DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT OF A

SEMI-AUTOMATIC PARKING BRAKE SYSTEM FOR

PASSENGER VEHICLES

A PROJECT REPORT

Submitted by
A. VINOJ
RRN: 190121601016
A. M. MOHAMED IBRAHIM
RRN: 190121601006

Under the guidance of

Dr. C. DINESHKUMAR

in partial fulfilment for the award of the degree of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
in
AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING

MAY 2023

1
 BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

Certified that this project DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT OF A SEMI-

AUTOMATIC PARKING BRAKE SYSTEM FOR PASSENGER VEHICLES is the

Bonafide work of A. VINOJ (RRN : 190121601016), A. M. MOHAMED IBRAHIM (RRN

: 190121601006) who carried out the project work under our supervision. During the academic

year 2022-2023 as a part of his B.Tech. Automobile Engineering Program. Certified further,

that to the best of my knowledge the work reported herein does not form part of any other

project or dissertation on the basis of which a degree or award was conferred on an earlier

occasion on this or any other candidate.

SIGNATURE SIGNATURE
Dr. C. DINESHKUMAR Dr. P.D. JEYAKUMAR
PROJECT GUIDE HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT
Assistant Professor (Selection Grade) Associate Professor
Department of Automobile Engineering Department of Automobile Engineering
B.S. Abdur Rahman Crescent Institute B.S. Abdur Rahman Crescent Institute
of Science & Technology of Science & Technology
Vandalur, Chennai – 600048 Vandalur, Chennai – 600048

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 VIVA VOCE EXAMINATION

The viva voice examination of the project work

DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT OF A

SEMI-AUTOMATIC PARKING BRAKE SYSTEM FOR
PASSENGER VEHICLES

SUBMITTED BY

A. VINOJ
RRN: 190121601016
A. M. MOHAMED IBRAHIM
RRN: 190121601006

Is held on 18/05/2023

INTERNAL EXAMINER EXTERNAL EXAMINER

3
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We would like to express our gratitude and appreciation to all those who gave us the
responsibility to complete this project.

We sincerely acknowledge our Project Guide Dr.C.DINESHKUMAR Assistant Professor,

Department of Automobile Engineering for his valuable guidance and encouragement to
complete the project in a successful manner.

We feel peak of pleasure in expressing our heartiest thanks to Dr.P.D.JEYAKUMAR Head of

the Department of Automobile Engineering who always used to act as our pivot.

We proudly rendering our thanks to the Class Advisor Mr.N.RAJMOHAN Assistant

Professor, Department of Automobile Engineering for his leadership encouragement and
supportive guidance for this project.

Further, we sincerely thank all the Faculties and Lab Technician of our department and our
friends for their kind assistance and help rendered completing this project in abundantly
satisfying manner.

Finally, we thank from the bottom of hearts to our loving parents who stood satisfy all our
needs.

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 DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT OF A SEMI-AUTOMATIC PARKING
BRAKE SYSTEM FOR PASSENGER VEHICLES

ABSTRACT

One of the most important safety features is automobile braking System. A typical automobile
consists of two types of brakes, one for retarding the speed of vehicle while it is in motion and
other is to hold the vehicle in its place when standing still or parked. The latter is mostly
important when the vehicle is parked on slope. It is important to disengage the handbrake before
starting the vehicle from rest position. Due to operator errors the conventional handbrake
system remained engaged even when the vehicle was moving due to manual operation of the
hand lever through which the handbrake is operated. This led the brakes to become ineffective
and eventually they failed to serve their purpose. To overcome all the limitation of the
conventional system we proposed the new automatic handbrake disengaging system. This
system uses electrical circuit function to engage and disengage the hand brake lever to control
the motion of vehicle. This system operates depends upon the condition of ignition.

5
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER NO. TITLE PAGE NO.

