Reservoir Characterization of the Hollin and Napo

Formations, Western Oriente Basin, Ecuador

Howard J. White Jose A. Rodas

Oryx Ecuador Energy Company
Robert A. Skopec Quito, Ecuador
Felix A. Ramirez
Guido Bonilla
Oryx Energy Company Petroecuador
Dallas, Texas, U.S.A. Quito, Ecuador

Abstract

T he Oriente basin of Ecuador has produced a substantial amount of oil over the past 20 years. Nearly
3 billion bbl of oil have been recovered from the principal reservoirs in the Cretaceous Napo and Hollin
formations. Subtle north-south structures, commonly associated with Andean-related faulting, have trapped
much of the recoverable hydrocarbons in the thicker sandstones deposited within the Hollin and Napo reser-
voirs. East to west thinning of these reservoir units also contributes to the formation of stratigraphic traps. Both
the Hollin and Napo formations comprise successions of eastward-sourced fluvial and deltaic sedimentary
deposits that prograded westward into shoreline and marine shelf parasequences. The Albian Hollin reservoir
interval consists of a dominant alluvial plain sandstone sequence (Main Hollin sandstone) that occupies much
of the Oriente basin. In the western Oriente, the uppermost Hollin section grades vertically into open marine
strata with isolated tidal- and storm-influenced sandstone bodies. The overlying Napo stratigraphy also
consists of sand-rich fluvial and deltaic deposits in the eastern Oriente and abruptly changes to marine shales
and limestones and lowstand valley-fill sandstones in the western part of the basin. Extensive structural and
stratigraphic trap potential remains within the Napo and Hollin strata in the Oriente basin. High-resolution
geophysical techniques and detailed geologic reservoir characterization facilitate successful exploitation of
these remaining reserves.

Resumen

E n los últimos veinte años la Cuenca Oriente del Ecuador ha producido una cantidad sustancial de
hidrocarburos. Alrededor de tres mil millones de barriles de petroleo han sido recuperados de los reser-
vorios principales de las formaciones cretácicas Hollin y Napo. Estructuras sutiles orientadas norte-sur,
comunmente asociadas con fallamiento de edad Andina, han entrampado la mayoría de los hidrocarburos
recuperables dentro de los espesos depósitos arenosos de los reservorios de Napo y Hollin. La formación de
trampas estratigraficas ha estado favorecida por los adelagazamientos este-oeste de dichas unidades reservo-
rios. Las formaciones Napo y Hollin comprenden una sucesión de sedimentos deltaicos y fluviales alimen-
tados desde el este, los cuales progradaron hacia el oeste integrando parasecuencias de zonas de playa y
marino-plataformicas. El reservorio Albense Hollin consiste de una secuencia predominantemente arenosa de
planicie aluvial (Arenisca Hollin Principal) la cual se encuentra ocupando la mayoría de la Cuenca Oriente. En
el occidente del Oriente, la sección superior de Hollin grada verticalmente a sedimentos marino-abiertos con
cuerpos arenosos influenciados por mareas y tormentas. La sobreyacente estratigrafia de Napo tambien
consiste, en el este del Oriente, de depósitos deltaicos y fluviales ricos en arena, los cuales cambian abrupta-
mente a calizas y lutitas marinas, y areniscas “lowstand” de relleno de valle en la parte oeste de la cuenca.
Existe enorme potencial en trampas estructurales y estratigraficas dentro de los estratos Napo y Hollin de la
Cuenca Oriente. Las técnicas geofísicas de alta resolución y la caracterización geologica de los reservorios
facilitaran una explotación exitosa de las reservas remanentes.

White, H. J., R. A. Skopec, F. A. Ramirez, J. A. Rodas, and G. Bonilla, 1995, Reservoir char- 573
acteristics of the Hollin and Napo formations, western Oriente basin, Ecuador, in A. J.
Tankard, R. Suárez S., and H. J. Welsink, Petroleum basins of South America: AAPG
Memoir 62, p. 573–596.
574 White et al.

Figure 1—Overview of the

Oriente basin, Ecuador,
showing structural features,
distribution of producing fields,
location of cross sections
shown in Figures 7, 15, and 16,
and specific wells referred to in
the text.

INTRODUCTION greater than 80,000 km 2. It is contiguous with the

The Oriente basin of Ecuador produces a substantial Puntamayo basin of Colombia and the Marañon basin of
amount of oil and provides attractive exploration oppor- Peru. Stratigraphically and structurally, the Oriente
tunities. The Hollin and Napo sandstone reservoirs have preserves a complex Phanerozoic geologic history
proven to be consistent producers since initial produc- beginning with earliest Paleozoic deposition and culmi-
tion was first established in August 1972. The Napo nating with Tertiary deposits shed from the Andean fold
and thrust belt. Figure 2 shows the general stratigraphy
sandstone has a cumulative production (December 1992)
of the Oriente basin. The succession is subdivided into
of 1.17 billion bbl, and the Hollin Formation has a cumu-
several unconformity-bounded sequences: Paleozoic–
lative production of 1.70 billion bbl. Production estimates
Jurassic stratigraphy, the Cretaceous Hollin and Napo
for the next 20 years are about 2 billion bbl, which will be
formations, and Upper Cretaceous–Quaternary sedimen-
derived from the currently producing fields with addi-
tary sequence.
tional reserves from fields in the process of development.
The sedimentary fill rests on Precambrian igneous
This paper presents an integrated geologic study of
and metamorphic basement that has been intersected by
the Hollin and Napo sandstone reservoirs in the greater
several wells in the eastern Oriente adjacent to the
Oriente basin, with emphasis on the western Oriente.
Guyana shield. The Silurian–Jurassic interval consists of
Figure 1 illustrates the regional setting of the Oriente
several thousand meters of carbonates, shales, and
foreland basin in front of the Andean fold and thrust
subordinate sandstones and conglomerates that have
belt, as well as the distribution of producing fields.
been structurally deformed during several episodes of
uplift and extension. Examples of the pre-Hollin
STRUCTURAL AND STRATIGRAPHIC structure are documented by Balkwill et al. (1995). The
uppermost strata of this interval belong to the Jurassic
SETTING Chapiza Formation and the associated Misahualli
The Oriente basin of eastern Ecuador is part of the volcanics. In parts of the western Oriente basin, the
upper Amazon River drainage basin and covers an area Hollin–Napo interval unconformably overlies the
 Reservoir Characterization, Hollin and Napo Formations, Oriente Basin, Ecuador 575

