Aspects of the petroleum geology of the Oriente Basin, Ecuador

M. F. DASHWOOD & 1. L. ABBOTTS

Clyde Petroleum plc, Coddington Court, Ledbury, Herefordshire, HR8
IJL, UK

Abstraet: The Oriente Basin of Ecuador is one of thc most productive of thc South
American Sub-Andean Basins. Cumulative production of oil to the end of 1986 was over
one billion barrcls, and current production stands at approximatcly 300000 barreIs per
day. At least 20 oil fields have been discovered to date, including five giant fields, and
exploration is currently in the early stages of a new and already successful phase in which
ten new opcrators are schcduled to drill over 40 wel1s between 1985 and 1992.
The Oriente Basin contains a sedimentary fill of Palaeozoic to Reccnt age. Major
commercial interest is confined to thc Cretaceous depositional cyclc and all of the
significant production comes from fluvio-deltaic and marine sandstones of the Hollin
and Napo Formations. Most 01' the productive structures are low-relief, north -south
orientated, anticlines of two distinct types: foot wall anticlines associated with normal
faults, (Type 1) or hanging wall anticlines associated with reverse faults, (Type 2).
Evidence points to the importance of pre-Miocene structural growth, comprising either
early-mid Cretaceous rejuvenation of prc-Cretaceous 'basernent' faults in the case of
Type-1 structures and 'Early Andean' (la test Cretaceous to Oligocene) comprcssion in the
case of Type-2 structures. Few commercial discoveries have been madc associated with
'Late Andean' (Miocene- Plioeene) compressional structures, cssential1y because these
structures appear to post-date the main phase 01' primary oil generation and migration.
The origin of the oils is problematical because the potential source rocks, the marine
claystones and limestones of the Cretaceous Napo Forrnation, are generally immature or
marginally mature within the confines of the present-day Oriente Basin. Oil analyses
indicate a single family of oils. Available evidence, combined from structural and
geochemical data, supports a major phase of Early Andean age oil generation and
migration.
There is a considerable variation of oil type from 37° API paraffinic oils with a GOR of
250- 300 to altered 10° API oils. Marked variations exist not only between oilfields but
also between reservoirs in the same well. The observed trends can in most cases be
accounted for systematically in terms of: early primary oil generation, migration and
entrapment; and subsequent structural evolution locally involving the processes of bio-
degration, water washing and/or flushing, and oil rernigration.

Exploration in the Oriente Basin was initiated including the giant Libertador Field (Lozada el
in 1921 although it was not until 1937 that the al. 1985, Almeida 1986).
first well was drilled by Shell (Tschopp 1953). In 1985 Ecuador introduced a new scheme of
In 1964, the Texaco/Gulf group acquired a large service contracts and since then have offered
concession following the discovery of their acreage throughout the Central and Southern
Orito Field in the Putamayo Basin of Colombia. Oriente (Rosania 1985, Anon 1987). Con-
The first oil field was subsequently discoverd in cessions have been acquired by ten consortia
the Oriente by this consortium at Lago Agrio in with commitments to drill over 35 wildcats by
1967. An active phase of exploration followed 1992. Significant discoveries have already been
with operators including Anglo-Ecuadorian Oil- made by BP and Conoco and these are under
fields, Amoco, Sun and Cayman. By 1975 the appraisal.
only remaining concessions were held by
Cayman (subsequently taken over by City Tectonic setting
Investing Co.) and the prolifically successful
Texaco concession (in which the Ecuadorian The Oriente Basin occupies an area of approxi-
State oil company CEPE had assumed an mately 100000 km2 and comprises only a small
interest). Texaco has discovered over ten oil- part of the Sub-Andean system of foreland
fields including Sacha, Shushufindi, Auca, basins, which extends over 6400 km fram
Cononaco and Bermejo (Canfield el al. 1982b). Venezuela to Argentina (Urien & Zambrano
CEPE assumed control of all open acreage and 1985). AH of these basins developed during
by 1985 had discovered five significant oilfields Tertiary times between the Pre-Cambrian

From BROOKS, J. (ed.), 1990, Classic Petroleum Provinces, Geological Society Special Publication 89
No 50, pp 89-117.
90 M. f. DASHWOOD & I. L. ABBOTIS

(Brazilian and Guyana) basement shields to the (see, e.g., Henderson 1979; Henderson & Evans
east and the active 'Andean' magmatie ares and 1980; Lonsdale 1978; Lebrat el al. 1986). The
thrust/foldbelts to the west. Plate teetonie ge- Oriente Basin comprises that part of the back-
ometry and development are beyond the scope are system lying in Ecuador and north eastern
of this paper but simplistically the ares and their Peru between the east-west basement arches
complementary back are basins are the ultimate of the Vaupes Swell in southern Colombia and
results of the complex, staged, eastward sub- the Contoya Arch in northern Peru (Fig. 1).
duction of the oeeanic Nazca (Pacific) Plate The basin is strongly asymmetric with a
beneath the continental South American Plate steeper west flank characterized by structural

LLANOS
BASIN

Fíg, 1. Location map of the Oriente Basin.

 PETROLEUM GEOLOGY OF ORIENTE BASIN 91

wsw ENE
A p;
SHUS.IUFINOI
SA.CHA L1SEAT.lOOFl

• • • • •

"'~~
-{~'$.~vt:J
"FOOTHILL· FORELAND GUAYANA
FOLD/THRUSTBELT BASIN SHIELD
HORJZONt"~ $CALE I~OO eco
vERTlCAl SCALE 1100000

Fig. 2. Schematic cross section of the Cordillera Real and Oriente Basin.

dips of 5- 10°, and a more gently dipping east south to a depocentre in northernmost Peru
fiank, with dips of less than 2° (Fig. 2). The which contains in excess of 5000 m of Tertiary-
basin axis in Ecuador plunges from north to Cretaceous sediments (Fig. 3).

76'
LEGEND
DEPTH TO PRE-CRETACEOUS
(IN FEET)

- A - - ~~~CisANDEAN REVERSE

LATE ANDEAN THRUSTS

.:'-.

9900 +

~SANJACINTO

9700

300 400
100
OUUllht.d by ClAVQATE SEAYICE8 LlMITED t,41lcllf,m, SUN*,

Fig. 3. Teetonic framework (and weIllocations).

92 M. F. DASHWOOD & 1. L. ABBOTTS

Basin evolution
The sedimentary sequence of the Oriente basin
can be divided, for the practical purpose of a
-
W

MESA FM
--- E

petroleum geology synthesis, into three parts: a CHAMBIRA FM

a:
pre-Cretaceous 'fíoor", the Cretaceous 'sedi- w

mentary cycle', and a post-Cretaceous 'molasse lIJ ....

z'"
"':z: ~
"- o" FM
cover' (Fig. 4). .. -
z"
ARAJUNO o
> e, ~
"'~
a: ::> "o"
...
-'rr:
Pre-Cretaceous floor c(
o CHALCANA. FM

Four pre-Cretaceous formations have tradition-

1-
ally been recognized and, although recent work
(e.g. Rivadenira 1986) suggests this may ulti-
mately be seen to be an oversimplification, the
a:
a:
w
ª
v

scheme has been followed here. The oldest

W

1-
lIJ ....
z'"
"':z:
o ..
z
sedimentary formation drilled to date is of ~ ..,.i
"
Upper Silurian-Lower Devonian age and com- o -'w "~
..rr:"
o
",rr:
~
prises deformed and mildly metamorphosed ..J o
•
limestones, slates, slaty shales and sandstones
of the Pumbuiza Formation. This is overlain by T E N A F M ~
up to 750 m of thinly-bedded, carbonates and b
shales of the Macuma Formation. These re- • lil

present the Pennsylvanian to earliest Permian

establishment of a shaIlow marine, carbonate a:
•
shelf over an extensive area.
en
:::l lIJ ::E •
A considerable post-Permian hiatus is evident
in the subsurface record largely owing to rep-
gional pre-rift uplift and erosion during a
Mid-Jurassic tectonic event. The Triassic-
o
w
o
o.

e,

::>
o.
a.
g
s
o
s
c(
Lower Jurassic Santiago Formation has been
recognized in Ecuador only in the Santiago
river area in the Cutucu Uplift of the Andean
Foothill Belt and possibly in the Sacha
1-

w
a:
••
Profundo-l well (Rivadenira 1986). The
Santiago Formation comprises transgressive
marine thinly bedded carbonates and black
o a:
lIJ
~
o
HOL N FM • ~