ABSTRACT 5
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 4
LIST OF FIGURES 9
LIST OF TABLES 10
1. INTRODUCTION 11
1.1 Typical Brake System
1.2 Construction 12
1.3 Working Principle
2. LITERATURE OVERVIEW 14
2.1 Automatic Hand Brake System
Automatic Engagement & Disengagement of
2.2
Handbrake System using Pneumatic System
Advancements in Automatic Hand Brake
2.3
System
Development of Automatic Handbrake
2.4 15
System
Design and Development of Handbrake
2.5
Release System
Development and Experimental Validation of
2.6 an Automatic Parking Brake System with less 16
Driveline Sensor
Modification and Implementation of
2.7
Automatic Hand Brake System using Sensor
Development of Electro-Hydro Automatic
2.8 Parking Braking System for Automotive
System

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 Design of Emergency Braking Algorithm for
2.9 Pedestrian Protection Based on Multi-Sensor 17
Fusion
3. METHODOLOGY 18
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Materials Used
3.3 DC Motor
3.3.1 Specification 19
3.3.2 Principle Operation of DC Motor
3.4 Shaft 22
3.4.1 Specification
3.5 Metal Frame 23
3.5.1 Chemical Composition
3.5.2 Mechanical Properties
3.5.2.1 Mechanical Strength of Mild Steel
3.6 Metal Strip 25
3.6.1 Specification
3.7 Bearing 26
3.7.1 Specification
3.8 Battery 28
3.8.1 Advantages
3.8.2 Specification
3.9 Microcontroller 30
3.10 Relay 31
3.10.1 Specification
3.11 Handbrake Lever 31
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 32
4.1 DESIGN METHODOLOGY 32
4.1.1 2D Model
4.1.2 3D Model
4.1.3 Circuit Diagram 34
4.2 Fabrication Process 35
4.2.1 Sawing 35

7
 4.2.2 Welding 36
4.2.2.1 Operation
4.2.3 Drilling 28
5. FABRICATED MODEL 37
5.1 DESIGN CALCULATIONS 37
5.1.1 HANDBRAKE CALCULATIONS
5.2 BRAKING CONDITIONS 39
5.3 ADVANTAGES & APPLICATIONS
5.3.1 Advantages
5.3.2 Applications
6. CONCLUSION 40
REFERENCE 41

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 LIST OF FIGURES

FIG NO DESCRIPTION PAGE NO

1 Manual Parking Brake System
2 Electronic Parking Brake System 13
3 DC Motor
4 Principle Operation of DC Motor 19
5 Principle Operation of DC Motor 21
6 Shaft
7 Metal Frame 23
8 Metal Strip 26
9 Ball Bearing 28
10 Battery
11 Microcontroller 30
11 Relay 31
13 Handbrake Lever 32
14 Body
15 Lever Handle
16 Adjuster 33
17 Clicker
18 Rod
19 3D Assembly Model
20 Circuit Diagram for Handbrake 34
Releasing System
21 Sawing Cutting Process 35
22 Welding Process 36
23 Fabricated Model 37
24 Handbrake Lever Mechanism 38

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 LIST OF TABLES

FIG NO DESCRIPTION PAGE NO

1 Chemical Composition of Mild Steel
2 Mechanical Properties of Mild Steel 17

3 Braking Conditions 27

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1. INTRODUCTION

The modern automotive brake system has been refined for over 100 years and has become
extremely dependable and efficient.

In road vehicles, the parking brake, also known as a handbrake or emergency brake (e-
brake), is a mechanism used to keep the vehicle securely motionless when parked.
Parking brakes often consist of a pulling mechanism attached to a cable which is connected to
two-wheel brakes. In most vehicles, the parking brake operates only on the rear wheels, which
have reduced traction while braking. The mechanism may be a hand-operated lever, a straight
pull handle located near the steering column.

When parking on an uphill gradient, it is recommended that the front wheels face away
from the curb. This would prevent the car from rolling into the roadway by using the curb to
block the front passenger tire in the event of a parking brake failure. Similarly, on a downhill
gradient, the front wheels should face the curb for the same reason, and the wheels should face
to the right on an uncurbed road regardless of orientation.

The parking brake in most vehicles is still completely mechanical. Traditionally engaged
by pulling a lever, the cables manually engage part of the car's braking system, usually the rear
disk or drum brakes. The mechanical nature allows the driver to apply the brake even if the
main hydraulic brake system fails.

When the driver turn on the ignition switch for moving the vehicle. It sends the feedback
signal to electronic control unit and cross check the condition for disengaging the
hand brake lever.

1.1 TYPICAL BRAKE SYSTEM

The typical brake system consists of disk brakes in front and either disk or drum brakes
in the rear connected by a system of tubes and hoses that link the brake at each wheel to the
master cylinder. Other systems that are connected with the brake system include the parking
brakes, power brake booster and the anti-lock braking system.