eastern margin is masked by basin margin arches related

to the Guyana shield (Figure 1). Structural arches shown
on the regional map of Dashwood and Abbotts (1990)
indicate two east-west trending arches extending
westward from the Guyana shield. Interval isopach
maps confirm the existence of these two intrabasin
highs—the Aguarico arch to the north and the Cononaco
platform or arch to the south. The arches are believed to
have provided sediments as well as localized the Hollin
and Napo fluvial systems. Reservoirs within the Hollin
and Napo formations are structurally less deformed than
the underlying strata. Nevertheless, Hollin and Napo
structures are large enough to form prolific hydrocarbon
traps. A complex of major reverse faults mark the
western limit of the present-day basin adjacent to the
Napo uplift. Most of the major oil fields occur east of this
complex in structural traps that parallel the north-south
structural grain. The source rocks for these reservoirs are
believed to be the organic-rich Napo shales which have
been extensively tested for maturity, as reported by
Dashwood and Abbotts (1990).
The overlying Upper Cretaceous–Paleogene sedimen-
tary rocks in the Oriente basin were the first to be influ-
enced by incipient Andean movement. The Tena and
Tiyuyacu formations (Figure 2) are the earliest strata of
the post-Napo basin fill and consist of interbedded
shales, sandstones, and minor conglomerates. The basal
sandstone of the Tena Formation in the western Oriente
was probably derived by erosion and local reworking of
uppermost Napo. Late Tena and Tiyuyacu deposition
consisted of episodes of continental redbeds and limited
incursions of marine deposition. Deposition continued
with the Orteguaza and post-Orteguaza formations and
consisted mainly of clay-rich continental strata eroded
from the Andean volcanics. These continental sedimen-
tary rocks mark the infill of the Andean foreland basin
and comprise over 1600 m of section in the western
Oriente. The Andean volcanic arc controlled much of the
Tertiary sedimentation along the western margin of the
Oriente basin.

HOLLIN STRATIGRAPHY AND

DEPOSITIONAL SYSTEMS
Characterization of the Hollin and Napo reservoirs
includes data from seismic, well logs, core descriptions,
and petrophysical analyses. Over 1100 m of core were
examined. Regional mapping of the Ecuador Oriente
basin focused on depositional environments, paleoshore-
line trends, facies distribution, and reservoir continuity.
Figure 2—Stratigraphic column for the Oriente basin. The Hollin Formation occurs throughout the Oriente
basin. It thickens from a zero edge along the eastern
margin to nearly 200 m thick, forming a sand-rich
Jurassic Chapiza and Misahualli volcanics, but elsewhere blanket composed of several depositional sequences.
the Cretaceous rocks overlie Paleozoic strata and Figure 3 is an isopach map of Hollin strata from its
Precambrian basement. pinchout in the eastern Oriente to the depocenter in the
The Hollin–Napo interval consists of up to 500 m of southwestern part of the basin.
continental and marine sandstones, shales, and carbon- In the western Oriente basin, the Hollin can be subdi-
ates. The basin deepens toward the southwest, while its vided into the Main Hollin sandstone and the thinner
576 White et al.

Figure 3—Isopach map of the entire Hollin sequence.

Contour interval is 25 m.
Figure 4—Hollin stratigraphic column, western Oriente
Upper Hollin sandstone. General Hollin stratigraphy is basin, showing the five depositional systems comprising
described elsewhere (Wasson and Sinclair, 1927; the complete Hollin sequence.
Tschopp, 1953; Campbell, 1970; Canfield et al., 1982;
Dashwood and Abbotts, 1990; Canfield, 1991). The
Hollin is Albian in age, although the basal strata of the by isolated Hollin outcrops near Puyo. Valley fill
Main Hollin may date to the late Aptian. Faunal and thickness varies up to 40 m, reflecting the original topo-
flora taxa, although sparse, suggest that the Hollin is time graphic relief. The resulting depositional surface was a
transgressive and trace the overall sea level rise during very low relief, gently tilted surface over which braid-
late Hollin and early Napo deposition. The Hollin in the plain deposition occurred.
western Oriente basin consists of five successive deposi-
tional sequences: three sequences in the Main Hollin Braidplain Deposition
Sandstone and two in the Upper Hollin Formation The dominant depositional package in the Main
(Figure 4). Hollin consists of stacked cross-bedded sandstone and
subordinate intervals of interbedded mudstone and
Main Hollin Sandstone sandstone (Figures 4, 5) of Albian age. The upper part of
this interval forms the main oil reservoirs in the western
Valley Fill Deposition Oriente basin.
The initial Main Hollin sediments occupied substan- There are three lithofacies types in the braidplain
tial relief that was eroded into the underlying Jurassic sequence. The first and predominant one consists of
strata. Several wells penetrate this valley fill succession, stacked channel sandstones that range in thickness from
including Oso #1 and Entre Rios X1. The sedimentary 3 m to more than 10 m. The sandstones are quartzose in
rocks are interpreted to be paleovalley fluvial deposits of composition and fine to very coarse grained. Granule
channel sandstone and flood basin shales; no cores of this conglomeratic lag occasionally overlies channel scour
interval have been taken. Figure 5 shows these character- surfaces. Channel units generally have a uniform grain
istics in the Oso #1 well. This interpretation is also size distribution without any obvious fining-upward
supported by Pungarayacu cores in the Napo uplift and trend. Internally, the sandstone units are structured by
 Reservoir Characterization, Hollin and Napo Formations, Oriente Basin, Ecuador 577

These sedimentary facies are attributed to deposition

in a braided alluvial plain environment. The overall
facies architecture resembles the Platte River and Bijou
Creek models of Miall (1977) and Cant (1982). In this
environment, the planar and trough cross bed sets are
interpreted as straight and sinuous-crested mid-channel
bars. River discharge may have been seasonally variable,
but the sand bedload was sufficiently high to account for
the stacked braid bars that dominate the Main Hollin. In
addition to sediment supply, local topography, precipita-
tion, and vegetation also influenced fluvial deposition.
Facies two, interbedded mudstone and sandstone, are
attributed to channel, overbank levee, and crevasse splay
deposition. The third facies, dominantly thick
mudstones, is inferred to have originated as channel
abandonment intervals and laterally equivalent flood
basin deposits.