..J
bituminous shales, overlain by a regressive
sandstone-siltstone sequence. There is evi-
dence of contemporaneous submarine vol-
canism to the west. The Santiago transgression
a:
lIJ
iv
() "-
carne from the south west, from Peru, but -
f/)
"-
::>
appears to have been of limited extent and f/)

confined to the extreme western area of the c(

a:
present-day basin. Total formation thickness
..,:::l
may be in excess of 250 m.
Following the 'Mid-Jurassic' tectonic event, HIATUS
Iv
regional crustal collapse and extension occurred
and thick sequences of continental clastics of z
c(

the Upper Jurassic (to earliest Cretaceous) ~

a:
Chapiza Formation were laid down. The w
a.
Chapiza Formation is areally extensive west of o
1-
70°80', although seismic data indicate that dif- Z
c(
e-

ferential subsidence occurred in rift grabens, a:

:::l
PUMBUIZA FM
..J
controlled by north-south basement faults, ¡¡;
where up to 1500feet of sediments accumulated. PRE-CAMBRIANMETAMORPHICS
Graben fill was composed of conglomerates, L __L / .1._.. L . l.
sandstones and shales interbedded with minor
Fig. 4. Generalized stratigraphic colurnn (Oriente
Basin).
 PETROLEUM GEOLOGY OF ORIENTE BASIN 93

evaporites. Crustal extension was sufficient to

be accompanied in the later stages in the north The Cretaceous 'sedimentary cycle'
by subaerial alkaline volcanism. Ultimately, in The Cretaceous is subdivided into three major
the Lower Cretaceous, crustal breakthrough formations; the basal, Hollin Formation fol-
occurred, but to the west of the modern basin lowed successively by the Napo and Tena
where a 'marginal sea' spreading centre was Formations. Major commercial interest in the
established (Lebrat el al. 1986). Regional basin is confined to this Cretaceous depositional
(?thermal) uplift of the Oriente Basin area oc- cycle and all of the significant production has
curred accompanied by block faulting, utilizing come from fíuvio-deltaic and marine Cretaceous
the pre-existing N-S basement faults, and by sandstones.
extensive peneplanation .

... ~.

~ "~ ...
e
"\I
I
I
\
I
/
/
/
I
I
I
/
I
I
/"\ _/
/ 1_"-
I
I
I
I
1
\
\
'---'-
-,
"\ \
I KEY
I
I -~50- Thickness (teet)
I
I
I .-- g~~~Fe;hannel

I
I
~ g~f~~~r'el~a's
I
I
I
__... NAPO 'U'
.l.--'" SANDSrONES

-. ~ ... ...
\
...~...

1'-.., \

KEY
-200- Thickness (teet)

HOLLlN
SANDSrONES

Fig. S. Simplified Isopachs for Napo and Hollin Formation Reservoirs.

94 M. F. DASHWOOD & 1. L. ABBOrrS

varies considerably although individual bed

Hollín Formation (Apto-Albían) sorting is generally good. The general facies
The Hollin overlies the Chapiza with marked association suggests the sands represent tidal
angular unconformity. It comprises a homo- channel and barrier to offshore bar deposits
genous basal blanket sandstone which is present within a nearshore marine (and ?estuarine)
in foothill outcrops, in the subsurface through- environment (Alvarado el al. 1982). Coastal
out the Oriente and, indeed, throughout swamp conditions are recognized in the ex-
western Brazil, southern Colombia and north- treme east and more offshore marine conditions
eastern Peru (Campbell 1970; Urien & are represented in the west, in the Foothill
Zambrano 1985; De Righi & Bloomer 1975). area. Typical porosity and permeability ranges
Its maximum thickness in the southwestern are 10-25% and 100-6000 millidarcies
Ecuadorian Oriente is approximately 150 m and respectively.
it thins gadually northestwards onto the Guyana The Napo 'U' sandstone member is similar,
Shield before becoming indistinguishable from in many respects, to the 'T' with a similar
overlying Napo sandstones (Fig. 5). subdivison, particularly apparent towards the
The Hollin comprises a white, thickly bedded west, into a lower (or Main) Sandstone and an
to massive, quartz sandstone with only minor, upper, more argillaceous sandstone. A similar
but laterally persistent, carbonaceous claystone estuarine channel environment is interpreted
and coal interbeds. The widespread Hollin (Rosania el al. 1985). Gross sandstone member
deposition was the result of rapid marine trans- thickness reaches a maximum of only 150 feet,
gression from the western marginal sea, over in the east, and thins rapidly westwards to a
the peneplaned, block faulted, 'pre-Cretaceous' zero-edge at approximately now. Porosities
substructure followed by generally regressive and permeabilities are similar to those seen in
conditions depositing sandstones in fluvial, the 'T' sandstone. The Napo 'M2' sandstone is
braided stream to littoral environments (Kum- restricted to the east of the basin and represents
mert & Casal 1986). The Hollin sandstone forms a less significant regressive episode. The Nape
the principal oil reservoir in the Oriente Basin. 'MI' sandstone is a coarse grained, thickly-
Typical porosity and permeability ranges are bedded to massive, quartz arenite, again
12-25% and 20-2000 millidarcies. divided into a lower main sand and a thinner
upper sand (Lozada & Endara 1982). Gross
Napo Formation (Albían- Lower thickness varies up to 120 feet in the east of the
basin with porosities and permeabilities in
Campanian) excess of 20% and 1000 millidarcies respec-
The Napo Formation conformably overlies the tively, (Reed & Wheatley 1983).
Hollin Formation. It comprises a sequence of
marine claystones, limestones and sandstones Tena Formation (Maastrichtian-?
(Fig. 4). The claystones and limestones appear Palaeocene)
to be the main source rocks in the basin while
several of the Napo sandstones (the 'T', 'U' and The Tena Formation 'red beds' conformably
less so the 'M2' and 'MI') are significant oil overlie the Napo Formation in the east of the
reservoirs. The maximum Napo Formation basin but progressively truncate the Upper Napo
thickness exceeds 600 m. Essentially the forma- towards the west, cutting out the 'MI' sand-
tion was deposited on a stable marine shelf, on stone, the Upper Napo claystones and lime-
which the claystone-limestone units represent stones and the uppermost Middle Napo
transgressive periods and the sandstones re- claystones. This intra-Upper Cretaceous uncon-
gressive episodes involving westward progra- formity represents the earliest of the 'Early
dation of littoral to fluvio-deltaic facies belts. Andean' compressional episodes and heralds
The sandstones thicken and progressively regional uplift and the establishment of conti-
coalesce toward the east (Fig. 5). nental Tena deposition. The Tena Formation
The Napo 'T' sandstone member comprises a comprises varicoloured, predominantly red,
sequence of stacked sandstones with inter- continental and paralic claystones and siltstones
bedded siltstones and carbonaceous claystones. with a local basal sandstone member which
Gross member thickness varies up to 80 m but it varies up to 10 m in thickness and is locally a
can generally be divided into a lower ('Main') minor oil-productive reservoir. The formation
unit of more permeable quartz sandstones and has an observed maximum thickness of over
an upper unit of less permeable argillaceous 750 m in the west of the Oriente and may have
and glauconitic sandstones. Sandstone grain size been thicker further westwards (Fig. 6).
 PETROLEUM GEOLOGY OF ORIENTE BASIN 95

f\ 0
8
J 'O'ONA\'A
o"
/0
'11" ./

TlYUYACU ..éY~APO, TENA &

FORMATION TIYUYACU FORMATIONS

Fig. 6. Isopachs for Napo, Tena, Tiyuyacu Formations and combined Isopach,

stones comparable with those oí the underlying

Post-Cretaceous cover Tena Formation. Total Formation thickness
The Cenozoic reaches thicknesses oí 4000- ranges up to 600 m. The overlying Orteguaza
5000 m in the extreme south oí the basin and (Oligocene) comprises up to 300 m oí blue grey
thins to less than 1500 m in the north. It is made claystones and occasional glauconitic sand-
up oí several molasse sequences all derived stones. Sediment fill is completed by up to 3000
from the west, from the spasmodically active m oí Miocene to Recent continental red beds oí
and uplifted Andean Cordillera. The Tiyuyacu the diachronous Chalcana, Arajuno, Chambira
Formation (Eocene) overlies the Tena Forma- and Mesa Formations.
tion with only a minor degree oí angular uncon- It is noteworthy that unlike the Putamayo,
formity but the stratigraphic hiatus is marked Middle and Upper Magdalena and Llanos basins
by the abrupt appearance oí conglomerates, in oí Colombia and the Maracaibo and Barinas
beds up to 100 m in thickness, and coarse basins oí Venezuela, no significant oil has been
sandstones interbedded with claystones and silt- discovered in the post Cretaceous section.
96 M. F. DASHWüüD & I. L. ABBüTfS

LEGEND
INCORPORA YlNG OATA FRDM
Cec.,., tila fllllllm taas ". _RoO-!5_ MATURITY CONTOURS
RI'f'dltt•• 1 111"1 (VrrRlNrrE REFLECTANCE)
D.I Solar llU2
""""'¡¡oO'6_ MATURE (OfL WINDOW)
_ RICHNESS (AVERAGE
-Toe 2·1.- TOTAL ORGANIC CARBON)

. . DATA BASE .
. .'. WELL.S ANALYSEO ~ OVER 35
. '.' <'.TOC YALUES ; 450
Ro VALUES ' ayER 50

ll::

tu+ ....
?

