IEEE Standard Test Code For Resistance Measurement

IEEE Std 118-1978
(Revision of IEEE Std118-1949)
IEEE Standard Test Code for Resistance

Measurement
Sponsor
Power Engineering Society
of the
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
Approved September 8, 1977

Reaffirmed March 19, 1992
IEEE Standards Board
Copyright 1978 by
The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc
No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form, in an electronic retrieval system or otherwise, without the
prior written permission of the publisher.
Authorized licensed use limited to: Iowa State University. Downloaded on March 28,2012 at 00:21:35 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
Approved September 8, 1977
IEEE Standards Board
William R. Kruesi, Chair

Irvin N. Howell, Jr, Vice Chair
Ivan G. Easton, Secretary
William E. Andrus
R.O. Duncan
Donald T. Michael
Jean Jacques Archambault
Charles W. Flint
Voss A. Moore
Mark Barber
Jay Forster
William S. Morgan
Edward J. Cohen
Ralph I. Hauser
William J. Neiswender
Warren H. Cook
Joseph L. Koepfinger
Ralph M. Showers
Louis Costrell
Irving Kolodny
Robert A. Soderman
R. L. Curtis
Benjamin J. Leon
Leonard W. Thomas, Sr
David B. Dobson
Thomas J. Martin
B, W. Whittington
ii
Foreword
(This Foreword is not a part of IEEE Std 118-1978, Standard Test Code for Resistance Measurement.)
The Working Group to revise IEEE Std 118, Standard Test Code for Resistance Measurement, was organized by
William J. Johnson, then chairman of the Power System Instrumentation and Measurements Committee. The group
met initially on March 25, 1971. It was decided that the existing standard required almost completely rewriting and
this was undertaken. The general outline of the original Master Test Code was followed but much new material was
added to supplement the existing information and to include new techniques which have come into general use since
the previous version was written.
At the time it approved this standard the Working Group had the following membership:
P. H. Reynolds, Chair
A. Abramowitz
S.R. Knudse
B. G. Barb
W.J.M. Moore
E. B. Curdts
R. Pailthorpe
R. E. Godfrey
H.J. Sutton
L. Julie
T.E. Wells
J. F. Katzmaier
H.W. Wilder
iii
CLAUSE PAGE
1. General ................................................................................................................................................................1
1.1 Purpose....................................................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Scope .......................................................................................................................................................... 1
1.3 Units ........................................................................................................................................................... 1
2. General Measurement Problems and Techniques ...............................................................................................3
2.1 Low-Value Resistance Measurements ....................................................................................................... 3

2.2 High-Value Resistance Measurements ...................................................................................................... 4
2.3 Intermediate-Value Resistance Measurements .......................................................................................... 5
2.4 High-Current Resistance Measurements.................................................................................................... 5
2.5 High-Voltage Resistance Measurements ................................................................................................... 5
2.6 Environmental Effects................................................................................................................................ 5
2.7 Self-Heating Effects ................................................................................................................................... 6
2.8 Interconnected Resistances ........................................................................................................................ 6
2.9 Substitution Methods ................................................................................................................................. 7
2.10 Measurement of Resistance in the Presence of Inductance ....................................................................... 7
2.11 Measurement of Resistance in the Presence of Capacitance ..................................................................... 9
2.12 Stray Effects ............................................................................................................................................... 9
2.13 Measurement of Resistance with Alternating Currents ............................................................................. 9
3. Standard Resistors.............................................................................................................................................10
3.1 Standardization of Apparatus................................................................................................................... 10

3.2 Reference-Standard Resistors .................................................................................................................. 10
3.3 Working-Standard Resistors .................................................................................................................... 10
3.4 Heavy-Current Standard Resistors........................................................................................................... 11
3.5 Nonreactive Resistors .............................................................................................................................. 11
3.6 High-Voltage Resistors ............................................................................................................................ 11
3.7 High-Resistance Standard Resistors ........................................................................................................ 11
3.8 Combinations of Standard Resistors ........................................................................................................ 12
4. Instrumentation .................................................................................................................................................13
4.1 Voltmeter-Ammeter (Drop of Potential) Method .................................................................................... 13

4.2 Voltmeter Method .................................................................................................................................... 14
4.3 Ammeter Method ..................................................................................................................................... 15
4.4 Ratio Devices ........................................................................................................................................... 15
4.5 Bridges ..................................................................................................................................................... 17
4.6 Comparators ............................................................................................................................................. 21
4.7 Ohmmeters ............................................................................................................................................... 22
4.8 Other Methods.......................................................................................................................................... 24
5. Applications ......................................................................................................................................................25
5.1 Preferred Circuits and Measuring Techniques......................................................................................... 25

5.2 Temperature Measurement by Change in Resistance .............................................................................. 25
5.3 Computation of Resistance for a Required Temperature......................................................................... 25
5.4 Measurement of Insulation Resistance..................................................................................................... 26
5.5 Measurement of Ground Resistance ........................................................................................................ 27
6. References .........................................................................................................................................................30
iv
IEEE Standard Test Code for Resistance
Measurement
1. General
1.1 Purpose
The purpose of this code is to present methods of measuring electrical resistance which are commonly used to
determine the characteristics of electric machinery and equipment. The choice of method in any given case depends on
the degree of accuracy required and the nature of the circuit to be measured. A guide for selecting the appropriate
method is given in Table 1.
1.2 Scope
The methods presented here are limited to those using direct current or commercial power frequencies of 60 Hz or
below and to those measurements required to determine the performance characteristics of electric machinery and
equipment. Although methods of measuring insulation and ground resistance are given in this code, more complete
discussions may be found in [5], [7], [11].1
1.3 Units
The measurement of electrical resistance is based upon the system of electrical units maintained by the countries
adherent to the International Convention of the Meter. These countries cooperate officially through the International
General Conference of Weights and Measures. Under this General Conference, the International Committee of
Weights and Measures, aided by the advisory committees, including the Advisory Committee on Electricity, has
charge of the International Bureau of Weights and Measures, Sevres, France.
The National Bureau of Standards (NBS), Department of Commerce, Washington, DC, is responsible for establishing
and maintaining standards for the legalized electrical units and is the final authority in the United States for their
values. In other countries, legal authority is granted to national standardizing agencies.
The unit of resistance, the ohm, is intended to be the closest practical approximation to the International System (SI)
unit of resistance. A more complete discussion of SI units may be found in ANSI/IEEE Std 268-1976, Standard Metric
Practice. The value of the unit of resistance was adopted in 1948 by international agreement and has been maintained
since then with negligible fluctuation by a group of standard resistors. This unit is usually designated as the legal ohm,
1Numbers in brackets correspond to those of the references listed at the end of this standard, in Section 6.
Copyright 1978 IEEE All Rights Reserved 1
IEEE Std 118-1978 IEEE STANDARD TEST CODE
the absolute ohm, or simply the ohm. Before 1948, the unit was designated as the international ohm and was 495 parts
per million larger than the present unit.
Knowledge of the amount by which the legal unit differs from the defined SI unit depends upon the results of absolute
measurements; on the basis of measurements made at NBS and other national standardizing laboratories, it may be
concluded that the two units are unlikely to differ by more than one part per million.
Table 1Applications of Resistance Measuring Methods

Resistance to be Accuracy Required Bridge Methods Direct Reading
Measured Note (5) Note (2) Methods Alternative Methods
Low Resistance (see