Coastal Plain Deposition

The contact between the Main and Upper Hollin
formations has historically been picked on electric logs at
the base of the thicker shales overlying the stacked sand-
stones of the Main Hollin. Detailed core examination of
this contact in the western Oriente basin demonstrates
that, instead of the stacked sandstones at the top of the
Main Hollin, this sequence is frequently a fining-upward
succession of planar to trough cross-bedded sandstones
and thin mudstones. These sandstones are slightly finer
than the braided sandstones, thin upward, and are rhyth-
mically interbedded with numerous, thin, laminated
mudstones (Figure 6c). Rooted horizons are occasionally
present in the sandstones. The distinctive appearance of
these lithofacies (at least in cored intervals) indicates
Figure 5—Hollin lithofacies and depositional systems coastal plain deposition. The package ranges up to 15 m
within the Oso #1 well, Block 7, western Oriente basin. The in thickness in the western Oriente.
depositional systems have been interpreted in more than
100 Oriente wells.
The coastal plain depositional sequence is interpreted
to represent the overall abandonment of the Main Hollin
fluvial system. As such, a lower energy, higher sinuosity
planar tabular and trough cross beds in sets 30–100 cm or fluvial and estuary depositional system is envisaged for
thicker (Figure 6a). Cross bed slip faces commonly these capping sediments. The interval’s fining upward
display a grain size segregation typical of avalanche character, the occurrence of planar and trough cross
processes. Sandstone units are separated by erosion bedding and ripple lamination, the rhythmic mudstone
surfaces with carbonaceous shale laminae and mudstone interbeds, and the occasional rooting are interpreted to
beds up to 30 cm thick. Macerated plant debris often have originated in a meandering stream system that
occurs as concentrations along cross bed laminae. Dia- likely entered a coastline estuary setting.
genetic kaolinite is dispersed throughout the sandstones. The features observed in the coastal plain deposition
The resulting gamma ray signature is that of a shaly of the Main Hollin are similar to the meandering fluvial
sandstone rather than the high-porosity sandstones that to estuary profiles recognized by Smith (1987). The
typify the Main Hollin. interbedded sandstones and mudstones in the top part of
The second facies type consists of fining-upward the estuary profile exemplify features observed in tidally
channel units of finer grained sandstones and influenced sediments, although the tidal reworking is
interbedded mudstones generally less than 30 cm thick. minor (microtidal) in the coastal plain deposits.
These sandstones are more poorly sorted than the first
sandstone facies and are dominated by trough cross
bedding.
Upper Hollin Formation
Facies three comprises mudstones and mudstone
interbedded with thin sandstones. The sandstone Shore Zone Deposition
interbeds are fine to very fine grained and often ripple The upper Hollin transgressively overlies the coastal
laminated. The mudstones are massive to faintly plain veneer of the Main Hollin sandstone. It has been
laminated and often dolomitic. This facies is up to 13 m generally interpreted as a marine deposit (Dashwood
thick (e.g., Oso #1 well, Figure 5). and Abbotts, 1990; Canfield, 1991). This transgressive
578 White et al.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Figure 6—Core photographs from the Main and Upper Hollin formations. Photographed slabs are from conventional 10-cm
whole-diameter cores. (a) Typical planar cross bedding within the braided fluvial facies. (b) Cross-bedded sandstones and
thin mudstones of the coastal plain facies. (c) Interbedded sandstones and shales of the tidally reworked Upper Hollin shore
zone facies. (d) Open marine glauconitic sandstones beneath the capping limestones of the Upper Hollin.
 Reservoir Characterization, Hollin and Napo Formations, Oriente Basin, Ecuador 579

blanket occurs throughout the Oriente basin, except in always interbedded with marine shelf shales (lenticular-
the extreme northeast. It consists of two distinctive litho- bedded burrowed mudstone). The quartzitic beds origi-
facies associations. The lower shore zone deposition nated as nearshore, tidally reworked marine sands. The
comprises a sandstone and shale complex that varies up glauconite-rich sands accumulated more seaward of the
to 15 m thick in the western Oriente. The upper open shoreline as storm-generated sand waves. These shoals
marine sequence caps the overall abandonment of the incorporated whatever quartz sand reached the middle
Hollin depositional system. shelf position, as well as the glauconite-replaced fecal
The shore zone lithofacies consist of fine- to medium- material derived on the shelf, and any reworked inverte-
grained planar to trough cross-bedded sandstones, very brate shell debris. It is likely that fossil abundance
fine to fine-grained ripple laminated sandstones, and increased away from the clastic shoreline. The shelf area
burrowed lenticular-bedded mudstones. Above the basal beyond the glauconitic shoals provided sites for thin but
mudstones, the shore zone locally displays a vertical widespread carbonate deposition.
profile of stacked cross-bedded and ripple-laminated The fossiliferous, micritic limestone and marls
sandstone with minor shale interbeds. A few kilometers capping the Upper Hollin record the final phase of
away, the profile may be dominantly lenticular Hollin deposition as the sea transgressed eastward over
mudstone and isolated, thin sandstones of limited the Cretaceous Oriente margin. Because of the typical
reservoir quality. The majority of the ripple sandstones thickness of the limestones (less than 2 m), seismic
contain abundant clay drapes within the lamination. The amplitude contrast at the top of the Hollin is generally
coarser sandstones occasionally exhibit strongly oblique minimal. The acoustic contrast does increase locally
cross-bedding orientations. Lenticular mudstones are where limestone thickness increases.
moderately to weakly burrowed (Chondrites, Planolites,
and minor Teichichnus) with rare ripple-laminated Pungarayacu Area
sandstone lenses.
A variety of shoreline to shallow marine depositional The Pungarayacu concession is located on the
environments combined to create the shore zone litho- basinward margin of the Napo uplift. It is noted for a
facies. A continued transgression of the tidally influ- large, shallow, heavy oil reservoir that has been
enced coastal plain resulted in the formation of sand- evaluated by Petroecuador (Almeida et al., 1983). The
dominated bay head deltas, estuaries, and subtidal Pungarayacu #2 well is representative of the entire
shoals. Muddy tidal flat and shallow marine mud depo- Hollin section in this area west of the Oriente basin. Eight
sition locally dominate the shore zone lithofacies. braided channel sandstone packages are present in the
Main Hollin. Significant mudstone intervals separate
Open Marine Deposition several of the upper channel sequences. These
The open marine succession completes the trangres- mudstones indicate periodic abandonment and aggrada-
sive Upper Hollin depositional sequence. It may range tion of the alluvial plain. The lower channels, above the
up to 15 m in thickness. The lithofacies consists of glau- Misahualli volcanics, are sand rich and devoid of
conitic and quartzose sandstone, limestone, marl, and interbedded mudstone. Figure 7 shows a north-south
shale. Ripple-laminated, very fine to fine-grained oriented cross section through three of the Pungarayacu
quartzose sandstones are commonly thin bedded and wells. Rapid facies changes occur within the distal or
moderately burrowed and occur at the base of the open westward fluvial components of the Main Hollin. The
marine succession. In the upper part of the open marine abundance of mudstone suggests that the braidplain
sequence, glauconite-rich sandstones (Figure 6d) are depositional system responsible for the Main Hollin
capped by a thin veneer of micritic and fossiliferous lime- became a mixed sand and mud system as it prograded
stones and marls. The sandstones are typically very fine westward. The Upper Hollin is represented by relatively
to fine-grained quartz with fine- to medium-grained thin mud-rich beds, subordinate quartzose and glau-
glauconite which vary up to 1 m in individual bed conitic sandstone, and capping limestone.
thickness and form sharp-based tabular units. Mudstone Hollin stratigraphy is well exposed along the
rip-up clasts occasionally overlie scour surfaces. Sedi- Hollin–Loreto road in the Pungarayacu area on the Napo
mentary structures include trough cross bedding, ripple uplift (see de Souza Cruz, 1989). A composite section of
lamination, and flaser bedding. Bioturbation often oblit- the Main and Upper Hollin strata exposed in the roadcut
erates all primary sedimentary structures. This unit is shown in Figure 8. The Main Hollin consists princi-
contains an open marine biota, including ammonites and pally of the braidplain facies, which unconformably
both thick- and thin-shelled bivalves. In the glauconitic overlies the Misahualli volcanics. The braidplain succes-
sandstones, the glauconite content is locally in excess of sion is locally saturated with oil. The outcrop shows
50% of the framework grains. Capping limestones (fossil- well-developed levee and floodplain deposits (Figure 8).
iferous wackestones) and marl beds generally measure The lower braided channel sandstones in this section are
less than 2 m thick and are well lithified. Vuggy porosity comparable with the Bijou Creek model. The capping
due to shell dissolution occurs sporatically. beds of the Main Hollin are correlative with the coastal
The basal quartzitic sandstone and shale of the open plain sandstones observed in cores from the western
marine facies are interpreted to be of subtidal shoal Oriente. Shale interbeds in the coastal plain facies are
origin. These sandstones are generally thinner than the both more numerous and thicker than those observed in
overlying glauconitic shoal deposits and are almost the braidplain deposits.
580 White et al.