9900 +
t-;....-J ,0

.. ~/
~¡:;¡
;:sI!!
~i~
7
. (GAS PRONEJ,. .)

•. : "" •:
" " ,:'.
'+"' .:' / :
"'~:O SHALE/81TUMINOUS
LlMESTONE RICHNESS
9800 + .• ' ..••. ' AVERAGE Toe

.r~~,~,.,~I.V( ~ :::
1-:-) <4%

E...+d >4%
<B"/o

1 o

9700 +
:0: rilO
SCALE 1 '.000,000
i ,~ I
:::\j o 10 20 IQ .0 w...

100 400

Fíg, 7. Maturity and organic richness in the Napo Formation.

Structural development
axis, particularly in the shallower northern part,
A regional tectonic elements map (Fig. 3) and and produce an axial region, approximately
cross section (Fig. 2) illustrate the major struc- 50 km wide, separating the gently dipping
tural zones of (i) the main magmatic are (the eastern flank from the steeper west flank. Intra-
Andean Cordillera Real); (ii) the back-arc fold- basin faulting and folding decreases in density
thrust belt with Pre-Tertiary outcrop (the Sub- and amplitude toward the southern part of the
Andean Zone); (iii) the relatively undeformed basin. Basin width is much reduced in the north,
Tertiary foreland basin (the Oriente Basin); approaching the cross basin Vaupes Arch, and
and (iv) the stable Precambrian basement craton the increased structural deformation is the result
(the GuyanaShield). The main structural trends of Jurassic-Cretaceous extension and sub-
strike in a roughly north-south direction in all sequent Tertiary compression being taken up
of the zones. by a more limited rock volume (Jenks 1956). To
The basin itself does not have a simple syn- the east, the basin fill thins onto the basement
elinal axis; low-relief anticlinal folds distort the shield, whereas on the west flank, approaching
 PETROLEUM GEOLOGY OF ORIENTE BASIN 97

the pre-Tertiary outcrops of the Sub-Andean verse faulting and thrusting, frequently along
Zone there is little evidence of regional the old north-south pre-Cretaceous normal
Cretaceous- Lower Tertiary sedimentary thin- faults, was concentrated in the Sub-Andean
ning (Campbell 1970), other than onto an zone but is also seen on the eastern fiank of the
outer shelf-edge 'swell' probably underlain by foreland basin (Fig. 2). The result is a family of
granitic intrusions at depth (Figs 2, 5 & 6). This generally easterly verging folds with occasional
zone of bold relief may have acted as a restric- back thrust structures. These hanging-wall anti-
tion to marine circulation and allowed anoxicity clines, over reverse faults and thrusts which
on the shelf to produce the organic-rich Napo have significant throws (2': 1000 ID) and fre-
source rocks, during periods of low clastic infiux quently extend to the surface, constitute the
from the east (see Fig. 7). third important structural style present in the
In the Cretaceous the proto-Oriente basin Oriente (Structure Type 3).
deepened to the west, into a subsequently con- The commercial hydrocarbon accumulations
sumed oceanic marginal sea. The sedimentary of the Oriente Basin are almost exclusively con-
sequence, with the minor exception of sorne of tained in the 'old' (pre-Miocene) structures
the regressive sandstones, is exclusively marine (Type 1 and Type 2). Examples of Type-I
and deposited on a stable shelf with sedimentary oilfields are Sacha, Auca, Cononaco and
supply from the east. Pre-Cretaceous rifting Tiguino: examples of Type-2 oilfields are Coca,
involved significant extension on large-scale Mariann and Shushufindi (Fig. 2). Only one
north-south normal faults but extensive pen- commercial discovery in Ecuador, the Bermejo
eplanation must have occurred prior to the late Oilfield, has been made in a 'young' Type-3
Lower Cretaceous deposition as evidenced structure. Tests of this structural type have
by the angular 'Base-Hollín' unconformity and generally only produced water and/or heavy
consistent regional Cretaceous depositional biodegraded oils. Almost all of the Type-I and
thicknesses (Fig. 5). Continued but minor syn- Type-2 structures are low relief (less than 60
sedimentary movement occurred throughout m), though frequently have a large areal extent.
the mid-early Upper Cretaceous on most of Type-3 structures can be extremely large in area
the pre-Cretaceous north-south, high-angle and have significant vertical relief (a few
normal faults and produced an early family of hundred metres), and lie predominantly along
basernent-drape structures (Structure Type 1). the accessible western basin fiank. Thus many
These normal faults can rarely be seen to cut Type-3 structures were drilled in the earlier
any higher than the lowermost Napo on seismic exploration phases in the Oriente (Anglo
records. Equadorian Oilfields Ud 1973).
The first indications of compression, caused
by Campanian consumption of the marginal Petroleum geochemistry
oceanic sea (Lebrat el al. 1986) and Macuchi
arc-South American plate collision, are seen Database
in the pre-Maastrichtian uplift of the 'Napo
Uplift' and progressive westward truncation Geochemical studies have been carried out for
of the Napo sediment fill. Subduction of the 15 wells in the Oriente Basin including source
Nazca Plate, with associated collision and rock and oil analyses. The integration of traded
compression, resulted in the Palaeocene to data, consultants reports and published data
Oligocene uplift and unroofing of the Western has made it possible for these studies to be
Cordillera, a major supply for the first time of reviewed in terms of their regional geological
molasse from the west, and reverse movement context.
on sorne of the early north-south faults, par- Geochemical analyses for Napo shales from
ticularly on the west fiank of the rapidly sub- over 30 Oriente wells have been assessed with
siding Oriente Basin. A family of 'early Andean' regard to source richness and maturity. Similar
compressional structures, hanging-wall anti- analyses by Rivadaneira (1986) complement this
clines over reverse faults, with throws of gener- database for the Oriente and published studies
ally less than 100 m, was produced (Structure by Del Solar (1982) in the Maranon Basin and
Type 2). These faults cut the uppermost Tena, Caceres & Teatin (1985) in the Putamayo Basin
and occasionally the uppermost Tiyuyacu, but present further data providing a regional data-
apparently no higher in the section. Continued base of over 100 wells (Fig. 7).
subduction, collision and compression cul- Oil samples from eight oil wells together with
minated in late Miocene- Pliocene uplift, oil shows from seven further weIls comprise
unroofing of the Cordillera Real and the reju- the database of oils. Published data from the
venated eastward supply of molasse. Major re- Maranon Basin (Del Solar 1982; Illich el al.
98 M. F. DASHWOOD & 1. L. ABBOTIS

AGE IN M.YRS
70 60 50 40 30 20 10 O
TEMP Oc 120 110 IDO 90 80
O
("
25°C SURFACE z ~~
O f"O
..J¡:: \
1000
<t<t
-o ~"'1:l
I-<t 0(..
Zo:: f"O
~~
IJJ~

tia.§lJJ 2000
"1-
t1!f"
ll..OO
0..J ~
ti! 3000
1JJ<t
z- á
0i:5
NI- ~
U
<t
~
a:l
4000

65°C
5000

BACTERIAL BIODEGRADATION 6000

1-
IN NAPO RESERVOIRS CEASED 1--++---4-+------t--r-t---' W
PRIOR TO 18M.Y. A. W
7000 u,

8000 I
1-
11.
TTI 15 (EQUIV. Ro O' 6 W
(ONSET OIL GENERATlON) 9000 O

I I I
TTI 35 (ONSET MIGRATlON)
10,000

NOT REACHED
11,000

GEOTHERMAL GRADIENT 12,000

O'75 0 C / 100 Ft.
(ASSUMED APPROX
CONSTANT CRETACEOUS 13,000
TO PRESENT -
CONFIRMED BY Ro AND
T MAX 1. 14,000

15,000
a=
w ~I
O
ffia.
~
« O 91
~
a.
::::> ::::>
Z ..J ü
N
a:: ...J o I «
...J 11. >-
«
:c O « I ::::>
o :c Z >-
I 1-
I
LOWER C,!) MIOCENE/
JURASSICt------..I.-------t LOWER EOCENE :::¡
CRETACEOUS o PLIOCENE

Fig.8. Lopatin-style time-depth (temperature) construction for the Maranacu-l welllocation.