Kelvin (4.5.3), current Note generally
2.1) (less than Greater than 0.1% Note (4)
comparator (4.5.6) applicable
approximately 5
dual-slope in
tegration meter
0.1%1% Kelvin (4.5.3) (4.4.3) ratio Note (4)
device, crossed
coil (4.4.1)
direct-reading
ohmmeter (4.7.4)
less than 1 % any bridge-type circuit ammeter (4.3)
ratio device,
crossed coil (4.4.1)
Intermediate value
Wheatstone (4.5.1) ratio
resistance (see 2.3) Not generally
Greater than 0.01% (4.5.2) comparators (4.6.1)
(between approximately applicable
current comparator (4.5.6)
5 and 10 )
Operational amplifier
dual-slope in
Wheatstone (4.5.1) ratio (4.4.2), ohmmeter,
0.01%1% gration tion meter
(4.5.2) constant-current type
(4.4.3)
(4.7.3)
voltmeter/ammeter
direct-reading (4.1), voltmeter (4.2),
less than 1% any bridge-type circuit
ahmmeter (4.4.3) ratio device, crossed
coil (4.4.1), note (3)
Modified Wheatstone
High Resistance (see
(4.5.4) ratio (4.5.2) Not generally
2.2) (above approx- Greater than 0.1%
comparators (4.6.1) current applicable
imately 10 M)
comparator (4.5.6)
Voltmeter/
modified Wheatstone operational
01.%1% ammeter,modified
(4.5.4) ratio (4.5.2) amplifier (4.4.2)
(4.1.1)
direct deflection (4.6.2)

radio device, loss of charge (4.8.1)
less than 1% Wheatstone (4.5.1)
crossed coil (4.4.1) voltmeter/ammeter (4.1
and 4.1.1)
NOTES:
1 Numbers in parentheses refer to section numbers in the text.
2 Limit and deviation techniques may be applicable in all cases (see 4.5.5).
3 Almost any of the measuring circuits described can be adapted for use in this category.
4 Other bridge, ratio, and comparator circuits may be used.
5 This column indicates long-term accuracy, including stability and temperature effects.
2 Copyright 1978 IEEE All Rights Reserved
FOR RESISTANCE MEASUREMENT IEEE Std 118-1978
2. General Measurement Problems and Techniques
2.1 Low-Value Resistance Measurements
In low-value resistance measurements, contact resistances may seriously limit accuracy; however, their effects can be
reduced considerably by using resistor with four terminals. A resistor of this type is shown in Fig 1. The four-terminal
resistance is the resistance between the internal junctions J1 and J2 and is defined as
R x = E cd I ab
(1)
where Iab is the current into terminal A and out of terminal B and Ecd is the potential between terminals C and D (and
therefore between junctions J1 and J2).
Figure 1Four Terminal Representation of a Resistor
A very useful property of a four-terminal resistor, derivable from the reciprocity theorem, is that the four-terminal
resistance is unchanged if the two potential terminals are used as current terminals while the two current terminals are
used as potential terminals. In other words,
E cd I ab = E ab I cd = R x
(2)
This statement assumes that the self-heating effects, if significant, remain the same when the current and potential
terminals are reversed. Since this assumption is not always valid when high currents are used and significant heating
occurs in the terminal resistances Ra, Rb, Rc, and Rd, the precise position of these terminals may be critical.
Based on the above definition of four-terminal resistance, the terminals on such a resistor are often referred to as
current terminals and potential terminals. However, it is not necessary to measure a four-terminal resistor as implied in
the definition (that is, with zero current at two of the terminals), and many four-terminal resistance measuring
instruments operate with current in all four leads.
Some four-terminal resistance measuring instruments and techniques measure R(x) almost independently of the values
of terminal resistances Ra, Rb, Rc, and Rd, the resistance of the leads connected to the terminals, and the contact
resistance between the leads and the terminals. Other measuring instruments and techniques only reduce the effect of
these resistances by putting them in series with resistances in the measuring circuit whose values are higher than R(x)
or by connecting them in other less sensitive parts of the measuring circuit.
The advantages of a four-terminal resistance measurement can be realized when measuring two-terminal resistors by
connecting two leads to each end of the resistor to convert it into a four-terminal resistor, as shown in Fig 2. The effect
of the four contact resistances and lead resistances can then be effectively eliminated or reduced. It is important to note
that the resistance measured with be the resistance between the contacts at each end that are closest to the resistor.
The value of resistance below which it is desirable to use the four-terminal technique depends somewhat on the
accuracy required and the quality of the contact surface. The value often chosen is 5 .
Figure 2Four Terminal Connections to a Two Terminal Resistor
2.2 High-Value Resistance Measurements
In high-value resistance measurements, insulation resistances may seriously limit accuracy. The equivalent circuit of
an undesirable insulation is shown in Fig 3(A), where the resistance to be measured (Rx) is shunted by the resistance
of an insulator (Ri). This would result, for instance, if both supports or test clips for a resistor were mounted on the
same piece of insulation.
The equivalent circuit of a more desirable situation is shown in Fig 3(B). This circuit would result, for instance, if the
supports or test clips at each end of the resistor to be measured were mounted on individual insulators that separated
by a conductor to E. It would then be possible to measure Rx with the effects of the insulation resistances (Ri1) and Ri2)
reduced or eliminated.
The effects of insulation resistances may be controlled by means of a three-terminal resistance measurement. This is
done in the measuring circuit by connecting the insulation resistances (Ril) and Ri2) where they will not affect the
result at all, or where they will shunt resistors that are lower in value than Rx, or by reducing the voltage across one of
the insulation resistances to zero so that all of the current in one of the measurement terminals passes through the
resistor being measured. (See also 4.5.4.)
Some standard resistors of higher value are of three-terminal construction (see also 3.7), with measurement terminals
mounted on separate insulators and an additional terminal connected to the case.
To avoid problems with test connections in a three-terminal measurement, two separately shielded leads should be
used for connections to the measurement themselves.
Figure 3(A) -- Equivalent Circuit for a Resistor Shunted by Insulation Leakage. (B) -- Equivalent
Circuit Showing Method of Reducing the Effect of Insulation Leakage.
2.3 Intermediate-Value Resistance Measurements
In intermediate-value resistance measurements of moderate accuracy, usually no serious limitations on accuracy result
from either contact resistances or insulation resistances. On the other hand, in resistance measurements of the highest
accuracy, both contact resistances and insulation resistances can limit the accuracy.
Contact and insulation resistance problems can be handled simultaneously by combining the features of four-terminal
and three-terminal measurements in the same measurement. The equivalent circuit of a resistor whose measurement
could be limited by both of these factors is shown in Fig 4. The effects of the contact and insulation resistances are
controlled as described in 2.1 and 2.2.
A measurement that controls the effects of contact and insulation resistances simultaneously can be referred to as a
five-terminal measurement. Some standard resistors are of five-terminal construction. (See Section 3.)
Figure 4Equivalent Circuit of a Resistor Incorporating Techniques of Fig 1 and Fig 3(B)
2.4 High-Current Resistance Measurements
When measuring resistors at high currents, contact resistance effects, discussed in 2.1, and self-heating effects,
discussed in 2.7, usually must be taken into account. An additional source of uncertainty in the effective resistance of
a high-current resistor of the four-terminal type can arise from nonuniform distribution of current resulting from the
placement of leads at different locations at the current terminals or nonuniform potential on the potential terminals.
These effects can be minimized by increasing the length-to-width ratio of the conductors between the terminals and the
four-terminal junctions. (See also 3.4.)
2.5 High-Voltage Resistance Measurements
When measuring resistors at high voltage, insulation effects, discussed in 2.2, and self-heating effects, discussed in
2.7, usually must be taken into account. In addition, some high-voltage resistors have a voltage coefficient, that is, their
value is affected by voltage in addition to self-heating. In measurements where regions of high electrical stress exist,
care must be taken to minimize the effects of partial discharges (corona). (See also 3.6.)
2.6 Environmental Effects
The value of most resistors is affected by environmental parameters such as temperature, humidity, atmospheric
pressure, and chemical and biological corrosion. When measurements of the highest precision are undertaken, all of
these factors must be taken into account. In most practical situations, however, temperature is the principal concern.
Most pure metals have a temperature coefficient of approximately 0.4 percent per degree Celsius. Several precision
resistor alloys have temperature coefficients below 0.0005 percent per degree Celsius over a range of at least 50
degrees.
2.7 Self-Heating Effects
It is usually essential that the resistance under test not be changed in value to a significant extent by the current which
is necessarily used in the measurement. This requirement sometimes limits the permissible current and hence the
sensitivity of the measurement. When measuring the resistance of a copper (or aluminum) winding, the error from this
cause is proportional to the square of the measuring current. For small windings, the current should not exceed 15
percent of the rated current of the winding. If the winding is so massive that the resistance measurement can be
completed before the full temperature rise that would result from continued application of the measuring current is
reached, the error will be less and currents of up to 25 percent (or in extreme cases, 50 percent) of rated current may
be used. It is important that the temperature of the winding at the time of the resistance measurement be known
definitely, whether the resistance measurement is desired for calculating efficiency (after being corrected to an
appropriate reference temperature) or as a basis for measuring temperature rise. Any heating by previous operation or
by unduly prolonged measuring currents should be avoided [19], [20].
2.8 Interconnected Resistances
When a resistor, low enough in value to have its measurement seriously affected by contact resistances, is part of an
interconnected network of resistors that can shunt it (that is, a closed loop of resistors), it is still possible to measure
its value precisely using six-terminal techniques.
A practical situation involving this problem is the measurement of a winding resistance in a delta-connected
transformer when it is difficult or undesirable to disconnect the measured winding from the others. The equivalent
circuit is shown in Fig 5, where Rx is the resistance to be measured, Ra, Rb, Rc, Rd, Rf, and Rg are terminal resistances,
and Ry and Rz are resistances with values usually comparable to Rx.
Figure 5A Six Terminal Resistor Measurement
The value of Rx can be measured as follows:
R x = E cd I b if E gd = 0
(3)
where Ib is the current out of terminal B, Ecd is the potential between terminals C and D (and between J1 and J2 ), and
Egd is the potential between terminals G and D (and between J3 and J2). Egd is brought to zero by adjusting the current
out of terminal F. The current into terminal A is the sum of the currents out of terminals B and F. (See also 4.1.1
and Fig 11.) A six-terminal technique can also be used on three-terminal networks by applying the methods
described in 2.1.
2.9 Substitution Methods
If a known resistance (Rs) is available which has about the same value as the unknown resistance (Rx), each should be
connected in succession to the measuring apparatus and measured. Most of the systematic errors in the measuring
apparatus will be the same in both measurements and will disappear when Rx is expressed as the product of Rs and a
factor derived from the two readings; thus
R x = R s ( ratio of measured value ofR x :R s )