Figure 7—Hollin sandstone cross section, Pungarayacu concession, eastern Napo uplift. Inferred correlations demonstrate
the more frequent facies changes in the western Oriente. See Figure 1 for location.

The Upper Hollin deposits present in this roadcut are shows the lithologies and stratigraphic relationships of
part of the shore zone deposition. Individual channels the Napo in the western Oriente basin. The Napo T, U,
have a lenticular geometry 30–150 m or more wide and and M sandstone units are related to a series of regres-
1–3 m thick. The strata are interpreted to be of tidal flat sive-transgressive cycles that built the Napo stratigraphy.
and tidal channel origin. No exposures of the open There were at least four such cycles in the western
marine facies of the Upper Hollin were observed here, Oriente basin. Only the T and U intervals deposited
such as the glauconitic sandstones or carbonates. De sands in the western Oriente basin. To the east in the
Souza Cruz (1989) interpreted the Main Hollin as origi- central Oriente (e.g., Shushufindi field), these sequences
nating from braided fluvial and eolian paleoenviron- are indistinguishable because of their stacked, sand-rich
ments. We see little evidence for eolian deposition. We character which resulted in their amalgamation.
agree with de Souza Cruz that the Upper Hollin in this Mapping of the Napo transgressive shales (referred to as
outcrop is estuarine, although the tidal range need not the lower, middle, and upper Napo shales) define a
have been macrotidal. northeast-southwest Napo shoreline trend within the
western Oriente basin.
Seismic reflection data show that Napo stratigraphy
has substantial acoustic contrasts that can be resolved,
NAPO STRATIGRAPHY AND depending on data quality and signal processing. The
DEPOSITIONAL SYSTEMS most conspicuous acoustic change is at shale-limestone
interfaces. The sandstones generally have gradational
The Napo Formation consists of organic-rich shales, contacts. The least resolvable acoustic contrasts occur
bioclastic grainstones and packstones, and terrigenous within the U and T sandstones where they thin
sandstones believed to have been deposited in fluvial, westward and are difficult to distinguish seismically.
deltaic, marginal marine, and marine shelf environments Geophysical modeling of the U sandstone shows a subtle
during the Late Cretaceous. The Napo Formation amplitude increase where the sandstone is well
conformably overlies the Upper Hollin Formation and is developed. A marked amplitude increase also occurs
in turn overlain unconformably by the Tena Formation where the U sandstone is replaced laterally by limestone.
(Maastrichtian–Paleocene). Total Napo thickness exceeds Seismic models for the T sandstone indicate subtle
275 m over much of the western Oriente basin. Figure 9 amplitude decrease where the sandstone is well
 Reservoir Characterization, Hollin and Napo Formations, Oriente Basin, Ecuador 581

Figure 8—Roadcut stratigraphy exposed along the Hollin-

Loreto road, eastern Napo uplift. See Figure 1 for location.

developed; however, the overlying B limestone is a

strong reflector that tends to mask the T sandstone. On
this basis, subtle amplitude anomalies in the western
Oriente basin are attributed to the U sandstone.
Amplitude versus offset (AVO) analysis of the U
sandstone indicates that there is no significant offset due
to hydrocarbon-bearing lithologies.

Napo T and U Sandstones

Stacked fluvial and deltaic sandstones comprise the
Napo T and U reservoirs of Shushufindi and Libratador
fields in the central Oriente (Canfield et al., 1982). These
intervals quickly thin and become separated by thicker
marine shales in Sacha and Auca fields (Canfield, 1991).
From these fields westward, both the T and U sand-
stones exhibit different lithofacies (and depositional envi- Figure 9—Composite log of Hollin and Napo formations,
ronments) than in the central Oriente. Quartzose sand- western Oriente basin.
stones occur in each of the western Oriente Napo cores
582 White et al.