Source rocks
1977; Sofer el al. 1986) provide further data to
allow a regional evaluation to be made. It is The Napo Formation is equivalent to the La
important to realize that the Putamayo, Oriente Luna Formation of Venezuela and the Middle
and Maranon are one continuous geological Magdalena Basin oí Colombia, to the Gacheta
basin (Figs 1 & 7). Formation of the Llanos Basin and the Villeta
 PETROLEUM GEOLOGY OF ORIENTE BASIN 99

AGE IN M .YRS
lP Oc 120 110 100 90 so 70 60 50 40 o
o
2~ -c SURFACE
Z
O
....Ji= 1000
««
-o
1-«
Zo::
Wl!l
I-w 2000
00
0.0
1J..¡jj
0....J 3000
W«
z¡¡:
Ow
NI-
U
« 4000
(J)

5000

6000
1-
W
W
7000 u,

~
8000 :r:
t-
a.
9000 w
a

10,000

11,000

GEOTHERMAL GRADIENT TTI 15 (EQUIV Ro 0·6) 12,000

0'5S0C 1100 Ft.
ONSET OIL GENERATION
(ASSUMED APPROX
CONSTANT CRETACEOUS 13,000
ONSET OIL GENERATION
TO PRESENT - AT S M.Y.A. I---I-+------l---l--.J.--J
CONFIRMED BY Ro AND
TMAX). 14,000
140°C (BHT) TTI 75 (EQUIV Ro O·S)
PEAK GENERATION NOT REACHED
15,000
a:: w a::
w w
3: 6 1 a.
a.
<! Z
O
....l
~I ::> :::J
Ü
N <!
a:: ...J O
a. I >-
...J :::J
<! O <! I
:r: :r: Z >-
o I 1-
I

LOWER (!) MIOCENE/

JURASSIC ¡ - - - - - - - . L - . - - - - - - - - - l LOWER EOCENE :i
CRETACEOUS O PLlOCENE

Fig. 9. Lopatin-style time-depth (temperature) construction for the Bobonaza-l welllocation.

Formation ofthe Upper Magdalena Basin (both being these prolific Mid to Late Cretaceous
in Colombia) and to the Chonta Formation of argillaceous sediments (Del Solar 1982;
the Maranon Basin (northern Peru) (see Fig. Russomana & Velarde 1982; Zumberge 1986;
1). In each of these productive basins the pri- James 1990; Roberto el al. 1990). The
mary oil source rocks have been identified as Cretaceous Napo shales are generally accepted
100 M. F. DASHWOOD & I. L. ABBOrrS

as the main source rock for the Oriente oils In the southwest Maranon of Peru the
(Canfield el al. 1982a, 1985; Lozada el al. 1985; Cretaceous reached the oil window during the
Rivadeneira 1986). latest Tertiary (Del Solar 1982).
In the Oriente the Early Jurassic Santiago Burial history. The burial history of the Oriente
Formation may provide a secondary source Basin is essentially one of Cretaceous post-
(Rivadeneira 1986) but this formation is restric- rifting basin sag followed by Tertiary subsidence
ted in distribution and has not been definitely intimately associated with compression and
encountered in any welI drilled in the basin. thrusting in the west. Pulsatory compression
However, since most wells bottom in the resulted in thrust emergence and regional uplift,
younger Chapiza Formation, the distribution of followed by rapid erosion of the thrust sheet
Santiago sediments is not adequately controlled. into the foredeep. Cretaceous Napo depo-
The Santiago Formation outcrops in south- centres are indicated on isopach reconstructions
west Ecuador in the Cutucu Uplift and to the in the extreme southwest and probably also
south in Peru and may be as much as 1500 m northwest of the present basin (Fig. 6). A re-
thick in the Santiago Basin (Canfield el al. gional high is apparent in the area of Oglan-
1982a). Yuralpa and may represent the position of a
Richness. Samples of the Napo Formation from former shelf break into a deeper water basin to
over 30 wells indicate that the organic material the west (Figs 6 & 7).
is of a more terrestrial origin in the east (Type- The Tena depocentre lay to the west of the
II Kerogen) and only in a few wells do more oil present basin where in excess of 1000 m of
prone sapropelic and algal kerogen types (Type continental sediments were deposited in the
1) occur, these being generally in the western foredeep in front of the emerging thrust sheets
part of the basin (Fig. 7). The same distribution (Fig. 6). The Tiyayacu depocentre migrated
of kerogens is seen in the Maranon (Del Solar eastwards in response to tectonic loading in
1982). front of the eastwardly advancing thrust front.
Average TOCS from the Napo Formation The lithologies in the Tiyayacu conglomerates
shales range from less than 1% in the east to may provide indications of the provenance of
rich sediments with over 4.7%, and locally over these sediments and require further study.
10%, in the west. These data suggests that rich The combined Napo-Tena-Tiyayacu sec-
Napo source rocks were deposited primarily in tion is thickest in the southwest and northwest
the west of the present Oriente Basin. It is of the present day basin and was probably
proposed, and later further substantiated, that thicker still west of the present Foothills Belt
Napo equivalent source rocks were also de- (Fig. 6).
posited in an area which is presently the site of Hence source richness, maturity and burial
the (eastern) Cordillera Real, (see also Del history indicate that areas to the southwest and
Solar 1982; Sofer el al. 1986). Although the northwest of the present day basin were the
geological model of Feininger (1975) is not ac- likely source kitchens for the oil in the various
cepted, his original concept of a western source Hollin and Napo oilfields, (see also Del Solar
for the Oriente oils appears to be valido 1982; Rivadeneira 1986).
Maturity, Thermal maturity was assessed in over The timing of oil generation is discussed in
15wells using vitrinite reflectan ce (Ro), Thermal the next section but it is apparent that any oil
alteration index (TAl) pyrolysis 'Tmax' and other generated to the west of the present-day Oriente
indices. These, together with published data Basin was only able to migrate eastwards prior
from over 50 wells, provide a regional distri- to the tectonic disruption of migration conduits
bution oí maturity for the Cretaceous Napo (Figs 2 & 3).
Formation (Fig. 7).
The Cretaceous in the Oriente Basin is gener- Oil generation and migration
ally immature (Ro <0.4%) to early mature (Ro
<0.55%) and only in the Huasaga-Bobonoza Timing of oil generation appears to be a critical
Trough in the SW of the Oriente and in the factor in evaluating prospectivity of structures
Mocoa area of the Putamayo (Caceres & Teatin in the Oriente Basin. Almost all productive
1985) have the Napo sediments reached the structures show evidence of Cretaceous to
onset of oil generation (Ro >0.6%) (Del Solar Oligocene (Napo-Orteguaza) growth (Canfield
1982; Caceres & Teatin 1985). et al. 1982b, 1985) and hence it appears that
No well has encountered a fully mature Napo 'palaeostructure' is a critical factor.
section in the Oriente, excluding 2-3 anomal- Modified Lopatin Time-Temperature Index
ous wells each associated with local igneous (TII) constructions (Waples 1980) have been
intrusions (Espin 1980). made for several basinal wells. All show signifi-
 PETROLEUM GEOLOGY OF ORIENTE BASIN 101