(4)
In resistance measurements for determining temperature rise, this principle comes into use almost automatically. In
such cases, by proceeding so that all leads, contacts, etc, are changed as little as possible while the test specimen heats
up, temperature rise measurements of a very high accuracy are possible.
If several known resistors are available, a large number of dial settings of the measuring circuit can be calibrated by
measuring groups of these resistors in series and parallel combinations.
2.10 Measurement of Resistance in the Presence of Inductance
WARNING: When making measurements on highly inductive windings,

hazardous voltage may be induced. Each individual situation must be
carefully evaluated to avoid danger to personnel.
When the circuit being measured has such a high inductance that its time constant (L/R) is also very large, considerable
inconvenience is caused by the delay in reaching steady conditions. In measuring the resistance of a heated winding
which is cooling rapidly, any such delay may impair the measurement.
The inductive effect may be reduced by the following methods:
1) Use a higher voltage supply with a high resistance in series to reduce the time constant (L/R)
2) Apply a higher voltage initially, then decrease it as the current increases, either manually or by automatic
current regulation
3) With iron-cored inductors when circumstances permit, sufficient voltage may be applied in an auxiliary
winding to saturate the magnetic material
4) When measuring resistances where more than one winding is present, an idle winding may be used
effectively (see Fig 6).
Figure 6Use of an Idle Winding When Measuring Resistance in the Presence of Inductance
If the total resistance (Rc + Ry) in the compensating circuit is adjusted to satisfy the relation
Ny
R c + R y = R a + R x -------
Nx
(5)
where Nx and Ny are the numbers of turns of windings X and Y, respectively, the current induced by the changing core
flux, which is common to X and Y, will not circulate in the galvanometer. The bridge may be balanced by the
adjustment of Rn (or Rb) without waiting for the current to become constant. An alternate circuit (shown in Fig 7) may
be used if the number of turns of the idle winding is equal to or greater than that of the winding whose resistance is
being measured. The voltage divider should be adjusted to provide unity voltage gain between winding X and the
galvanometer; that is, its ratio should be set to Nx/Ny.
This technique is most often used with the Wheatstone bridge (see 4.5.1), but similar compensating circuits may be
applied to other types of bridges.
WARNING: Damage to instrumentation or injury or paranel may result

from the induced electromotive force if the circuit is opened while large
currents are present.
Figure 7Alternate Circuit to Fig 6
2.11 Measurement of Resistance in the Presence of Capacitance
When the resistance being measured is high and has an appreciable shunt capacitance (either discrete or distributed),
the charging current of the capacitance will cause a considerable delay in reaching a steady voltage. This delay can be
reduced by using a supply whose internal resistance is low. If a resistance (Rx) shunted by a capacitance (C) is being
supplied from a source whose effective internal resistance is Ri, the time constant (Tc) of the circuit is derived from the
following equation:
Rx R1 C
T c = -------------------
Rx + R1
CRi when Rx Ri
(6)
When a constant supply voltage, the current must be allowed to decay for a period equal to 2.3 Tc for an accuracy of
10 percent, 4.6 Tc for an accuracy of 1 percent, and 6.9 Tc for an accuracy of 0.1 percent, etc. If the dielectric shows
marked absorption, even longer periods will be required. If the voltage applied to the resistor varies by P percent
during one time constant, the error in the measured resistance will be P percent.
WARNING: Damage to instrumentation or injury to personnel may