bedded sandstones dominate the lower half of the Napo

T and U sandstone packages. In the upper half of the
profile, the sandstone beds are thinner, finer grained,
ripple laminated, and generally glauconitic. Mudstone
interbeds are intermittent within the sandstones.
Capping the T and U intervals are more burrowed
mudstone, minor sandstone (locally thicker and medium
grained), and limestone interbeds. Laminated shales
separate the sandstone intervals from thick carbonate
wackestone and mudstone (B and A limestones, respec-
tively).
Situated between thick intervals of marine limestones
and mudstones, the Napo T and U sandstone packages
show a channel-like development, locally exceeding 10
m thick, that is attributable to fluvial channel, shoreline
estuary, and subtidal shoal origin. Channels and shoals
within this setting were probably controlled by the range
of tidal energy, the shoreline configuration (embayments
and estuaries), and the physiography of the marine shelf
(de Boer et al., 1988; Terwindt, 1988). Westward-flowing
streams delivered sediment to these Napo shorelines.
The initial stacked sandstones of these prograding
channels is inferred to be of fluvial point bar or deltaic
origin.
Overlying the channel sandstones, the beds exhibit
reworking by tidal currents that progressively controlled
sand distribution seaward of the fluvial-dominated
deposition. As in the Upper Hollin, the variety of tidal
environments recognized includes tidal flat, tidal creek,
and subaqueous tidal shoals. Dimensions of these shoals
can range up to hundreds of meters in width, hundreds
of meters to several kilometers in length, and more than
5 m in thickness. Positioning of these sandstone bodies
was probably influenced by paleotopographic highs on
the Napo marine shelf. Glauconitic sandstone shoals are
Figure 10—Idealized Napo depositional package resulting mixed with quartzose shoals in the upper parts of the
from sedimentation following sea level drop on the Napo Napo T and U sequences. The cycle of progradation
marine shelf. dominated by channel and tidal shoal sedimentation was
replaced vertically by mud-dominated marine conditions
examined. Glauconitic sandstones, laminated to followed by transgressive bioclastic and micritic
burrowed mudstones, and fossiliferous limestones are limestone deposition (Figure 11).
common components of both T and U sequences. The
quartzose sandstones exhibit the following characteris-
tics: (1) abrupt basal contacts, (2) bed thicknesses from 30 CRETACEOUS PALEOGEOGRAPHY
cm to 1 m, (3) medium to very fine grain size, (4) large
scale planar and trough cross bedding to ripple lamina- The four principal sandstone packages deposited in
tion, (5) abundant clay drapes along laminations, and (6) the western part of the Oriente basin during
occasional disruption due to burrowing. The glauconitic Aptian–Maastrichtian time were the Main Hollin, Upper
sandstones are similar to those of the Upper Hollin and Hollin, Napo T, and Napo U intervals. The Main Hollin
typically occur in the upper parts of both the T and U is the thickest and most widespread of these intervals. It
successions. Cross beds commonly occur in oblique was deposited initially on an irregular erosional surface.
orientations and less often in strongly oblique, or The valley fill deposits smoothed this relief and created
herringbone, orientation. an alluvial plain that was dominated by braided rivers.
Figure 10 shows a typical vertical profile through the The provenance for the Main Hollin sandstones is
Napo T and U sequences. A varying complex of thin believed to have been the Guyana shield and its
fossiliferous limestones, burrowed silty mudstones, and Paleozoic cover. Grain size decreases from east to west.
thin quartzose sandstones form an interval less than 5 m However, isolated outcrops of Hollin valley fill deposits
thick that commonly occurs above the laminated shales in the uplifts west of Puyo contain gravel- to cobble-sized
below both the T and U. The sandstones abruptly overlie clasts of locally derived igneous basement demonstrating
this complex. Stacked, fine- to medium-grained, cross- the influence of possible local source areas during early
 Reservoir Characterization, Hollin and Napo Formations, Oriente Basin, Ecuador 583

Figure 11—Napo regressive–transgressive cycle of sedimentation showing rapid progradation followed by sea level rise
with marine onlap.

Hollin sedimentation. The westward extent of the

shoreline during braidplain deposition is unknown
because the Andean fold and thrust belt has now
completely overprinted this area west of the Napo uplift.
The physiography conceptualized for the Main Hollin
braidplain is a very low relief, low gradient system. The
multiple river systems comprising the Hollin alluvial
plain carried a high volume of fine to very coarse sand
that was efficiently distributed over the entire alluvial
plain. The source of the quartzose sand is further
envisaged to have been a much higher relief escarpment
of Paleozoic sandstones and igneous basement. Several
examples of such settings include the valley sandur
deposits of southern Iceland (Bluck, 1974), the Scott
outwash deposits of Alaska (Boothroyd, 1972), the
Canterbury plain of New Zealand (Brown and Wilson,
1988), and the Pantanal escarpment and alluvial plain in
Brazil (Short and Blair, 1986). What these alluvial plains
have in common is a high sand supply and a braided
channel network capable of distributing the high bed
load. Regional to local tectonics and vegetation would
also have had an important impact on the resulting
depositional system. The alluvial plain gradient varies in
these examples from several meters per kilometer to less
than 0.01 m/km in the Pantanal basin.
The Aptian–Maastrichtian eustatic sea level curve
(Figure 12) records significant sea level lows that are
correlated with the regressive-transgressive para-
sequences of the Upper Hollin, Napo T, and Napo U
(Macellari, 1988). The Main Hollin coastal plain and
Upper Hollin shore zone depositional systems are Figure 12—Correlation of Napo stratigraphy with global
believed to have been deposited during the late Albian sea level change for the Early–Late Cretaceous. The T and
sea level rise that inundated the Main Hollin braidplain. U sandstone packages correspond to the significant sea
There is no evidence in the Oriente cores for a significant level lows during the Cenomanian and Turonian, respec-
sea level fall at this time. Deposition of the Upper Hollin tively.
Formation reflects gradual eastward encroachment of the
sea and progressive destruction of the delta plain to form formation of the early Andean orogenic belt. A passive
neritic tidal shoals. Figure 12 shows a more substantial margin shelf apparently received the Hollin and Napo
sea level drop in the Late Turonian at the start of Napo U sedimentation. Limited exposures of phosphatic shales
sedimentation, suggesting a marked westward shift of and cherts in the northwestern Napo uplift suggest the
the shoreline. It is envisaged that Upper Hollin and existence of a shelf slope break and Late Cretaceous
Napo deposition took place on a broad, relatively stable upwelling prior to its destruction during Andean defor-
continental shelf west of the Guyana craton and prior to mation.
584 White et al.

Figure 13—Hollin paleogeography in Albian time. (A) Braided alluvial plain. (B) Initial transgression during Main Hollin
coastal plain deposition. (C) Upper Hollin shore zone deposition in tidally influenced nearshore environments. (D) Open
marine sedimentation ending Hollin sedimentation.

Figures 13 and 14 show a series of block diagrams that Hollin depositional systems. Wells suggest that the
summarize the paleogeography during Hollin and Napo shoreline was close to the Guyana shield at the end of
time. The Albian braided alluvial plain was built on the Hollin deposition. The late Albian maximum flooding
edge of the Guyana shield and covered the Oriente basin event (Lower Napo Shale) essentially closed Hollin sedi-
farther west than the Napo uplift. The position of the mentation.
Albian shoreline has been obliterated by Andean defor- The Napo Formation consists of several transgressive-
mation. Inundation by a late Albian sea level rise estab- regressive packages related to Late Cretaceous eustatic
lished fluvial, deltaic, estuary, and tidal shoal environ- sea level fluctuations (Figure 12) (Haq et al., 1988),
ments (Figures 13b, c, d). The delta and estuarine sand including the Napo T and U (Figure 14). The successive
accumulations now form excellent hydrocarbon reser- parasequences in the Upper Hollin and Napo formations
voirs in addition to the Main Hollin. Sand sedimentation were deposited in a basin with a ramp margin (see Van
rates are inferred to have been very rapid within the Wagoner et al., 1988). This model implies that relative sea
 Reservoir Characterization, Hollin and Napo Formations, Oriente Basin, Ecuador 585