11
 Other common situations are when the vehicle is stopped at a traffic light, a pedestrian
crossing, or simply waiting to turn in front of oncoming traffic. The parking brake would ensure
the car is secure, should another vehicle come into physical contact from behind, causing the
car to jolt forward. It is not recommended to use the parking brake when the vehicle is in-
motion, unless there is a problem with the main brakes, as this can lock the back wheels and
cause a skid. This is known as a handbrake turn, which is often performed in street racing and
off-road rally racing to initiate rear wheel drift.

Semiautomatic hand brake release system utilizes electric motor to operate the hand
brake lever, thus the rod coupled eccentrically to the electric drive called motor which is
directly coupled to the hand brake lever with the help of intermediate connecting links. The
electric motor is powered by means of battery whose activation is controlled by an electronic
control unit. The control unit is coupled to the ignition switch.

1.2 CONSTRUCTION

Automatic hand brake release system utilises electric motor to operate the hand brake
lever, thus the rod coupled eccentrically to the electric drive called motor which is directly
coupled to the hand brake lever with the help of intermediate connecting links. The electric
motor is powered by means of battery whose activation is controlled by an electronic control
unit. The control unit is coupled to the ignition switch as well as to the separate push button
which is placed below the clutch lever.The wheel with brake lever is connected to the hand
brake lever.

1.3 WORKING PRINCIPLE

When the driver turn on the ignition switch for moving the vehicle. It sends the feedback
signal to electronic control unit and cross check the condition for disengaging the hand brake
lever. But only turning on the ignition doesn’t initiates the hand brake lever disengagement.
Whenever the clutch pedal get pressed for gear changing process, the push button placed below
clutch lever gets activated and feedback signal is sent to the ECU. This satisfies the condition
of disengaging the hand brake lever, thus the electric motor coupled with it gets activated and

12
rotates in clock wise direction and makes it to retract back along with engaged hand brake
lever. At the same time, the brake lever which is connected to the hand brake lever gets released
causes free rotation of wheel. Thus the automatic hand brake disengaging system is performed.
Similarly when the driver turn of the ignition switch for stopping the vehicle, it sends feedback
signal to the electronic control unit. Thus the electric motor coupled with it gets activated and
rotates in anti-clock wise direction and makes it to retract back along with disengaged hand
brake lever. Since the brake lever which is connected to the hand brake lever gets retracted
causes restriction of wheel rotation.

Figure 1 – Manual Parking Brake System

Figure 2 – Electronic Parking Brake System

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2. LITERATURE REVIEW

A traditional handbrake is very simple by pulling the lever up; you are pulling two cables
which run to each of the rear brakes. By adding tension to these cables, this in turn causes the
pads (or ‘shoes’ for cars with drum brakes) to squeeze against the discs (or drums) to hold the
rear wheels firmly in place. Some cars with disc brakes have separate handbrake drum-brake
shoes or even a separate disc-brake caliper for the handbrake.
Later electronic parking brake replaces this mechanical system with an electrical one. By
pressing the switch, motors on each brake caliper squeeze the pads into the disc. We are trying
to make hand brake mechanism even simpler using rack & pinion and proximity sensors.

2.1 AUTOMATIC HAND BRAKE SYSTEM

Hand brake is one of the most important components in vehicles. In general, the hand
brake is operated manually in our project, we are developing Automatic Hand Brake System
for safety purpose. The hand brake engagement and disengagement are done with the help of
proximity sensors and rack & pinion.

2.2 AUTOMATIC ENGAGEMENT AND DISENGAGEMENT OF

HANDBRAKE SYSTEM USING PNEUMATIC SYSTEM
One of the most important safety features in an automobile is brake. A typical automobile
consists of two types of brakes, one for retarding the speed of vehicle while it is in motion and
other is to hold the vehicle in its place when standing still or parked. The latter is mostly
important when the vehicle is parked on slope. It is important to disengage the handbrake before
starting the vehicle from rest position. Due to operator errors the conventional handbrake
system remained engaged even when the vehicle was moving due to manual operation of the
hand lever through which the handbrake is operated. This led the brakes to become ineffective
and eventually they failed to serve their purpose. To overcome all the limitation of the
conventional system we proposed the new automatic handbrake engagement and release
system. This system uses electro-pneumatically operated components using solenoid and
pneumatic circuits. This system operates depending on the positions of the key. When the
ignition switch is turned on the handbrake disengages and engages when the ignition is turned
off.