occur as a result of voltage that may be developed from charges still
absorbed in the dielectric of a capacitor that has been apparently
discharged.
2.12 Stray Effects
Most resistance measuring circuits contain undesirable currents that result from pickup of external noise and hum,
internal signal sources that are not pure direct current or pure alternating current, spurious electromotive forces such
as those due to thermoelectric effects, and current or voltage offsets of the detectors. The accuracy of the measurement
will be limited by the response of the detectors to these undesirable signals. In alternating-current measurements, this
problem is usually solved by using a detector tuned to respond only to the desirable signal frequency. In direct-current
measurement, this problem is solved by using detectors with adequate alternating-current rejection (that is, those that
do not indicate a significant direct-current signal due to an alternating-current input) and by use of the false-zero
procedure.
The false-zero procedure refers to taking as the zero point of the measuring apparatus its indication when the spurious
effects are present but when the power supply is disconnected. This false zero is then used as the null point. In bridge
measurements a doubling of sensitivity may also be achieved by defining the balance point as that for which the
detector indication does not change with reversal of the polarity of the power supply.
2.13 Measurement of Resistance with Alternating Currents
The measurement of resistance by means of alternating currents is attractive because it permits the use of very stable
former ratio techniques and eliminates the effect of thermal electromotive forces. However, the resistance to
alternating current may differ from the resistance to direct current for the following reasons:
1) Shunt or Series Reactance Inductance in series and capacitance in shunt with a resistance, either discrete
or distributed, will alter the impedance (or the effective resistance, or both) to alternating current
2) Skin Effect Magnetic fields produced by the current within the conductor, which increases the impedance
at the conductor's center, force the current to concentrate near the outside surface or skin. The effective cross-
sectional area of the conductor is therefore reduced. Skin effect is most noticeable in conductors of large cross
section. This effect increases with frequency and, in conductors of ferromagnetic material, is a function of the
relative permeability
3) Proximity Effect The magnetic field produced by currents in other conductors which are in close proximity
will influence the current distribution in the resistance being measured and cause an increase in its effective
value similar to that due to skin effect
4) Stray CouplingEddy Currents Coupled losses may result from currents induced in nearby conducting
material
5) Stray CouplingHysteresis Hysteresis losses may result from magnetic fields induced in nearby
ferromagnetic material
6) Dielectric Losses Dielectric losses may occur in shunt capacitances.
The resistive equivalent of these effects added to the direct-current resistance is known as the alternating-current
resistance. However, it is often possible to assume from the design of the resistor that these effects are negligible and
hence that the alternating-current resistance is the same as the direct-current resistance.
3. Standard Resistors
3.1 Standardization of Apparatus
Before using an instrument, the user should have some assurance of its ability to give results to the accuracy or
precision required. If the instrument is to be used for measurements at a limited number of points, it may be possible
to use a substitution method (see 2.9) to calibrate the instrument. In the general case, where the instrument will be used
to measure either a wide range of values, or values for which no standard is available, a complete calibration of the
instrument may be required. Some instruments are designed for self-calibration, that is, they can be calibrated using
little or no additional apparatus. The calibration of other apparatus may be so involved that it may be desirable to send
it back to the manufacturer or to a commercial testing laboratory for calibration.
3.2 Reference-Standard Resistors
These standards (also called precision resistors, standard resistors, or shunts) are resistors demonstrating a high degree
of stability and are intended for use as reference standards in accurate dc resistance measurements. These resistors are
constructed from alloys having low temperature coefficients of resistance. They may be of the two-, three-, four-, or
five-terminal design, depending upon the resistance value and the precision. Although the standard may be of any
required value, values are predominantly decimal multiples or submultiples of 1 . These standards may be
intercompared with the National Standards (of resistance) on a periodic basis. (Specifications for Reference-Standard
Electrical Resistors are given in [6].)
3.3 Working-Standard Resistors
These may be similar in construction to reference-standards, differing only in their application, or they may be adapted
by construction or dimension to some specific measuring procedure. Thus, in the routine testing of copper wire and
cable, working standards of copper of the same temperature coefficient as the test specimens are frequently used so
that the measured value of the resistance of the specimen is automatically corrected to a standard temperature,
provided the standard and the test specimen are at the same temperature when the specimen is tested and that the
working standard was at the standard temperature when it was compared with the reference-standard.
Working standards may also be resistance boxes which consist of a number of resistors enclosed in a container and so
arranged that numerous combinations of resistors can be connected between the terminals of the box by suitable
manipulation of dial switches, links, or plug contacts. Some specific types of working standards are described in 3.4
through 3.7.
3.4 Heavy-Current Standard Resistors
For use in measurements involving large currents, the standard resistor must be provided with effective cooling,
usually by increasing its surface area and by circulating oil, air, or water as a cooling medium. If the resistance is a
definite function of the temperature of the cooling medium only (that is, if any heat developed by current through the
resistor is carried off by the coolant without materially affecting the temperature of the resistance alloy), the standard
resistor is thermally self-contained and, if previously tested over a particular current range, is suitable for
measurements of high accuracy in this range. Standard resistors with short, thick current terminals, such as the usual
forms of switchboard shunt, are not thermally self-contained. The resistance may depend to an appreciable extent upon
the heat developed at the current terminal contacts or conducted inward or outward by the current leads. For precise
work with such standard resistors, the temperature of the resistance alloy must be measured both when the shunt is
tested initially and when it is used.
A common source of uncertainty in the effective resistance of heavy-current shunts of the four-terminal type is
nonuniform distribution of current when connections are made at different locations on the current terminals. In
extreme cases, errors of 1 percent may occur. These effects are minimized by locating the potential taps on the axis of
symmetry and by providing resistance between the current contact surface and the potential tap. (See also 2.4.)
3.5 Nonreactive Resistors
For alternating-current measurements, it is essential that the inductive and capacitive reactance and skin effect of the
standard resistors used are either negligible or so small and definite that corrections for their effects can be applied. In
wire-wound standard resistors, inductive reactance predominates in resistors of less than 1 , while capacitive
reactance predominates in resistors of over 100 . In the intermediate range, time constants as low as 10-8 s can be
obtained.
In low-resistance standard resistors of the four-terminal type, the net inductance may often be made very small by
arranging the potential leads so that the mutual inductance between them and the current circuit offsets the self-
inductance of the current circuit between tap points. For use in precise alternating-current measurements, the standard
should either have such a geometrical configuration that its inductance is computable or its inductance should be
determined experimentally by comparison with a standard resistor of known inductance.
In wire-wound resistors of higher value, used with alternating voltages, serious errors may arise from the shunting
effect of capacitance. Above 50 000 it is usually necessary to subdivide the resistor and to provide shields for the
component sections. If the shields are connected to points on a parallel guard circuit which have approximately the
same potentials as the portions of the resistor which they shield, the capacitive currents to ground occur only in the
guard circuit and their effect on the shielded resistor is greatly reduced.
3.6 High-Voltage Resistors
Resistors used in high-voltage circuits must be capable of dissipating a large amount of heat or be of very high
resistance. These resistors are usually subdivided to reduce self-heating, and the component sections are shielded as
described in 3.5 so that any partial discharges (corona) produce currents in the guard circuit only. If the shields are
shaped with rounded edges of proper design, corona may be avoided. On direct-current circuits, such rounded shields
may be tied to the working circuit. (A high-voltage standard resistor is described in [8].) (See also 2.5.)
3.7 High-Resistance Standard Resistors
Wire-wound resistors with values of 100 M or more that have a high degree of stability and low temperature
coefficients have been made, but they are very bulky and expensive. For some uses, resistors of 1 M or larger are
made by putting a semiconducting material on an insulating form which is then hermetically sealed. These resistors
may have relatively poor stability, high temperature coefficients of resistance, and large and nonlinear voltage
coefficients; and despite being hermetically sealed, they may still be affected by humidity due to surface conduction on
the container. Whenever high accuracy is required, the standard should be calibrated as soon as possible before or after
use. (See also 2.2.)
3.8 Combinations of Standard Resistors
To reduce the number of reference-standard resistors required, some means of accurately comparing resistors of
different nominal values is necessary. One method of doing this is by using series and parallel combinations of
standard resistors (commonly known as transfer standards), a common type having n (n=10 usually) nominally equal
resistors connected in series and arranged so that they can be connected in parallel.
With n nominally equal resistors having the value

M 1 = M ( 1 + m 1 ), M 2 = M ( 1 + m 2 ), ,
M n = M ( 1 + mn )
(7A)
(where M is the mean value of the n resistors and mi is the departure of the ith resistor from the mean of the group), the
total resistance of the group connected in series S will be
S = nM (7B)
If P is equal to the resistance of the group, connected in parallel,

n n
n 2
--------------
- = ----- 1 + --- mi
1 1 1 1
--- = -----
P M 1 + mi M n
i=1 i=1
(8A)
by neglecting terms of third and higher order, since by the definition of mi,
n
mi = 0
i=1 (8B)
Then,
n
2 2
S = n P 1 + --- m i
1
n
i=1

(9)
Since there is no problem in matching resistors to 0.1 percent or better, the