Figure 14—Napo paleogeography during Cenomanian–Turonian time. (A) Early Cenomanian marine shelf deposition domi-
nating much of the Oriente. (B) Napo T sandstone deposition in the western Oriente. (C) Transgressive marine mud deposi-
tion (Middle Napo Shale). (D) Turonian marine shelf sedimentation prior to sea level lowering and deposition of the Napo U
sandstone cycle.

level did not fall below the shelf break, which precludes RESERVOIR CHARACTERIZATION
lowstand sediments within lowstand fan or prograding
wedge settings. The Hollin and Napo shore zone to shelf Reservoir-Scale Heterogeneity of the Hollin
facies tract transgressed and regressed several times. The Lithofacies
quartzose sandstones of the Upper Hollin, T, U, and M
sequences were deposited after maximum sea level fall The Coca-Payamino and Gacela fields in the north-
and within depocenters (eroded valleys) created during western Oriente basin have sufficient well density to
falling sea level. Eventually both the T and U were allow detailed stratigraphic correlation. Well spacings
inundated and covered with limestone shoals and shelf range up to 3 km in the Gacela field and average about
muds during the subsequent sea level rise. The ramp 1 km along the Coca-Payamino structure. The NNW-SSE
margin model permits major shifts of the shoreline, espe- orientation of the Coca-Payamino is nearly orthogonal to
cially where the rate of sedimentation exceeded the rate the east-west depositional pattern interpreted for the
of subsidence. Hollin strata. Figure 15 is a simplified cross section
586 White et al.

Figure 15—Stratigraphic cross section of the Hollin lithofacies in the Coca-Payamino field, western Oriente basin. Lithofa-
cies have been determined from cored intervals in the field. The top of the Upper Hollin is commonly a succession of thin,
fossiliferous limestones. See Figure 1 for location.

through Coca-Payamino field and illustrates the local intervals. Two sandstone types are present: quartzose
variation of depositional facies interpreted for each well sandstones occur in each facies, while glauconitic sand-
along the structure. Overall, the Coca #4 well contains stones occur only in Upper Hollin and Napo intervals.
the thickest development of the coastal and shelf Figure 17 shows the framework and diagenetic charac-
sequences mainly because of thicker shore zone sand- teristics of the Hollin and Napo sandstones.
stones. A relatively thin veneer of coastal deposits is Quartzose sandstones (Figure 17a) volumetrically
present in each well, except in Coca #7, where the equiv- dominate the arenaceous deposits. Grain size varies
alent interval is dominated by a braided channel. The substantially within a single cored interval. The coarsest
Main Hollin remains consistent throughout the structure. detritus in cores or outcrops occurs in the braidplain
Figure 16 shows the overall lithofacies variations depositional system of the Main Hollin succession. In the
between two wells in the Gacela area immediately south Tiguino #3 core, for example, the braided stream sand-
of the Coca-Payamino field. In the Gacela #1 well, both stones contain beds dominated by coarse to very coarse
the glauconitic sandstones of the shelf and the tidal sand- quartz grains, as well as local quartz granule conglom-
stones of shore zone origin are thicker than their counter- erate lag. The average grain size of the Main Hollin is
parts in the Gacela #2 well. The shelf sandstones in the medium grained. Bimodal grain size segregation in slip-
Gacela #2 are not as glauconite rich as those in Gacela #1 face laminae is typical of much of the cross bedding. The
and have retained significant reservoir porosity. Finally, western Oriente Pungarayacu area has the finest grained
the coastal plain deposits in Gacela #1 appear to be Hollin channel sandstones encountered in the Oriente
absent in Gacela #2. The coastal plain facies is believed to area. Excellent porosity and hydrocarbon staining occur
interfinger with braided channel lithologies. throughout the Oriente in the fine-grained to granule
These two field examples suggest that the Main Hollin textured lithologies. Sandstones in the Upper Hollin and
braided stream sandstones are remarkably consistent in Napo successions also vary significantly in grain size, but
character across each field. The coastal plain, shore zone, generally within the very fine to medium-grained size
and open marine units, by comparison, show significant range; they have locally excellent porosity and perme-
compartmentalization that is largely a function of deposi- ability (Figure 17b).
tional environment. Optimum field development must Glauconitic sandstones of the Upper Hollin shelf
account for this lateral and vertical heterogeneity. facies tract and each of the Napo intervals consist of a
framework of glauconite and quartz grains (Figure 17c).
Sandstone Petrography Glauconite content varies from trace to dominant.
Typically, the glauconite grains are about 200 µm larger
A representative suite of sandstone samples from than associated quartz grains. Whereas the quartz in the
Hollin and Napo facies was examined using standard shelf sand shoal facies was reworked from deltaic and
petrographic techniques. From this analysis, it is shore zone deltas, the glauconite was locally derived by
concluded that similar sandstone framework and diage- diagenetic replacement of biogenic material. Glauconite
netic characteristics occur in each of the reservoir grains are easily compacted under moderate overburden
 Reservoir Characterization, Hollin and Napo Formations, Oriente Basin, Ecuador 587

Figure 16—Stratigraphic correlation in Gacela field 5 km southwest of Coca-Payamino. Thickness and lithofacies variations
are especially noticeable in the coastal plain and open marine facies.

pressure and may form a pseudomatrix that occludes the The burial diagenetic history of the Cretaceous
original primary porosity. Where the percentage of glau- reservoir sandstones reflects several processes that
conite is less than about 20% of the sandstone occurred in the following order:
framework, the quartz-dominated framework retains
much of the original porosity, resulting in significant • Limited mechanical compaction of framework
reservoir potential. In contrast, the dark green, laterally grains
equivalent glauconitic sandstones are tight due to • Early calcite and pyrite precipitation
framework grain compaction. • Dissolution of unstable framework grains
Quartz dominates the detrital framework in all sand- (feldspars)
stones except the glauconite-rich shelf facies. The quartz • Precipitation of silica overgrowths
is generally monocrystalline and less commonly poly- • Precipitation of kaolinite clay minerals
crystalline; it has a strong undulose extinction. Feldspars
and micas are subordinate to rare, but more abundant in Calcite precipitation occludes the initial porosity in
the Napo T and U sandstones. Feldspar composition thin sandstone beds, especially adjacent to shale
varies from sodic plagioclase to potassic feldspar. Unless interbeds where it forms small, spherulitic concretions.
encased in early calcite cementation, most surviving These calcite-cemented sandstones show no evidence of
feldspar grains exhibit moderate to extensive secondary mechanical compaction, suggesting that protective
leaching. Secondary leaching during burial diagenesis cementation occurred at an early stage. Pyrite precipita-
helped reduce the feldspar content. The provenance is tion in the form of concretionary cements or framboids
believed to be the feldspar-rich granitic Guyana are characteristically associated with the organic debris
basement to the east. However, the possibility of a trapped within the sandstones and shales. Early mechan-
quartzose Paleozoic sandstone source overlying the ical compaction is again limited to isolated grain inter-
basement is also possible. Other components of the penetrations. Organic debris and pyrite crystals are
sandstone include heavy minerals such as zircon and concentrated along stylolite-like surfaces.
coalified plant debris. Silica overgrowths are ubiquitous throughout the
588 White et al.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e) (f)