cant Miocene-Pliocene 'Late Andean' subsi- vided the necessary conditions for full maturity
dence, e.g. Maranacu-I contains 1500 m of of the Napo Formation and peak oil generation
post-Oligocene molasse and Bobonaza-I con- prior to the end Orteguaza (Oligocene).
tains over 3000m (Figs 8 & 9). Evaluation of the Water-washing of the reservoirs by fresh
subsidence history and maturation profiles of waters from outcrop would probably have been
the Oriente wells assumed an average geo- possible periodically during Tena and Tiyuyacu
thermal gradient equivalent to the present. times associated with pulsatory 'Early Andean'
The assumption appears justified because the thrusting and uplift.
'Lopatin TII Maturities' correlate with those
measured by vitrinite reftectance, Pyrolysis and
Oriente oils
TAL
At the Bobonaza-I well, which is the deepest
well in the Ecuadorian Oriente, the onset of oil
Analyses
generation (TTI 15) was calculated at approxi- Oils were sampled from five separate reservoirs
mately 8 Ma BP for the Base Napo (Fig. 9) and from eight widely spaced localities across the
peak generation (TII 75) has not yet been basin, varying from the Fanny Field in the
reached. Vitrinite reftectance values of 0.5- northeast, Oglan A-l in the west, Tiguino-l in
0.57% from the Napo interval confirm the cal- the basin centre and Maranacu in the southeast
culation (Fig. 7). By extrapolation to the (Fig. 3). Over twenty oil shows from reservoir
deepest part of the present-day basin, in the cores were also analysed. Oils are identified on
Huasaga - Pastaza Deep (Fig. 3), onset of oil each of the analyses presented (Figs 8, 9 & 10)
generation was at approximately 8 to 11 Ma BP and the locations are named on Fig. 3.
(see also Schmerber el al. 1986; Del Solar 1982). Standard analytical techniques were em-
These analyses indicate oil generation and ployed, including Gas Chromatography - Mass
migration did not commence in the present-day Spectroscopy (GC- MS) Whole oil, GC-MS
Oriente Basin until Early Miocene times at the Paraffin-Napthene and GC-MS Aromatic
earliest. chromatography, biomarker distribution and
Analyses of all of the oils sampled from the carbon isotope analyses, to compare these oils
Napo and Hollin Formations show them to be and to correlate them with potential source
biodegraded to sorne degree. This widespread rocks.
alteration is confirmed by results from oils in
the neighbouring Maranon Basin Oilfields Oil to Oil correlation
(Illich 1977; Del Solar 1982; Sofer el al. 1986).
From the analyses conducted (e.g. Fig. 11) it is
These biodegraded oils are found in reservoirs
apparent that the oils sampled, which have
currently too hot for bacterial activity (reservoir widely varying API gravities (10-31° API),
temperatures >65°C). Indeed, as Del Soler
are members of the same genetic family of oils
(1982) has shown, examples can be found where
(Fig. 11). GC-MS C1S+ analyses (Fig. 12)
reservoir temperatures exceeded this limit for
indicate the main differences in these oils reftect
biodegradation as long ago as 20 Ma BP. An
alteration processes (lllich el al. 1977, Zumberge
example of this is seen in the Maranacu-I well
1980).
(Fig. 8) where the subsidence (and thermal)
history would dictate cessation of biodegra- Oil composition
dation by 18 Ma BP.
This example clearly suggests that the oil in It is apparent that the oils from the Napo and
this well was trapped prior to the onset of oil Hollin reservoirs are of one genetic family and
generation in the deepest parts of the present- thus the following discussion will concentrate
day Oriente (11 Ma BP), and that the oil must on the variations within that family.
have been generated during the early Tertiary The oils are displayed on a standard plot of
to the west of the present basin limits. Del Solar Paraffin-Napthene-Aromatics and NSO com-
(1982) and Sofer el al. (1986) concluded that an pounds in Fig. 10. This plot indicates that the
initial main phase of oil generation began (and oils are not only of similar composition but also
was possibly completed) as early as the late relate closely to those oils analysed from the
Cretaceous. However the necessary subsidence Peruvian Maranon Basin by Del Solar (1982).
rate, heating rate and time period required for The oils all show depletion in normal paraffins
expulsion and migration of oil in this model and enrichment in aromatics and asphaltenes.
would be exceptional. It is suggested that the Two main groups of oils are indicated re-
additional subsidence and time provided by ftecting their different alteration histories. The
Tena and Tiyayacu deposition would have pro- Mariann, Fanny and Tiguino oils (23°, 22°,31°
102 M. F. DASHWOOD & I. L. ABBOTfS

AROMATICS ANO
NSO COMPOUNOS
ORIENTE OILS
NAPO OILS
• N NASHINO CM-1')
• Ma MARANACU CU')
• F FANNY CM-1')
• Ta TARADOA CU')
• ML MARIANN (LOWER 'U')
• MU MARIANN (UPPER 'U')

HOLLlN OILS
OGLAN
•o
• Ti TIGUINO

, . THREE 'FIELDS' OF M-1

(VIVIAN) OILS FROM N.E.
,..._--_.... ''
r '
PERU (AFTER DEL
SOLAR 1985)

PARAFFINIC OILS NAPTHENIC OILS -

----_
INCREASING
BIODEGRADATION

INCREASING
BIODEGRADATION
ANO OXIDATION

50
PARAFFINS NAPHTHENES

Fig. 10. Oil composition of eight Oriente oils.

N~M OILS
(ARGENTINA)
MARINE OILS
(KANSAS)

MARINE OILS

TERRESTIAL OILS
e
o ORIENTE
10
OILS

-26

KEY
• ORIENTE OILS (MINOR ALTERATION)
.. ORIENTE OILS (BIOOEGRAOEOl
ORIENTE OIL EXTRACTS
NAPO EQUIV. O MARANON VIVIAN (NAPO "1.\-1') OIL
CHONTA OILS
(MARANON) e MARANON VIVIAN BIOOEGRAOED OIL
-24
el MARANON CHONTA (NAPO 'U'l OIL
(MAAANON DATA FROM SOFER 01 01 1988)
SEPARATION OF MARINE ANO
NON-MARINE SOUACEO OILS
/ (AFTER SOFEA 1984)

-23 ..¡----~-----,--------..,..--------_r_-------__,
-24 -26 -28 -30 -32

/iC13 PARAFFIN - NAPHTHENES

Fig. 11. Stable carbon isotopes for paraffin-napthene and aromatic fractions of Oriente oils compared with
selected groups of marine and non-marine oils.
 POTENTIAL NAPO 1I I RESERVOIRED OILS
OIL-SOURCE FACIES MINIMAL ALTERATION - MODERATE ALTERATION - HEAVY ALTERATION

I .."'JI ~ .
T"""
I I I
FANNY OIL I e
' I
~ NASHINO-1
BIODEGRADED ...
OIL
~ t i I 1¡lO
I

~ lilllll,IIIJllllllílllii,
«
I 11 I ¡iJI~".,
z
R8ENT1ON TI\1E - I I RETENTlON TI\1E - 'i:l
trl
....,
TORO-1 15 MARIANN OIL MARIANN OIL MARANACU-1 OIL ~
(SHALEAT10137) b,o (UPPER'U') 1 LOWER 'U') e B/ODEGRADED... LEGEND O
IS I I I EARLY MATURE ::) 1 I , r r l'
R/CH SOURCE ~ ~ ']
1 I'
'" ""'H ,"uo• •u trl

~ IIJI ~ ,~ II~,,' . ~ijJ."'i . r: ~

I
11,lllllllllllídllll.. Z 1" 1 »,!
11"125111'11131°1
11 J5
1 1.
I~
s

~ ~~ . ~
D'RHENnON TIME - 1I I RETENTION aAE - - I RETENTION TIME - RETENTIONTtAe - - NUMBERED PEAKS - CARBaN
--- o
O
Na,S OF NORMAL PARAFFINS -<
OUTCROP F~OM
NAPO UPlIF,
11
~
I I I IS
j I
rr1"'.
1I
CONONACO
OIL SHOW'"
e TIGUINO OlL SHOW
? BIODEGRADED...
a - PRISTANE ISOPRENOID
b - PHYTANE ISOPRENOID
O
EARLY MATURE 1- t :' r '" SAMPLE MAY BE "lj
RICH SOURCE 1I I CONTAMINATED W/TH O