n
( 1 n ) mi
2
i=1
error term can be reduced to less than 1 part per million if the effects of leakage are made negligible and the resistance
of the conductors used in making the series and parallel connections can be neglected or accounted for. For resistors
having a nominal value of 10 k or more, there is no problem in meeting these requirements using two-terminal
resistors; but for 10 resistors, the resistance of the connecting conductor would make it very difficult to get a part per
million or better accuracy using two-terminal resistors. Hamon described a method of connecting four-terminal
resistors in parallel such that the parallel resistance would satisfy equation 9. (See [9].)
Since the square root of 10 is not an integer, this method cannot be used to make to 10-to-1 jump in resistance value;
however, each of the 10 resistors can be measured against a reference resistor having the same nominal value, and then
a standard of either 10 times or 1/10 the value of the reference resistor can be measured against the transfer standard
connected in either mode.
4. Instrumentation
4.1 Voltmeter-Ammeter (Drop of Potential) Method
The basic circuits and operations for this method are shown in Figs 8 and 9.
The following equation is used for measuring with the circuit shown in Fig 8:
V
R x = ----------------------
I V Rv
(10)
where V is the voltmeter reading, I is the ammeter reading, and Rv is the internal resistance of the voltmeter.
Figure 8Voltmeter-Ammeter Measurement--Low Value Resistors
The equation used for measuring with the circuit shown in Fig 9 is as follows:
V IR
R x = ------------------a
I
(11)
where the nomenclature is the same as that used in equation 10, and where Ra is the ammeter resistance.
Fig 8 shows the circuit preferred for low-value resistors, while the circuit shown in Fig 9 is preferable for high-value
resistors. Either circuit may be used for intermediate-value resistors. Depending upon the desired accuracy, the
correction terms (due to Rv and Ra) may frequently be neglected. For low-value resistors, Rx may be a four-terminal
device and the voltmeter may be a millivoltmeter used with calibrated leads. For high-value resistors, the ammeter may
be a microammeter or a more sensitive instrument, such as an electronic electrometer. In such cases, it is necessary to
employ guarding and to bypass the leakage current around the current meter, as shown in Fig 10.
Figure 9Voltmeter-Ammeter MeasurementMedium Value Resistors
Figure 10Voltmeter-Ammeter Measurement-High Value Resistors
4.1.1 Modified Voltmeter-Ammeter Method for Measuring Six-Terminal Resistors
The circuit for this method is shown in Fig 11. (See also 2.8.) Rheostat R1 is adjusted until the galvanometer (G)
indicates a null. R2 is adjusted to obtain the desired current in the unknown resistor (Rx). For these conditions,
R x = V cd I b
(12)
Figure 11Modified Voltmeter-Ammeter Method (Six Terminal Resistor)
4.2 Voltmeter Method
The circuit used in this method is shown in Fig 12. The voltmeter method permits both voltage and current to be
measured by one instrument. Two readings are taken: with the switch (S) in position one, the supply voltage (V1) is
measured; with the switch in position two, V2 is read. Rx is given by the following equation:
V1 V2
R x = ------------------- R v
V2
(13)
where Rv is the internal resistance of the voltmeter.
Figure 12Voltmeter Method of Resistance Measurement
4.3 Ammeter Method
For low-value resistors the ammeter method is more suitable than the voltmeter method. The basic circuit is given in
Fig 13. An ammeter reading (I) is taken with the switch open. The switch (S) is then closed and a reading (I2) is taken.
For large values of the limiting resistor (giving essentially a constant current source), Rx is given by the following
equation:
I 2 Ra
R x = ---------------
I1 I2
(14)
where Ra is the resistance of the ammeter.
Figure 13Ammeter Method of Resistance Measurement
4.4 Ratio Devices
4.4.1 Crossed-Coil Type
Several meter movements are available which indicate the ratio of two currents. Most incorporate two moving coils
arranged so that the meter deflection is proportional to the ratio of the voltage and current applied to an unknown
resistance. Such devices may be powered by internal or external sources, and they can be calibrated to indicate the
unknown resistance directly. The basic circuit is shown in Fig 14.
While such instruments give readings which are, within wide limits, independent of the source voltage, constant
voltage sources are frequently provided to avoid charging-current effects when the resistance of electric cables or other
capacitive specimens is measured. Instruments of this type are available for measuring wide ranges of resistance and
can be built with provisions for guarding and for measuring four-terminal resistors.
Figure 14Crossed-Coil Type Ratio Ohmmeter
4.4.2 Operational Amplifier Type
Resistance can be measured by means of an operational amplifier and a direct-current voltmeter. Extensive literature
exists describing operational amplifier techniques in detail. Fig 15 shows a typical circuit.
Rx Rs
V out = ------ V in and R x = V out -------
Rs V in
(15)
Figure 15Operational Amplifier Resistance Measurement
4.4.3 Dual-Slope, Integration-Type Digital Ratio Meter
In this method, illustrated in Fig 16A, a constant current source, derived from a voltage reference (Vref), produces a
current (I) in the unknown resistor (Rx). (This circuit was originated and patented by Gilbert [21].) The resulting
voltage generated across Rx charges the capacitor of an integrating circuit [see Fig 16B] in a known time (T1)
determined by a stable oscillator producing N1 clock pulses. At the end of this period, the counter which has been
counting the pulses is returned to zero. The reference voltage is then reversed across the input of the integrating circuit,
causing the capacitor to discharge.
When the capacitor is fully discharged (output voltage zero) in time T2, the counter is stopped and shows count N2.
Rx is then derived by the following equation:

V ref N 2
R x = --------- ------- = K N 2
I N1
(16)
The resulting value of Rx is independent of the clock rate and the time constant (RC) of the integrating circuit. It
depends primarily upon Vref and the value of the resistor used to generate the constant current (I). Range changing is
done by varying the current either manually or automatically.
Figure 16A Dual Slope, Integration-Type Digital Ratio Ohmmeter. B Capacitor Integrating
Circuit-Dual Slope Integrator. C Alternative Integration Method
Another method consists in first charging the capacitor by means of the IRx drop in the unknown resistor, as shown in
Fig 16C. This again occurs in time T1 and count N1. The capacitor is discharged by the drop IRs in the standard resistor
in time T2 and count N2. For this condition,
Rs N 2
R x = ------------
- = K N2
N1
(17)
Thus the measurement depends upon only the standard resistor (Rs). Range changing is clone manually or
automatically by changing Rs. This method requires either an isolated power supply or isolated inputs for both IRx and
IRs.
4.5 Bridges
Under most circumstances, a bridge circuit is the most accurate method of measuring resistance. The following
subsections describe some of the bridge circuits most commonly used for resistance measurement.
4.5.1 Basic Wheatstone Bridge
The circuit of a Wheatstone bridge, shown in Fig 17, consists of four resistance arms, a source of current (usually a
battery), and a detector. The measurement of the unknown Rx is made in terms of the three known resistances.
Adjustment of the three resistances is made for zero current in the detector at balance; therefore, this is a null balance
method of resistance measurement.
Figure 17Wheatstone Bridge
When the bridge is balanced, as indicated by a null reading of the detector D, the unknown resistance is given by the
following equation:
RA
R x = ------
- = Rs
RB
(18)
where RA and RB are the values of the ratio resistors, while Rs is the value of the standard resistor. These resistors may
be adjustable either continuously or in steps. A protective resistor Rp is used to protect the bridge elements.
4.5.2 Julie Ratio-Type Bridge
In order to make use of high-precision voltage dividers, the circuit shown in Fig 18 is used. For this circuit, at balance,
Rd ( 1 + RA RB )
R x = K --------------------------------------------- +
1 + (R d + R det ) C
( R det R A R B ) R d (19)
---------------------------------------------
-
1 + (R d + R det ) C
where Rd is the total resistance of the divider and K is the divider setting. This circuit can be adjusted so that Rx is
proportional to the divider setting k as follows. The resistance of D is adjusted to set the zero offset to zero. Resistor C
is adjusted so that, with Rx replaced by a standard resistor, a range factor M is set in terms of the standard, and
R x = kM
(20)
This circuit is patented and is described in [15].
Figure 18Julie Ratio-Type Bridge
4.5.3 Kelvin Bridge
When four-terminal resistors of low value (generally below 5 ) are to be measured, the Kelvin bridge (shown in Fig
19) is frequently used. The bridge is similar to the Wheatstone bridge; however, the circuit contains an additional set
of ratio arms (a and b). This arrangement permits four-terminal measurement of resistance elements, essentially
eliminating the effects of lead and contact resistance errors in the measurement of low resistance (see 2.1). When the
bridge is balanced, as indicated by a null reading of the detector D, the unknown resistance is given in the following
equation:
RA Rb Ry RA Ra
R x = R s ------- + ------------------------------- ------
- ------
RB Ra + Rb + Ry RB Rb
(21)
where Ra and Rb are the resistance values of the ratio arms a and b and Ry is the value of the yoke Y. If RA/RB is exactly
equal to Ra/Rb, equation 21 becomes
RA
R x = R s -------
RB
(22)
equation 21 is useful, because it shows the necessity to keep the resistance of the yoke (Ry) as small as possible in order
to minimize the error caused by lead and contact resistances to the unknown and standard in case of discrepancies
between the ratios RA/RB and Ra/Rb. For the highest accuracy, care must be taken to ensure that the connection
resistances are balanced, because Ry is not negligible. For a detailed study of the procedures required for the highest
accuracy, see [16], [17], and [18].
Figure 19Kelvin Bridge
4.5.4 High-Resistance Bridges
The open-circuit voltage for an almost balanced Wheatstone bridge (see Fig 20) is given by the following equation:
VR x R s
V oc = -------------------------
2
( Rs + Rx )
(23)
where V is the voltage applied to the bridge and Rx is the error in measuring Rx. When Rx becomes high, Equation 23
becomes
VR x R s
V oc = -------------------
-
2
Rx
(24)
The bridge is then very insensitive. This situation may be improved by increasing V and using a very sensitive
electronic detector. If practical, it is helpful to increase the value of Rs, in which case the simplification of equation 23
is not correct.
Since high-value resistors have leakage resistances comparable to their own values, guarding must be employed as
shown in Fig 20. The leakage resistor (M) shunts the relatively low-valued ratio arm (A), while the leakage resistor (N)
shunts the detector (D). Other specialized bridge circuits are occasionally used for high-resistance measurements.
Figure 20High Resistance Bridge (Modified Wheatstone)
4.5.5 Limit and Deviation Bridges
For production purposes, devices are used which permit sorting of resistors into groups with specified deviations from
a mean. The simplest method of doing this is by using equation 23 and calibrating the detector reading in terms of
deviation from null point. However, this method depends upon the bridge voltage (V).
By modifying the resistance of the ratio arms (A and B) and adding switches, the ratio RA/RB can be readily changed
so that one can determine whether Rx is within production limits. Bridges can be built with auxiliary adjustments that
are direct reading in deviations of parts per million or percentage deviation from the setting of the standard resistor.
4.5.6 Kusters and MacMartin Current Comparator
This device is used primarily in a standards laboratory for high-accuracy resistance measurement. As shown in Fig 21,
it operates on the principle of balancing the ratio of two direct currents until the voltage drops, as indicated by a
galvanometer (G), are equal across the unknown and know resistance standard. Measurement is accomplished by
means of transformer ratio arms. When the ampere-turns imposed on the magnetic core by the two windings are equal
and opposite, the flux in the core is zero. At zero flux condition, as indicated by the detector (D), the unknown
resistance is given by
Nx
R x = ------- R s
Ns
(25)
Fig 21 shows this circuit in its simplest form. High-precision bridges of this type often have additional complications,
including more complex magnetic circuits. This circuit is described in [13] and [14]; some features of the circuit are
patented by the authors of these papers.
Figure 21Kusters and MacMartin Current Comparator
4.6 Comparators
For many purposes, unknown resistors are compared to standard resistors by a comparison circuit.
4.6.1 Direct-Comparison Method Using a Standard Resistor and Potentiometer
In this method, the unknown resistor, the standard resistor, and a current source are connected in series, as shown in
Fig 22, and a potentiometer is used to measure the voltage drop across each resistor.
Figure 22Potentiometer Measurement
The unknown resistance (Rx) is given by the following equation:
R x = ( V x V s )R s
(26)
where Vx is the voltage measured across Rx and Vs is the voltage measured across Rs. It is essential that the current
remain constant during the two measurements.
4.6.2 Direct-Deflection Method
A modification of the direct-comparison method has been used to measure high-voltage resistors. The basic circuit is
shown in Fig 23. For this circuit,
M s Ds
R x = --------------- R s
M x Dx
(27)
where M is the multiplying value of the shunt for each setting and D is the detector reading for each setting. The
galvanometer and shunt combination can be replaced by an electronic electrometer.
Figure 23Direct Deflection Method
4.7 Ohmmeters
Ohmmeters are self-contained devices which show resistance readings directly in ohms. The basic calibration
equations are as follows.
4.7.1 Simple Ohmmeter
In this instrument, the voltmeter is powered by self-contained batteries. The basic circuit is shown in Fig 24. The initial
reading (V1) is brought to full scale by short-circuiting Rx and adjusting R. The unknown resistor is then inserted in
series with the battery-meter combination. Instead of reading V2, the scale is directly calibrated in ohms, so that
1m
R x = ------------- R v
m
(28)
where m is the fraction of the meter scale indicated and Rv is the resistance of the voltmeter. Rv is assumed to be much
greater than Rx.
The midscale reading is the resistance of the voltmeter. The ohmmeter ranges are changed by changing the meter
resistances and battery voltages. Various circuit modifications are used to offset the effects of battery aging.
Figure 24Simple Ohmmeter
4.7.2 Modified Comparison Method
The simple ohmmeter has two disadvantages: its scale is nonlinear and the meter reads from right to left. The circuit
shown in Fig 25 circumvents the latter problem. In this case,
m
R x = ------------- R s
1m
(29)
where m is the fraction of the meter scale read.
The voltmeter impedance (V) should be very high compared with the value of Rx and in practice may be an electronic
type selected for high input impedance. The electronic voltmeter will read full scale when Rx is infinite (that is,
disconnected). Ranges are changed by changing the value of Rs.
Figure 25Modified Comparison Type Ohmmeter
4.7.3 Constant-Current Source
A modification of Fig 25 uses a constant-current source, as shown in Fig 26. As in the previous circuit (see Fig 25), the
voltmeter should be of much higher impedance than the value of Rx to be measured. For this case,
R x = V I = KV
(30)
where K is a constant.
Such an instrument has linear scales. Ranges are changed by changing the output of the constant-current source.
Voltmeters using electronic circuits or null-balance potentiometric methods are particularly suitable and may be
adapted to direct digital reading.
Figure 26Constant-Current Source Ohmmeter
4.7.4 Ammeter
This method is suitable for measuring low-value resistors. The basic circuit is shown in Fig 27. With Rx disconnected,
R is adjusted so that the meter reads full scale. The reading is then taken with Rx connected. The value of Rx is given
by the following equation:
mR a
R x = ------------
-
1m
(31)
where Ra is the ammeter resistance and m is the fraction of the meter scale indicated. Ranges are changed by changing
the full-scale current and the ammeter resistance.
Figure 27Ammeter Type Low Resistance Ohmmeter
4.8 Other Methods
4.8.1 Loss-of-Charge Method
In this method, used for very high value resistors, a capacitor is first charged. It is then discharged through the
unknown high-value resistor. After a measured period of time, the charge remaining on the capacitor is measured by a
ballistic galvanometer or charge meter. The basic circuit is shown in Fig 28. The charge remaining on the capacitor (C)
is given by the following equation:
Q = Q 0 exp ( t R x C )
(32)
where Q0 is the initial charge and C is the capacitance value.
Taking the log of equation 32,

0.4343t
log Q = log Q 0 -------------------
Rx C
(33)
Thus, if log Q is plotted against t, the negative slope equals 0.4343 RxC, and Rx can be found.
Figure 28Loss-of-Charge Method Ohmmeter

