and control system etc.
are rated in kVA. Because the power factor is not known when the machine is manufactured in the factory.
kVA rating of the equipment is inversely proportional to power factor which implies smaller the power
factor, the larger is the kVA rating. At low power factor kVA rating of the equipment required is more which
makes the equipment larger and costly.
1. Large copper losses: The large current drawn by the machine because of poor power factor causes more
I2R losses.
2. Poor voltage management: The large current at low power factor causes greater voltage drops in the
electrical distribution network and system. This causes improper functioning of the electrical machines.
32.3 Improving Power Factor (PF)
The solution to improve the power factor is to add power factor correction capacitors to the plant power
distribution system. They act as reactive power generators, and provide the needed reactive power to accomplish
kW of work. This reduces the amount of reactive power, and thus total power, generated by the utilities.
32.4 The advantages of PF improvement by Capacitor Addition
a) Reactive component of the network is reduced and so also the total current in the system from the
source end.
b) I2R power losses are reduced in the system because of reduction in current.
c) Voltage level at the load end is increased.
d) kVA loading on the source generators as also on the transformers and lines upto the capacitors reduces
giving capacity relief. A high power factor can help in utilising the full capac ity of your electrical
system.
32. 5 Cost Benefits of PF Improvement
Costs of PF improvement are in terms of investment need for capacitor addition. The benefits to be
quantified for feasibility analysis are:
a) Reduced kVA (Maximum demand) charges in utility bill
b) Reduced distribution losses (kWh) within the plant network
c) Better voltage at motor terminals and improved performance of motors
d) A high power factor eliminates penalty charges imposed when operating with a low power factor
e) Investment on system facilities such as transformers, cables, switchgears etc for delivering load is
reduced.
****** ☺******
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1.2 Important Terms

1.3 Law of Resistance

(a) Resistance (R) is directly proportional to the length of wire (L).

Fig. 1.1 Electric circuit

The value of resistance (RT) at any temperature T°C is given as:

ar = Temperature co-efficient of resistance at 0°C.

1.4 Electrical Circuit

Let V1 , V2 & V3 be the voltage across resistor R1 ,R2 & R3 resistivity.

Fig. 1.2 Series circuit

1.5.2 Parallel circuit

Fig. 1.3 Parallel Circuit

1.6 Kirchhoff’s Laws

Fig. 1.4 Currents at a point

1.6.2 Second law: Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL)

(Also known as Kirchhoff’s mesh law)

Rules for algebraic sum:

· Rise in potential is considered +ve and fall in potential is considered –ve

· Taking following circuit as example

Fig. 1.5 Electric circuit

· Tracing branch from A to B. V is negative (-v) i.e. fall is potential

1.7 Superposition Theorem

Fig. 1.6 Electric circuit with two emf source

Fig. 1.7 Electric circuit considering first emf source

Fig. 1.8 Electric circuit considering second emf source

- 25 (I1 + I2) – 12 I2 + 160 = 0

Multiplying above equation by 2.5

Adding equ (1) & (2)

2. Find the branch current by superposition theorem in the following circuit.

Fig. 1.9 Electric circuit with two emf source

Fig. 1.10 Resistance of emf denoted in the circuit

Fig. 1.11 Electric circuit considering first emf source

Fig. 1.12 Electric circuit considering second emf source

1.9 Thevenin Theorem

· Load resistance is removed to create an open circuit (Fig. 1.14)

Fig. 1.13 Fig. 1.14

Fig. 1.15 Fig. 1.16

2.0 Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

2.2 Magnetic Poles

Fig. 2.1 Poles of a magnet

Fig. 2.2 Magnetic field around a magnet

2.3 Magnetic Field

2.4 Magnetic Flux

Fig. 2.3 Lines of magnetic flux form a closed loop

µo = 4π x 10-7 H/m, where µo = permeability air or vacuum.

2.4.3.2 Relative permeability (µr)

Hydrogen a pure iron- N 5 grade 1,60,000

Permeability (nickel iron magnetic alloy) 8,000

2.5 Electromagnetic Induction

Fig. 2.10 Magnetic field around a conductor (Click for Animation)

Fig. 2.11 Right hand screw rule (Click for Animation)

Fig. 2.15 Two conductors repelled outwards (Click for Animation)

Rate of change of flux = mWb/s

3.1 Direction of Induced E.M.F

There are two methods of determining the direction of induced e.m.f.

3.1.1 Lenz’s law

3.1.3 Fleming’s left hand rule

Fig. 3.18 Classification of induced e.m.f.

3.2.1 Dynamically induced e.m.f.