~
25 DRILLlNG FLUID I ~

~~ I 1I 11 O
o.
~ I~
~
I ~ 1S 20 ... ~'~~::~~R~ILCONFIRM trl
'~"
I

Z
'"
a: '111 "1
,1 « "
a: ," 1 a: j
BIODEGRADATION.
m
-..l

z I ~}; 135 tJ:J

RETENTION TI\1E - - 1I I I RETENTlON T",E - I :TENTlON T",E - - - I 1 ~

TIGUINO OIL SHOW
20
1
1 11' li15
',
T1GUINO OfL II 1,
l. ¡
I I
OGLAN O/L
BIODEGRADED
Z
Z I¡ I 15 ~... 4 ,

g1I t11111111111~_ lJ~W~J~F,"'~""~ ~

RElENllON TNE - - RETENT10N TIME - - AETENTION TME - _

Fig. 12. GC-MS displays for Oriente oils (C15+ fraction) by reservoir displaying increasing degree oí alteration. ......
o
VJ
104 M. F. DASHWOOD & 1. L. ABBOTfS

77" 76°
78C
LEGEND
- 3 0 0 - OIL GRAVITY 'API
(2) HOLLlN OIL FIELO
HOLLIN 011. WELL

® ~~~I~U~~~~;>,GRAVITY

DATA POINTS' 53

9900 +

NO PRODUCTION
FROr.l HOLLIN
EOUIVALENT o

9700 + + o SCALE¡O1:IPOO~

J '1 1
o 10 ac :'0 40 K...

300 4DD

Fig. 13. Oil gravity distribution in the Hollin Sandstone Formation.

API respectively) are least altered; the Tarapoa, a1though only Nashino shows extensive bio-
Oglan and Maranacu oils (21°, 13° and 10° API degradation and oxidation.
respectively) are enriched in aromatic-napthenic
compounds due to paraffin depletion and have
moderate sulphur. The Nashino oil is rich in
Oil alteration
asphaltic compounds and has a high sulphur The GC- MS C15 + displays seen in Fig. 12
contento shows that a wide distribution oí oil quality may
Loss of normal paraffins, enrichment in be found in each of the major producing reser-
asphaltenes and sulphur and the presence in voirs. The Hollin and each oí the three Napo
the biomarker distribution of demethylated reservoirs ('T', 'U' and 'M-1' sandstones) con-
hopanes indicate that each of these oils has tain a spectrum oí minimally altered (full range
been biodegraded to sorne extent (Sofer et al. oí paraffin peaks) to heavily altered oils (few
1986). No 'fresh' Oriente oil was sampled paraffins and increased baseline hump of
 PETROLEUM GEOLOGY OF ORIENTE BASIN 105

LEGEND

- 2- ~g~~~~~~o~~6~: ~o~~~pm NaCO

. (y' $AL.lNfTY VARIATION TOP HOUIN
(ABOVe' TO ~AIN
( SA : SAlINE. eR
HOllI,..
BFlACI(ISH.
FR; FRESH 1
HOLLIIII OIL FIELD

FRESIoIWATERINPUT

Q::
'\.
.' -,- - -......," 0<'0-'_

<.u + =t- ~?·.:-r<94 0°

\ L?;~¡L-t-\;:-I"'-.. C/4~ •••">-
-1
c-c:->:
'LATE'>'EARLY'\ . ."
-1
FVI INPUT? .•\

o ... ""
Q::

o
;
9900 + +
\
!'-.. .-J 10

/
/
/
DRiobamba
. .!
o
9800 + fRESH WATER
e 2000Pf.lll\NcCI
BRt.Cl<tSH WATER
2000 - lO000ppm NoCI 20
NORMAl- SEA WATER
~5000ppm NaCl

SALINE WATERS
> ~OOOOPDm NaCI

HIGHI.,Y SALlNE WATERS

> OOOOOppm NlICI

9700 + Q SCALE'Q 1-1,000,0;0 MI.

1, i I
Q IQ tQ se "O l ...

100 200 300 400

Fig. 14. Water salinity distribution in the Hollin Sandstone Formation.

napthenic compounds). Hence the alteration Chonta (Sofer el al. 1986) suggest an increased
processes are not reservoir specific. terrestrial influence, probably reflecting a more
recent maturation and local migration from
Carbon isotopes mixed kerogen source rocks further east in the
Maranon Basin.
Isotope analyses support the correlation of Napo shale extracts also display isotopic
the analysed oils. These analyses also indicate values generally indicative of terrestrialIy influ-
that the oils are closely related to the oils enced source rocks (Sofer 1984) and it is unlikely
produced from the Vivian Formation (Napo that these shales could have sourced a significant
'M-1' equivalent) of the Maranon Basin (Sofer portion of the Oriente oils.
el al. 1986). Oils from the Napo 'U' equivalent
(Chonta Formation) in the Maranon appear to Oriente oil source facies
be less closely related. The Oriente Basin (and
Vivian Formation) oils appear to have strong The integrated analyses of oils and oil shows in
marine genetic affinities while the data from the this study indicates that the source rocks for
 OIL GRAVITY (DEGREES API)
30 32 34 36
22 24 26 28

rooo
"BERMEJO ~:~
FIELO" ~
2000

3000
ti "FOOTHILLS
4000
FIEL O"
.....
~ 5000
(/)
ro
::::J
(/) 6000
)(
1-
W
W EAST CENTRAL
.!:; 1000
WELLS WEST CENTRAL
:r:
1- WELLS
a.. 8000 __ ---ollll'""'llllrr-e
W
O x
9000
X X

\
10000

"RESIOUAL INCREASE IN
" 000 OIL FIELO" DEGREE OF
Al TERATlON

12000
MINOR OIL IN CUSHABATAY FM KEY
13000
N.E. PERU AT 12100'
e PRODUCING FIELD
(OR OIL WELL)
X OIL SHOW

Fig. 15. Oil gravity against depth for the Hollio Saodstooe Formatioo.
300

BIODEGRADED
"FOOTHILLS" OILS
.---¡---
( ·"~"-':.J
250

200
¡:::
LJJ
LJJ
~
:z
::;:
::>
-J
oU 150

-J
(5
NORTH-WEST
:z
::¡
-J
ORIENTE OILS • •
o
:I:

••
100
CENTRAL AND
SOUTHERN
ORIENTE OILS

50

KEY
• OIL COLUMN

MARANACU ?L/.GUALLINO

•
RESIOUAL OIL
(FROM FITS/CORES)

10 20 30 40

OIL GRAVITY (DEGREES API)

Fig. 16. Oil gravity agaiost oil column for the Hollio Sandstooe Formatioo.
 PETROLEUM GEOLOGY Of ORIENTE BASIN 107

78°
76°

LEGEND

- 30° - OIL GRAVITY 'API

O NAPO 'T' OIL FIELO

FRESHWATER INPUT

DATA POINTS 50

ct: • . O~\OO OOO~O.f;; o.

4.1+ + I ~Cl <94
\\L:.=~-t-\I ~~~
00,

\
I ~o .. '

I ..
J \"0
/ ~
ct:
;
9900 + \

CRiobomba,

9800 +

o
9700 + + + o SCALE,(l ll,oOO~

I i

100 200 300 400

Fig. 17. üil Gravity Distribution for the Napo 'T' Sand.

these oils were of a common facies type de- (Ro = 0.55) and have not generated significant
posited in a predominantIy marine environment. hydrocarbons.
The source rocks were only moderately mature This evidence further supports the hypothesis
when generation occurred. Source rock analysis for a western oil source , where an extensive
for the Napo Shales in the Oriente indicate they 'Toro type' Napo shale facies was present during
could not have sourced the oils. The source the late Cretaeeous. This model requires mi-
facies most likely to have sourced the Oriente gration distances of over 300 km but the Hollin
oils was sampled in the Lower Napo of the sandstone, in particular, provides the Oriente
Toro-I well (Western Oriente - Fig. 7) and with an excellent migration conduit. The Hollin
in outcrop in the Napo Uplift (Fig. 3). Both sandstone is present in the westernmost out-
contained richly organic marine sapropelic erops of the foothills and is generally oil and tar
kerogens. However, despite these shales being saturated in these outerops.
rich and oil prone, they are also immature
108 M. F. DASHWOOD & 1. L. ABBOTTS

LE GENO

FORMATION WATER
-50- SALlNITY (1 OOOppm Nael)
.0' ." o NAPO 'T' OIL FIELD

FRESHWATER INPUT

o:
Lt.J
+
....J

'LATE' >'EARLY'
O::

+
~r"r
o

9900 +

'-f---I¡----j-- \
U r-... -.J /
1°

'LATE' > 'EARLY' /

~ . ANDEAN FW. INPUT /

...J
Q
+.\)~~\)
'V~~/~----,
9800 + {y~f¡; FRESHWATER

+..
+~ . < 20oo/l/l111 NaCI
BRACKISH WATER
2000 - lQOOOP/l1ll NaCI

NORMAL SEA WATER

3~OOOllpm Nllel

5AL1NEWATERS
» SOOOOppm Nllel

HIGH\'y SALINE WATERS

> lOO000ppm N.aCI

9700 + + + SCALE l'I,OOOIO~

10
! " I
10 20 50 401lM1

100 200 300 400

Fig. 18. Water Salinity Distribution for the Napo 'T' Sand.