5. Applications
5.1 Preferred Circuits and Measuring Techniques
Table 1 indicates the preferred circuits and measuring techniques to be used for various measurements.
5.2 Temperature Measurement by Change in Resistance
A commonly used method for determining the average temperature of a winding is to measure the resistance of the
winding at the unknown temperature and to compare this value with the resistance at a known temperature. The
average temperature of the winding may be calculated by the equation:
t t 1 = ( Rt R1 1 ) t 1 + C
(34)
where t is the unknown temperature in degrees Celsius, t1 is the known temperature in degrees Celsius, Rt is the
measured resistance at t, R1 is the known resistance at t1, and C is the zero-resistance temperature constant More
extensive information about this method is contained in [12].
The constants C = 234.5 for copper and C = 224.1 for aluminum have been deduced perimentally for commercial
grades of conductors of annealed copper and aluminum of fairly high purity. The experimentally determined linear
relationship between resistance and temperature over a considerable range, the deduced temperatures for zero
resistance [234.5C (copper) and 224.1C (aluminum)] and the proportionality of corresponding sides of similar
triangles permit the relationship to be expressed as
t+C R
-------------- = ------
t 1 + C R1
(35)
from which equation 34 was derived. Temperatures computed by equation 34 are recognized as valid for commercial
purposes.
When measuring the resistance of any winding that is highly inductive or of low resistance, or both, readings should
be delayed until the measuring current has reached a steady state. The inductive effect and low resistance of the
winding may cause the time constant (L/R) to become quite large, and the measuring current may increase for several
minutes or even hours before the steady-state value is reached. Premature readings may result in gross errors in the
calculated temperature rise, although errors in the measured resistance may be small.
Methods have been devised to decrease the delay in resistance measurements for temperature tests to prevent cooling
of the apparatus under test. See [12] for additional information on this subject.
5.3 Computation of Resistance for a Required Temperature
Measurements of resistance are usually made at ambient temperatures. For various reasons, such as loss calculations
for efficiencies, the value of resistance required must be the value at a specified temperature. To convert the measured
resistance value to the required value, the relationship described in 5.2 may be rearranged so that
t+C
R t = R 1 --------------
t1 + C
(36)
where Rt is the resistance at a specified temperature, R1 is the measured resistance at t1, t is the specified temperature
in degrees Celsius, t1 is the temperature in degrees Celsius of measured resistance, and C is the zero-resistance
temperature constant.
5.4 Measurement of Insulation Resistance
The resistance of the insulation between, and in contact with, two metallic bodies or electrodes is defined as the ratio
of the direct voltage applied to the electrodes to the total current between them. The insulation may be a specimen of
a specific material or an assembly of materials constituting an insulation system.
The current measured is dependent upon both the volume and surface resistance of the material or system, unless a
third electrode is provided to permit a three-terminal measurement using guarding techniques.
The volume resistance results from that portion of the current that is distributed throughout the volume of the material
or system, whereas the surface resistance results from that portion of the current which is primarily in a thin layer of
moisture or other conducting material that may be deposited on its surface.
The current that results from the application of a direct voltage to an insulating material or system is principally ionic
in nature, as compared to the free-electron charge carried in metals. Semiconductors are intermediate in their ability to
conduct electricity. An arbitrary distinction between the realm of semiconductors and that of insulating materials, in
terms of resistivity, is usually considered to be 1010 .cm.
Insulation-resistance measurements can be greatly influenced by several factors, which must be taken into
consideration and reported as test conditions:
1) The insulation resistance may be voltage sensitive, depending upon the voltage stresses that may exist during
the test
2) The degree of conditioning before making the test determines the dryness and cleanliness of the specimen
3) The temperature of the specimen material or insulation system and its relationship to the dew-point
temperature of the test environment directly affect the measurement
4) The resistance of insulating materials and systems is usually time dependent
5) Depending upon moisture content, the resistance of insulating materials and systems may be affected by the
polarity of the applied voltage and by any field nonuniformity that may exist as a result of electrode
configuration.
For more complete information on making resistance measurements on insulating materials, see [10], and for
insulation systems, see [11].
5.4.1 Methods
The methods to be used for measuring the resistance or resistivity of relatively small specimens of insulating materials
may be somewhat different from those used in the case of insulation systems, particularly in regard to sensitivity. A
table of suggested methods or apparatus in terms of conditions of use is given in [10].
For insulation systems, where the accuracy requirements may not be so stringent, megohm bridges and ohmmeters of
lower sensitivity are commonly used.
5.4.2 Testing Techniques
Insulation-resistance measurements customarily fall in the range of 106 to 1015 , and such measurements are greatly
influenced by the factors noted in 5.4. The techniques referred to must be closely followed and precautions carefully
observed if meaningful results are to be obtained. Furthermore, and particularly in the case of certain insulation
systems, considerable geometric capacitance may be inherent in the system; and if such systems are tested at relatively
high voltages, the matter of safety becomes a primary concern.
It is recommended tha relevant documents, such as [10] and [11], be carefully reviewed before making insulation-
resistance measurements.
5.5 Measurement of Ground Resistance
Resistance measurement of a ground connection presents a number of problems not encountered in most other
resistance measurements. The conduction of electricity in the soil is electrolytic, and the continued passage of direct
current produces chemical action and polarization potential differences which may seriously interfere with the
measurement. It is therefore almost essential that the measurement be made using alternating current (or periodically
reversed direct current). Inductive and capacitive effects, however, are usually negligible.
The distribution of a current in the vicinity of a ground electrode is such that the equipotentials are roughly
hemispherical surfaces centered on the electrode. Most of the drop in voltage occurs in the region fairly close to the
electrode. Assuming that the soil is of uniform resistivity, approximate calculations indicate that, for driven rods, 90
percent of the resistance is localized within a radius equal to twice the depth of the rod and that 99 percent is localized
within a radius 20 times the depth of the rod. For plates buried at a considerable depth, 90 percent of the resistance is
localized within a radius of 6 or 7 times the greatest dimension of the plate. The measuring procedure should be such
that at least 90 percent of the resistance is located inside the auxiliary potential electrode used in the measurement.
Still another complication may arise from stray currents, either alternating or direct, which may be present in the earth
and even in the electrode under measurement at the time of test. A convenient way of mitigating their effects is to
utilize in the measurement a frequency not likely to be present in the stray current.
It is recommended that relevant documents, such as [5], be carefully reviewed before making ground-resistance
measurements.
5.5.1 Measurement by Reference Ground
To measure the resistance of a ground, it is essential that a measuring current be passed from the electrode under test
into the ground; hence, a second ground connection must be provided to carry the measuring current. This second
connection can be a distant, metallic waterpipe system which, because of its large extent, may be of very low
resistance, or it can be formed by connecting in parallel a large number of other driven grounds separated rather widely
from each other and also from the test ground. In these cases, it is sufficient to measure the total resistance of the two
grounds in series and, neglecting the resistance of the second or reference ground, ascribe the measured resistance
entirely to the ground under test. The measurement of the total resistance of the two grounds may be made by the drop-
of-potential method (see 4.1) or by a Wheatstone bridge (see 4.5.1), using alternating current to avoid polarization
effects in the ground. As most sources of alternating current are themselves grounded at some point, an insulating
transformer must be used to isolate the measuring circuit. Errors from the presence of stray currents of the same
frequency as that used in the measurement may be reduced by reversing the connections at the secondary terminal of
the isolating transformer and taking the mean of the two sets of data thus obtained.
5.5.2 Three-Measurement Method
When no reference ground connection of negligible resistance is available, it is necessary to provide both an auxiliary
current ground to conduct the measuring current and a third or potential ground. The potential ground serves to
separate the resistance of the ground under test from that of the auxiliary ground connection. The theoretically simplest
procedure would be to drive two auxiliary grounds at a sufficient distance from the test ground and from each other that
the regions in which their resistance is localized do not overlap. Then if Rab, Rbc, and Rca are the total resistances
measured successively between the pairs of electrodes indicated by the subscripts, the resistance of the test ground (Ra)
is given by
R a = ( R ab + R ca R bc ) 2
(37)
This procedure is practical only if all three grounds are of nearly the same resistance. If, as is usually the case, the two
auxiliary grounds are of materially higher resistance than the test ground, Ra will be the difference of two nearly equal
quantities, and errors in the individual readings will be greatly magnified in the final result. Stray currents and their
changes between successive readings may be another serious source of error.
5.5.3 Ratio Ohmmeter
A commonly used method of measuring ground resistance is shown in Fig 29. Current from the direct-current
generator is periodically reversed by the current-reversing switch and will exist in the earth between the ground under
test (X) and the auxiliary electrode (C). The drop of potential between X and the other auxiliary electrode (P) is
rectified by the potential-reversing switch, which is operated in synchronism with the current-reversing switch. The
coils of the ratio ohmmeter carry current proportional to the voltage (XP) and the current through X, respectively, so
that the scale of the instrument can be calibrated to read directly the resistance (Rx) of the test ground. The distance d1
must be large enough to span the region in which the desired fraction of Rx is localized. Similarly, d2 must be large
enough that the potential gradient around C has a negligible effect at P. Excessive resistance at C will reduce the
sensitivity of the measurement, and a less definite balance will be obtained. The resistance (Rp) at P must be negligible
compared with that of the series resistor. This method is only slightly affected by stray currents if the frequency of the
reversals remains different from that of the stray current.
Figure 29Crossed-Coil Ratio-Type Ground Resistance Measurement
5.5.4 Double-Balance Bridge Method
A convenient bridge method for measuring ground resistance is shown in Fig 30. In this method, currents from the
alternating-current source occur in two parallel circuits. The lower circuit includes the fixed resistance RA and the
resistance of the ground under test (Rx) and of the auxiliary current ground (Rc). The upper circuit includes the fixed
resistance Rs and an adjustable slide rheostat on which two sliders (Sa and Sb) make contact. With the detector switch
closed to the left, slider Sa is adjusted until the detector shows a balance. The currents in the two branch circuits are
then inversely proportional to the resistances RA and RB. The switch is then closed to the right and slider Sb is adjusted
until the detector again shows a balance. The potential drop between X and P is then equal to the drop in the portion
Rb of the slide rheostat, and the resistance of the ground under test is then given by
Rx = Rb RA RB
(38)
The scale over which Sb moves can thus be calibrated to read Rx directly.
Figure 30Double Balance Bridge for Ground Resistance Measurement
The alternating-current source may be an electronic or electromechanical oscillator, and the detector may have an
audible output. The tone of the oscillator can usually be recognized and balanced out, even in the presence of
considerable background noise caused by stray alternating currents. Resistance at P merely reduces the sensitivity of
the detector. Excessive resistance at C may limit the range of resistance which can be measured. The locations of
electrodes P and C are determined by the same considerations as in the crossed-coil ohmmeter method.
5.5.5 Single-Balance (Transformer) Method
Fig 31 shows a circuit in which a single balance is sufficient to give a measurement of the ground resistance (Rx) of the
ground (x) if auxiliary potential ground (P) is at a sufficient distance from X so as not to influence Rx. (See [5]).
The current transformer maintains a fixed ratio (N) of the secondary current (I2) to the primary current (I1). Hence, at
balance,
Rx = R2 N
(39)
Various devices may be incorporated into this circuit to minimize the disturbing effects of stray ground currents. A
transformer coupling in the detector circuit eliminates errors from direct currents in the ground. A tuned bypass circuit
or a detector excited separately and in synchronism with the alternating-current ground current minimizes the effect of
the phase angle of the transformer. An alternative is to use a direct-current detector with synchronous rectification
suitably phased with the alternating-current source.
Figure 31Single Balance (Transformer) Ground Resistance Measurement
6. References
[1] HARRIS, F. K. Electrical Measurements. New York: Wiley, 1952.
[2] STOUT, M. B. Basic Electrical Measurements. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1960.
[3] LUPPOLD, D. S. Precision DC Measurements and Standards. Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1969.
[4] Precision Measurement and Calibration Electricity-Low Frequency. NBS Special Publication 300, vol 3,
Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1968.
[5] IEEE Std 811962, Recommended Guide for Measuring Ground Resistance and Potential Gradients in the Earth.
[6] IEEE Std 3101969 (ANSI C100.31969), Specification for Reference-Standard Electrical Resistors.
[7] IEEE Std 951977, Recommended Practice for Insulation Testing of Large AC Rotating Machinery with High
Direct Voltage.
[8] PARK, J.H. Special Shielded Resistor for High-Voltage DC Measurement. Journal of Research, vol 166C, Jan-Mar
1962.
[9] HAMON, B.V. A 11000 Ohm Build-Up Resistor for the Calibration of Standard Resistor. Journal of Scientific
Instruments, vol 31, Dec 1954.
[10] ASTM D25776, Tests for DC Resistance or Conductance of Insulating Materials.
[11] IEEE Std 621958, Recommended Guide for Making Dielectric Measurements in the Field.
[12] IEEE Std 1191974, Recommended Practice for General Principles of Temperature Measurement as Applied to
Electrical Apparatus.
[13] MACMARTIN, M.P., and KUSTERS, N.L. A Direct-Current-Comparator Ratio-Bridge for Four-Terminal
Resistance Measurements. IEEE Transactions on Instrumentation and Measurement, vol IM-15, pp 212220, Dec
1966.
[14] KUSTERS, N.L., and MACMARTIN, M.P. A Direct-Current-Comparator Bridge for Measuring Shunts up to 20
000 Amperes. IEEE Transactions on Instrumentation and Measurement, vol IM-18, pp 26671, Dec 1969.
[15] JULIE, L. US Patent 3 179 800.
[16] WENNER, F., and WEIBEL, E. Bulletin of the Bureau of Standards, vol 8, p 559, 1912.
[17] WENNER, F., and WEIBEL, E. Bulletin of the Bureau of Standards, vol 11, p 65, 1914.
[18] WENNER, F. Bulletin of the Bureau of Standards, vol 25, p 225, 1940.
[19] IEEE Std 2621973 (ANSI C57. 12.901973), Test Code for Distribution, Power, and Regulating Transformers.
[20] IEEE Std 4621973 (ANSI C57. 12.001973), General Requirements for Distribution, Power, and Regulating
Transformers.
[21] GILBERT, R.W. US Patent 3 051 939. Dual-Slope Analog-to-Digital Converter.