Figure 17—Petrography of Hollin and Napo reservoir sandstones as seen in thin section photomicrographs and scanning
electron micrographs. (a) Plane light view of Main Hollin braidplain sandstone. (b) Quartzose sandstone of Napo U interval.
(c) Glauconitic sandstone of the Upper Hollin open marine facies. (e) Diagenetic kaolinite occupying isolated pores in thin
section. (f) Scanning electron micrograph of secondary silica overgrowths and kaolinite clay mineral.
 Reservoir Characterization, Hollin and Napo Formations, Oriente Basin, Ecuador 589

quartz arenites of the Hollin and Napo sequence and this interval. In the quartz-dominated Main Hollin,
provide the framework support that has preserved sediment texture is the primary factor controlling pore
porosity to reservoir depths in the Oriente basin. geometry and connectivity.
Although the overgrowths (Figure 17d) make up only a Figure 18a shows the porosity–permeability data for
small percentage of the sandstones, they strengthen the the entire Upper Hollin in a single Coca-Payamino well.
highly porous sandstones while only slightly reducing Permeability ranges over six orders of magnitude, and
overall primary porosity. Mechanical testing of these no distinct trends are discernible in the overall data set.
sandstones documents the high compressive strength The poorest permeabilities are associated with glau-
required to break the strong silica-cemented framework. conitic sandstones and clay-rich interbeds. Figures 18b
The amount of porosity attributable to framework-grain and 18c illustrate the wide range of measured porosity
dissolution is not significant compared to the primary and permeability in this highly heterogeneous
intergranular porosity preserved by silica overgrowth. formation. Quartz-rich zones are of high reservoir
Precipitation of kaolinite clay minerals followed over- quality and comparable to those found in the Main
growth formation. The kaolinite typically fills small Hollin. Median values for porosity and permeability are
clusters of pores, but does not seriously affect sandstone 8.6% and 1.67 md, respectively. A histogram of grain
permeability (Figure 17e). Kaolinite diagenesis density (Figure 18d) further demonstrates the diversity
succeeded silica overgrowth formation (Figure 17f), but of minerals present in this interval.
preceded oil emplacement. Such relationships are Mercury injection extended range capillary pressure
common and invariably associated with the oil–water data were generated to examine reservoir rock quality,
contact where differentially stained sandstones may determine size and sorting of pore throats, and evaluate
occur below the base of the oil-saturated sandstones. seal capacity. Shales within the Upper Hollin (Figure 19)
are microporous and considered to be effective seals.
Petrophysical Characteristics Because of inhibiting diagenetic effects, glauconitic sand-
stones have bimodal pore throat size distributions and
complex pore geometries (Figure 20). Further reduction
Electric Log Response
in reservoir quality can result from extensive diagenetic
The stratigraphic and sedimentologic characterization pyrite and the abundance of detrital clay drapes and
of the Napo and Hollin reservoirs has been facilitated by coalified plant debris.
using core studies combined with electrical log evalua- Figure 21a shows the porosity-permeability data for
tions. Many of the mineralogic characteristics observed the Main Hollin Formation in a single Coca-Payamino
in cores have a petrophysical log response. Carbona- well. A clear cluster of data in the 15–20% porosity range
ceous debris on cross bed slip faces induces a stronger and greater than 100 md permeability demonstrates
shaly gamma ray response than would be expected from excellent reservoir quality. The Main Hollin is a “clean”
core examination. A clean gamma ray deflection is uniform sandstone, although thin, impermeable clay-rich
typical of a clean sandstone, but a higher gamma interbeds are not uncommon. Figures 21b, c, and d illus-
response may indicate relatively clean sandstones conta- trate the quartz-dominated nature of the Main Hollin.
minated with carbonaceous laminae, shaly sandstone, or Median values for porosity and permeability are 18.6%
carbonaceous limestone or marl. Glauconite and pyrite and 1013 md, respectively. Mercury injection data
reduce the resistivity. The glauconite-rich sandstones (Figure 22) show unimodal well-sorted and well-
result in some of the lowest resistivity responses on connected pores, further substantiating high reservoir
observed logs. Pyrite is locally abundant as a dissemi- quality. Most pore throat radii are larger than 1 µm, with
nated replacement fabric or as concretions in all litholo- most pores greater than 10 µm in width.
gies. Dolomitic shales tend to have higher resistivity than Anisotropy within the Main Hollin causing direc-
nondolomitic shales due to carbonate cementation of tional preferences in permeability is minimal. Horizontal
pore space. These shales are the most resistive clastic and vertical permeabilities were measured on full-
lithofacies in the Oriente basin. diameter core to determine the potential for reservoir
Fluid chemistry is also reflected in log response, and fluid coning. In the quartz-rich zones of the Main Hollin,
its effects limit the usefulness of resistivity or SP curves horizontal and vertical permeabilities are almost equal
for facies correlation. Low salinities within the Main (Figure 23). This indicates that cross bedding and other
Hollin succession limit the reliability of the SP curve and sedimentologic features do not create anisotropy in this
also moderately affect the resistivity curve. The presence sand body.
of oil is noticeable regardless of lithology.
Rock Mechanics
Porosity–Permeability Relationships, Pore
Uniaxial and triaxial compression testing was
Geometry, and Capillarity
performed on four lithologies from the Hollin formation:
Multiple rock types occur in the Hollin formation shale, limestone, glauconitic sandstone, and quartzose
because of variations in depositional environment. The sandstone. These data were critical in the assessment of
most important factors affecting porosity preservation borehole stability and other engineering evaluations
are lithology, compaction, and diagenesis. Porosity and useful for horizontal drilling parameters (Ramirez and
permeability generally correlate in the Upper Hollin Rodas, 1992). Mohr-Coulomb failure criteria were estab-
despite significant mineralogic differences throughout lished under triaxial load on four samples for each
590 White et al.