A model for oil gravity distribution in tbe orogeny. This oil was generated to the west of
Oriente Basin the present-day Oriente.
A suite of maps displaying oil gravity and
A model has been developed to explain in a water salinity distribution for each of the four
systematic fashion the variation in oil gravity main reservoirs are seen in Fig 13-24. In con-
and water salinities in the four main reservoirs, structing, and viewing, the interpreted contour
the Hollin, the Napo 'T', the Napo 'U' and the maps it is important to appreciate the various
Napo 'M-l'. processes that have effected fluid distribution.
One major factor contributing to this model These include the following:
is derived from the preceding geochemical (i) 'Early Andean' (pre-Miocene) oil mi-
studies, that is that oil generation and migration gration from the west.
began prior to the Late Andean (pre-Miocene) (ii) 'Early Andean' fresh water influx causing
 PETROLEUM GEOLOGY OF ORIENTE BASIN 109

OIL GRAVITY (DEGREES API)

10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36
°-r-.L---l--L---l--..I-----l_.....l._...=:L.~L_..:l::...__~_:.L.~'

1000

BERMEJO
2000
®
3000

"LATE ANDEAN
~
4000 STRUCTURES"

......
~
(J)
5000 ~~
a:l
:::>
(j) 6000
1-
w
~ 7000
---I
1-
a. 8000
w
a
9000

10000

11 000

WEST

ct°~
12000

13000 KEY
SOUTH
WEST O DATA POINT

• PRODUCING FIELD

Fíg, 19. Oil gravity against depth for the Napo 'T' Sand.

water-washing and biodegradation of on the distribution of fluids in each of the main

trapped and migrating oils. reservoirs as displayed in Figs 13-24.
(iii) 'Late Andean' fresh water influx causing
water-washing and biodegradation in shal-
lower reservoirs. The limit for present-
Hollin Formation
day bacterial biodegradation is marked on The Hollin sandstone reservoir contains high
Figs 13, 17, 20 & 22. gravity oil in the north-scentral, central (axial)
(iv) 'Late Andean' basin subsidence in the and northwestern areas (Fig. 13). These areas
southwest which has locally caused oil re- generally contain structures with significant
migration (and minor 'late' oil generation). prospect structural relief, Early Andean palaeo-
(v) 'Late Andean' structuring which post- structure and faulted western flanks.
dated the main 'Early Andean' phase Heavy oil in the west reflects Late Andean to
of oil generation but locally involved present-day water influx from western outcrops
breaching of oil-bearing traps. causing biodegradation in the shallow reservoirs
(vi) Locally active present-day water drive in and water-washing and possibly physical
sorne reservoirs. flushing in the deeper reservoirs where hydraulic
(vii) On a local scale, increased structural relief continuity is not broken by faults.
and/or an element of stratigraphic trap- Local heavy oil on the eastern basin flank
ping can help to preserve unaltered oils probably reflects residual oil in an area of poor
(see Fig. 16). sealing capacity because the Lower Napo is
The following section includes observations predominantly sandy.
110 M. F. DASHWOOD & 1. L. ABBOTIS

76'
78

.:
LEGEND

-25°- OIL GRAVITY 'API

O NAPO 'u' PRODUCING FIELO

FRESHWATER INPUT

Q:: •.........-..•.., C'O.(o~

\ ~?'" <S'/.q' O'

~4~
\ ~....
I
i; '.
I
">iW't '\..
] I
o: BI 'EARLY' ANDEAN

FW. INPUT ?
\

¡
o ~L...,-I-----'<+-I

-; \
9900
¡-......-J 10
• ~~
/
¡
Eí--. 'EARLY' > 'LATE' /
/ !j ANDEAN FW INPUT!

~ /

9800
o
.~#/) + ..:j~~\J
'<,y~r,;
..'

f
f
f
f
I
I
I
I
9700 + SCALE 1'1.000,000
o 10 20
I
ti
, ' ,20
10
"
~
I
40 M....

100 400

Fig. 20. Oil Gravity Dístribution for the Napa 'V' Sand.

Water salinities (Fig. 14) indicate Early volcanicity has produced an anomalously light
Andean fresh water input (possibly from the oil accumulation at a shallow depth. In general,
east) pre-dating or contemporaneous with oil present-day burial depth is not a control on oil
migration, since fresh to brackish connate gravity (Fig. 13).
waters are reported within light oil columns Most productive structures occur between
(Canfield el al. 1982b, 1985). Oil locally re- 2500 and 3000 m (subsea) with oil gravities
migrated following western uplift and may have between 23° and 35° API. The 'Foothills struc-
been biodegraded in transit (for example at tures', with the exception of Bermajo, are
Oglan where a 60 metre column oí biodegraded mainly 'Late Andean' breached structures con-
oil is present). taining biodegraded oil columns.
Locallyoil is trapped in young, Late Andean, A field of 'Residual Oils' (Figs 15 & 16) is
structures, for example at Bermejo, where it is thought to refiect low relief structures that
unclear whether there was palaeostructure or have lost their lighter hydrocarbon fraction by
whether in situ maturation induced by local structural tilting, water-washing or possibly
 PETROLEUM GEOLOGY OF ORIENTE BASIN 111

OIL GRAVITY (DEGREES API)

10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36
O-¡---'---'---'---'----'----'----l....._-l....._-L_-l....._-l....._--l.---I

1000

2000

3000

4000

~ 5000
en
rn
;:)
en 6000
r
W
~ 7000

::I:
ra.. 8000
W
O

9000
•
"AXIAL WELLS" )(
S .. • N

10000

11000

( PRODUCING FIEL~
• IN PERU •
12000
KEY
• PRODUCING FIELD
13000
)( OIL WELL
OR SHOW

Fig. 21. Oil gravity against depth for the Napo 'U' Sand.

sorne physical fiushing. Even sorne of the evidence of in-reservoir oil maturation, sorne of
deepest traps such as Tiguino (below 3300 m) the deepest oils found here having suffered
may have suffered from biodegradation (Figs 12 most significant alteration.
& 15). However, the structural relief of a trap
does appear to be an important factor (Fig. 16). Napo 'U' sand
Protection from the degrading activities of the
The Napo 'D' sand contains light oil in the
aquifer may be an important factor in sorne
taller oil columns. north-central Oriente and in the north-eastern
Peruvian Maranon (Fig. 20). Medium gravity
oil (15- 25° API) is found throughout much of
Napo 'T' sand
the central and western parts of the Oriente.
The Napo 'T' sand oil gravity distribution (Fig. Heavy, biodegraded oils are occasionally seen
17) is broadly similar to the Hollin but with in the Napo 'D', e.g. Maranacu-l (Fig. 12), but
sorne important differences. Light oil is found the discontinuous sandstone distribution in the
in the 'T' sand further to the east than for the west has probably reduced the degrading effects
Hollin. of fiowing water. The oils found in the dis-
Low oil gravities are often associated with continuous 'D' sands are the most difficult to
fresh waters (Fig. 18), suggesting an early phase reconcile with long-range migration from the
of water infiux, although not all oils associated west. However no evidence for a local sourcing
with brackish waters are altered. A 'Late for these sands has yet emerged. Migration of
Andean' input of freshwater would not necess- oil across faults juxtaposing the Hollin or 'T'
arily have caused biodegradation due to high sand against the 'V' sand may provide adequate
reservoir temperatures. Oil gravity is clearly conduits. Oils found on the sand-rich eastern
not depth dependant (Fig. 19) and there is little flank of the basin seem to have suffered signifi-
112 M. F. DASHWOOD & I. L. ABBOrrS

77° 76°
78"
LEGEND
- 25°- OIL GRAVITY °API

O NAPO 'M-l' OIL FIELO

NAPO 'M-l' OIL. WELl

&. BASAL TENA oa, WELL

.....-----.. FRESHWATER INPuT

DATA POINTS 40

9900 +-

<: •

e
9800 + +

+,..