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IEEE Std 118-1978

(Revision of IEEE Std118-1949)

IEEE Standard Test Code for Resistance

Approved September 8, 1977

IEEE Standards Board

William R. Kruesi, Chair

2. General Measurement Problems and Techniques ...............................................................................................3

2.1 Low-Value Resistance Measurements ....................................................................................................... 3

3.1 Standardization of Apparatus................................................................................................................... 10

4.1 Voltmeter-Ammeter (Drop of Potential) Method .................................................................................... 13

5.1 Preferred Circuits and Measuring Techniques......................................................................................... 25

Copyright 1978 IEEE All Rights Reserved 1

Table 1Applications of Resistance Measuring Methods

Low Resistance (see

direct deflection (4.6.2)

2 Copyright 1978 IEEE All Rights Reserved

2. General Measurement Problems and Techniques

2.1 Low-Value Resistance Measurements

Figure 1Four Terminal Representation of a Resistor

Copyright 1978 IEEE All Rights Reserved 3

Figure 2Four Terminal Connections to a Two Terminal Resistor

2.2 High-Value Resistance Measurements

4 Copyright 1978 IEEE All Rights Reserved

2.3 Intermediate-Value Resistance Measurements

2.4 High-Current Resistance Measurements

2.5 High-Voltage Resistance Measurements

2.6 Environmental Effects

Copyright 1978 IEEE All Rights Reserved 5

2.7 Self-Heating Effects

2.8 Interconnected Resistances

Figure 5A Six Terminal Resistor Measurement

6 Copyright 1978 IEEE All Rights Reserved

The value of Rx can be measured as follows:

2.9 Substitution Methods

R x = R s ( ratio of measured value ofR x :R s )

2.10 Measurement of Resistance in the Presence of Inductance

WARNING: When making measurements on highly inductive windings,

The inductive effect may be reduced by the following methods:

Copyright 1978 IEEE All Rights Reserved 7

WARNING: Damage to instrumentation or injury or paranel may result

Figure 7Alternate Circuit to Fig 6

8 Copyright 1978 IEEE All Rights Reserved

2.11 Measurement of Resistance in the Presence of Capacitance

WARNING: Damage to instrumentation or injury to personnel may

2.12 Stray Effects

2.13 Measurement of Resistance with Alternating Currents

Copyright 1978 IEEE All Rights Reserved 9

3.1 Standardization of Apparatus

3.2 Reference-Standard Resistors

3.3 Working-Standard Resistors

10 Copyright 1978 IEEE All Rights Reserved

3.4 Heavy-Current Standard Resistors

3.5 Nonreactive Resistors

3.6 High-Voltage Resistors

3.7 High-Resistance Standard Resistors

Copyright 1978 IEEE All Rights Reserved 11

3.8 Combinations of Standard Resistors

With n nominally equal resistors having the value

If P is equal to the resistance of the group, connected in parallel,