Figure 18—Porosity–permeability relationships of the Upper Hollin Formation. (a) Porosity versus permeability (to nitrogen
at an estimated net effective reservoir pressure of 2250 psi). (b) Permeability histogram of all lithofacies of the Upper Hollin.
(c) Porosity histogram of all lithologies. (d) Grain density histogram for the Upper Hollin.

lithology. Compressive strengths were measured at based on “fresh state” water-oil relative permeability
9520–25,170 psi for shale, 16,700–28,040 psi for limestone, measurements. Wettability indices in the Upper Hollin
8370–27,550 psi for low-percentage glauconitic support the theory of intermediate to slightly oil-wet
sandstone, and 5100–16,870 psi for clean sandstone conditions. Asphaltinic oils (up to 15.2% asphaltene by
(Figure 24). Tensile strengths ranged from 1760 psi for weight) are common near the oil–water contact. Hollin
shale to 660 psi for clean sandstone. wetting tendencies could have significant impact on
production (fluid flow characteristics) and reservoir
Wettability development scenarios, such as water flood potential.
Both the Upper and Main Hollin demonstrate inter-
mediate to oil-wetting tendencies based on qualitative
and quantitative indicators. Localized development of CONCLUSIONS
mixed wettability or preferentially oil-wet characteristics
can be mineralogy specific, that is, glauconite-rich rocks Core descriptions have shown that four depositional
tend to show stronger oil-wet conditions. Complex pore systems comprise Hollin stratigraphy: braidplain and
geometries formed by small, irregular pore throats lead coastal deposits of the Main Hollin Sandstone, and shore
to high immobile saturation of the wetting phase. Irre- zone and open marine shelf facies in the Upper Hollin
ducible water saturation tends to be low, with an average Formation. This reconstruction enlarges on previous
of 15%, and residual oil saturation ranges from 25 to 40% interpretations of marine-influenced Hollin fluvial depo-
 Reservoir Characterization, Hollin and Napo Formations, Oriente Basin, Ecuador 591

Figure 19—Petrophysical properties of Upper Hollin shales. (a) Mercury saturation versus injection pressure. (b) Pore size
distribution of reservoir seals in the Upper Hollin.
592 White et al.

Figure 20—Petrophysical properties of Upper Hollin glauconitic sandstones. (a) Mercury saturation versus injection
pressure. (b) Pore size distribution.
 Reservoir Characterization, Hollin and Napo Formations, Oriente Basin, Ecuador 593

Figure 21—Porosity–permeability relationships of the Main Hollin quartzose sandstones. (a) Porosity versus permeability (to
nitrogen at an estimated net effective reservoir pressure of 2250 psi). (b) Permeability histogram of quartzose sandstone. (c)
Porosity histogram for sandstones. (d) Grain density histogram for the principal reservoir sandstones.

sition. Sandstones in overlying Napo strata in the depositional system of the Upper Hollin succession has
western Oriente basin are also divided into two variable sandstone distribution, with local good quality
sequences (T and U intervals). reservoir development. The capping open marine sand-
The Hollin braidplain depositional system is a stones are moderately prospective, especially where
sandstone-dominated unit that comprises most of the glauconite content is low. Stratigraphic trapping
Hollin succession. It is also the most prolific reservoir potential is implied by the heterogeneity of these litho-
zone in the western part of the basin. The braided fluvial facies.
sandstone units have excellent continuity and connec- Fluviodeltaic Napo sandstones are prolific producers
tivity, as shown by analysis of closely spaced wells. of oil from fields in the central part of the Oriente basin.
However, shale interbeds and thicker channel abandon- These stacked channel and shore zone sandstones have
ment mudstones adversely influence local permeability. reservoir characteristics similar to the underlying Hollin
It is believed that the braidplain deposits are most fluvial sandstone reservoirs, albeit with local hetero-
productive in structural traps where there is limited geneities. Toward the west, the Napo sandstones occupy
stratigraphic trapping potential. valley-like, topographic lows; these sandstones have
The coastal plain depositional system consists of locally significant reservoir potential.
braided and meandering river sediments, overbank A better understanding of the Hollin and Napo
floodplain strata, and deltaic-estuarine deposits. Even stratigraphy and distribution of reservoir quality sand-
between closely spaced wells, sandstone–shale ratios stones will help to optimize wellbore placement during
may be variable. Similarly, the overlying shore zone field development. This understanding has been further
594 White et al.

Figure 22—Petrophysical relationships of the Main Hollin sandstones. (a) Mercury saturation versus injection pressure. (b)
Pore size distribution from mercury injection data.
 Reservoir Characterization, Hollin and Napo Formations, Oriente Basin, Ecuador 595

Suarez, and H. J. Welsink, Petroleum basins of South

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Acknowledgments The authors would like to thank the del Petroleo, Petrobras Research Center, Brazil, 65 p.
Direccion Nacional de Hidrocarburos (DNH) and Petroe- Haq, B. U., J. Hardenbol, and P. R. Vail, 1988, Mesozoic and
cuador for permission to publish this paper and for their Cenozoic chronostratigraphy and cycles of sea-level
invaluable assistance in making Hollin and Napo cores change, in C. K. Wilgus, B. S. Hastings, C. A. Ross, H. Posa-
available. The core examination in Ecuador (Quito and Lago mentier, J. Van Wagoner, and C. G. St. C. Kendall, eds.,
Agrio) was undertaken by the principal author, Ed Robbs and Sea-level change: an integrated approach: SEPM Special
Felix Ramirez (Oryx Energy, Dallas), and Mariana Lascano Publication 42, p. 71–108.
(Petroecuador). Acknowledgment is given for their assistance Macellari, C. E., 1988, Cretaceous paleogeography and deposi-
in collecting the initial core data for the project. Harold Illich tional cycles of western South America: Journal South
American Earth Sciences, v. 1, p. 373–418.
(Oryx Energy, Dallas) contributed substantially to the Hollin
Miall, A. D., 1977, A review of the braided river depositional
outcrop study and our understanding of the Oriente basin environment: Earth-Science Reviews, v. 13, p. 1–62.
burial history. Further acknowledgment is given to Tim Ramirez, F. A., and J. A. Rodas, 1992, Geoscience aspects in
Martin (Oryx Energy, Dallas), Cliff Thomson (Oryx the first experiences with horizontal wells in the Ecuado-
Ecuador), Oryx Energy (Dallas), and our partners for permis- rian Oriente basin: Proceedings, V Congreso Colombiano
sion to publish this paper, and to the Oryx Graphic group for del Petrolero, Memorias, p. 91–100.
preparation of the illustrations. Short, N. M., and R. W. Blair, Jr., 1986, Geomorphology from
space—a global overview of regional landforms: Wash-
ington, D.C., National Aeronautics Space Administration,
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Figure 24—Mohr-Coulomb failure criteria for the Main and Upper Hollin lithologies. (a) Upper Hollin shale. (b) Upper Hollin
limestone. (c) Glauconitic sandstone (high quartz content, Upper Hollin). (d) Main Hollin reservoir sandstone.

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Authors’ Mailing Addresses
Howard J. White
Felix A. Ramirez Guido Bonilla
Oryx Energy Company Petroecuador
13155 Noel Road J. Leon M y Av. Orellana
Dallas, Texas 75240-5067 Quito
U.S.A. Ecuador