9700 + + o 5CALEI~ l'I,ooo,~

I i , ¡ 1
o 10 20 so <4011._

100 200 300

Fig.22. Oil gravity distribution for the Napo 'M-l' Sand.

cantly from degradation, due to ease of access selective and oí less importance than the bio-
for the fiowing aquifer. degrading effects oí fresh waters encroaching
from the east along sand-rich fairways probably
Napo 'M-l' sand during both Early and Late Andean times,
(Figs 23 & 25).
The Napo 'M·1' reservoir contains medium Notably, areas oí significant regional struc-
gravity oil in the northeastern and light oil in tural elevation appear to have avoided the worst
the southeastern areas of the basin (Fig. 22). effects oí alteration by freshwaters (Fig. 22).
Lighter oils are generally associated with more Oil gravities show no simple depth relationship
saline formation water. The truncation of the (Fig. 23) but do reflect structural and regional
'M-1' sandstone during 'Early Andean' times position relative to the zones of fresh water
may have resulted in an infiux of fresh water influx.
(Del Solar 1982) but this appears to have been
 PETROLEUM GEOLOGY OF ORIENTE BASIN 113

78 0 77 0 760

lEGENO
FORMATlON WATER
-25- SALINITY (1000ppm NaCI)
.0'
o NAPO 'M-l' ou,
FRESHWATER INPUT
FIELD

CJ::

~+ 00

o
u
9900 +

ORiobambá
e
'9800 + + FRESH WATER
< 200Qppm NoCI

BRACKiSl'l WATER

+-- 2000 - iOOOO~lI'\ NClCI 2°

;:,
<.>
;:,
t-:
;:,
9700 + o +

100 200 400

Fig.23. Water salinity distribution for the Napo 'M-l' Sand.

Summary oil gravity distribution model significant Cretaceous oil generation.

A summary figure (Fig. 25) is presented to (iii) Fresh water influx, particularly fram the
illustrate the various factors involved in the east, caused early biodegradation of oil in
proposed oil gravity model. The critical factors the shallow reservoirs.
are as follows: (iv) During the Late Tertiary continued 'Late
(i) Cretaceous source racks were deposited in Andean' compression thrust out the former
a marine basin to the west of the present- Cretaceous marginal basin terminating oil
day Oriente Basin. generation (although oil generation con-
(ii) During the late Cretaceous and early tinued in the Maranon Basin to the south).
Tertiary the onset of 'Early Andean' com- (v) Up to the present day there has been
pression and thrusting occurred. Thick continued intermittent uplift and differ-
clastics shed from the west provided tec- ential basin subsidence and further oil
tonic loading in the foredeep and caused alteration on the basin flanks.
114 M. F. DASHWOOD & I. L. ABBOTIS

OIL GRAVITY (DEGREES API)

24 26 28 30 32 34 36
12 14 16 18 20 22

1000

2000

3000

4000 N.E. AND

E. FLANK

~ 5000
CJ)
ro
:::::> • PRODUCING FIELD.
CJ)

1-
6000
• ~ FANNY / 188-1
w ti ----~
~ 7000

:::c @
1-
a.
W
8000
•
O

9000

•
10000

11000

KEY
12000
• DATA POINT

@ BASAL TENA
13000 DATA POINT

• PRODUCING FIELD

Fig.24. Oil gravity against depth for the Napa 'M-l' Sand.

since been 'thrust out' or metamorphosed in the

Conclusions Andean Cordillera. This 'difficult' hypothesis,
The Oriente Basin of Ecuador has many features originally proposed by Feininger (1975), is now
in common witb the other sub-Andean basins of invoked for the Maranon (Del Solar 1982;
South America, in particular those of nortbern Sofer el al. 1986), the Putamayo (Caceres &
South America. The structural history of the Teatin 1985), the Llanos and certain of the
Early to Late Cretaceous, produced large, albeit basins of Venezuela (James 1990).
low relief structures while the intensive 'Late Geochemical evidence convincingly argues
Andean' Miocene- Pliocene orogeny produced that the oil was generated prior to the 'Late
large, high relief structures. Of the two families Andean' orogeny and was not generated from
only the older prove oil productive in the source rocks local to the traps. Early (probably
Oriente. pre-Oligocene) oil generation, migration and
The Cretaceous reservoir and Cretaceous oil entrapment is strongly indicated. The wide
source rock pairing is recognized throughout variation of oil gravity and composition reflects
most of the sub-Andean basins, although the the alteration processes affecting the various
Oriente is exceptional in having no significant reservoirs in different parts of the basin from as
Palaeocene to Oligocene trapped oil (as seen in early as the end Cretaceous. The variation can
the Upper and Middle Magdalena and Llanos be accounted for systematically. The intensive
basins of Colombia and the Maracaibo and drilling activity of the coming five years (1988-
Barinas basins of Venezuela). 1993) and active fieldwork programmes in the
The Oriente oils appear to have been gener- Cordillera Real should provide valuable new
ated from a common Cretaceous source rock data in refining and testing the models proposed
from areas west oí the present basin which have in this paper.
 MIO - LATE CRET ACEOUS LOWER TERTIARY
NAPO 'T' TIME (CENOMANIAN) ENO TlYUYACU (ENO EOCENE)

LEGEND LEGEND
T NAPO 'T' SANOS TONE C ARCH CONONOCO ARCH M NAPO 'M-r SANoSTONE ~ CLASTIC SUP?Ly

H HOLLlN SANoSTONE A ARCH AGUARICo ARCH U NAPO 'U' SANosTONE OIL MIGRATION

Jk
CHAPIZA FM
(LATE JURASSICl
SOURCE ROCKS G IGNEOUS INTRUSION _E~_
FRESH WATER
MOVEMENT
PZ EARL Y PALAEOZOICS ~ CLASTlC SUPPLy
® BIODEGRADA TlON
IN RESERVOIRS
PRE-CAMBRIAN IGI'IEOUS
Pe
(GUAY ANA SHIELol G INTRUSION?

UPPER TERTIARY PRESENT OAY

ENO ORTEGUAZA (ENO OLlGOCENE)

LEGEND LEGEND

o, ORTEGUAZA FM OIL MIGRATlON Mi MIOCENE OIL REMIGRATION

FRESH WATER FRESH WATER
TI TIYUYACU FM PI PLIOCENE INPUT
MOVEMENT

Te TENA FM

Fig.25. Summary model for the oil gravity distribution in the Oriente Basin, Ecuador.
116 M. F. DASHWOOD & 1. L. ABBOTTS

The authors thank both the Chairman and Directors Petroleo, Bogota.
of Clyde Expro pie and C.E.P.E. (Corporacion DE RIGHI, M. R. & BLOOMER, G. 1975. Oil and
Estatal Petrolera Ecuatoriana) for approval to publish Gas devclopments in the Upper Amazon Basin.
this work. We thank the Analo-Ecuadorian Oilfields In: Proceedings of the Ninth World Petroleum
Company for their perrnission to include certain con- Congress, Tokyo, 3, 181-192.
fidcntial data in this paper. We also thank Geochem DEL SOLAR. C. 1982. Ocurrencia de hidrocarburos en
Labs (UK) for geochemical analyses and valuablc la formacion Vivían, Cuenca Marañon . Nor-
discussions. Concepts presented in this paper have Oriente Peruano. In: Simposio Bolivariano.
evolved during regional evaluations, research of Exploracion Petrolera en las Cuencas Subandinas
Anglo-Ecuadorian Oilfields Co. data. discussions with de Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador y Peru.
partners, Clyde Expro colleagues and C.E.P.E. staff. Asociacion colombiana de Geologos y Geofisicos
This cooperation is gratefully acknowledged. How- del Petroleo, Bogota.
ever, the views expressed in this paper are entirely ESPIN, P. 1980. Deteccion de Cuerpos igneos
the responsibility of the authors. en el Cretacio del Oriente Ecuatoriano. In: II
Congresso Ecuatoriano de Ingenieros, Geologos
de Minas y Petroleos, Quito.
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