2.3 ADVANCEMENTS IN AUTOMATIC HAND BRAKE SYSTEM

Now a day’s automatic hand brake release mechanism has been replaced by the manual
hand brake release mechanism. This has taken up an additional use in control of the vehicle by
no initiating a rear-wheel skid. The automatic hand brake release mechanism is one of the most
effective hand braking systems over the conventional systems. This type of mechanism
provides totally lever-less operation which saves the effort as well as the space utilization of
the vehicle. Generally, the hand brake is manually operated whereas in our project work, we
have developed an automatic handbrake release mechanism for safety purpose. The
engagement and disengagement of the handbrake is done with the help of hydraulic actuators.

14
Moreover, when the ignition system is turned off, the solenoid switch gets in and the piston
from master cylinder pressurize the oil and then by the means of the hydraulic system it engages
the handbrake mechanism. Although sometimes it also known as an emergency brake, using it
in any emergency whereas the footbrake is still operational is likely to badly upset the brake
balance of the car and vastly increase the likelihood of loss of control of the vehicle, for
example by initiating a rear-wheel skid. Additionally, the stopping force provided by using the
handbrake is small and would not significantly aid in stopping the vehicle. The hand brake is
instead intended for use in case of mechanical failure where the regular footbrake is inoperable
or compromised. Modern brake systems are typically very reliable and equipped with dual-
circuit hydraulics and low-brake-fluid sensor systems, meaning the handbrake are rarely used
to stop a moving vehicle. Comparing with manual handbrake system it has a compact design
as well as striking looks having more efficiency. The paper comprises of detail project about
Design, Development and Analysis of automatic handbrake release mechanism with having
various applications. Taking this criterion into consideration, project is explained along with
results which shows how efficient are the automatic handbrakes.

2.4 DEVELOPMENT OF AUTOMATIC HAND BRAKE SYSTEM

Hand brake is one of the most important components in vehicles. Conventional
handbrake system works using a ratchet locking mechanism that will keep it engaged until a
release button is pressed. Driver error can lead to accidents in which handbrake is not engaged.
To overcome this, an Automatic Hand Brake engaging and disengaging system is proposed.
The hand brake engagement and disengagement are done using a combination of rack & pinion
arrangement and microcontroller. The microcontroller process signals from ignition switch
which checks whether the ignition is ON or OFF, and in-turn checks the gear lever to see
whether the gear is in neutral position and also checks the signal from proximity sensor to sense
if the wheel is in motion. If all the conditions are satisfied, a signal is given to the motor. As
the motor rotates the pinion, it causes the rack to move linearly causing the engagement of
handbrake. On turning the ignition on and engaging the gear lever a spring attached to
handbrake automatically disengages the handbrake.

2.5 DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT OF HAND BRAKE RELEASE

SYSTEM

An automatic brake system for a vehicle consists of an electric motor, related to the
motor for transmission motion from the motor to a brake lever that pushes the restraint. This
project provides a brand-new idea style of the EMPB (electro mechanical parking brakes)
system that has straight forward and cheap characteristics. This project deals with coming up
with and fabrication of EMPB system. Mechanical device hand brake system conjointly
remarked as brake by-wire, replace typical parking braking systems with a totally electrical
part system. This happens by replacement typical linkages with electrical motor-driven units.
The braking force is generated directly at every wheel by high performance electrical motors
and automobile management, that area unit controlled by an ECU. The electronic hand brake
replaces the traditional handbrake. It’s operated by a switch within the center console. The
mechanical device hand brake provides the subsequent edges over the traditional handbrake:
easy use-the hand brake is applied totally no matter the strength of the driving force. Safety-
the electrical hand brake applies mechanically once the key is off from the ignition.

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2.6 DEVELOPMENT AND EXPERIMENTAL VALIDATION OF AN
AUTOMATIC PARKING BRAKE SYSTEM WITH LESS DRIVELINE
SENSOR

Electrical Parking Brake (EPB) has been popularly used in passenger cars over the past
ten years. With the help of the several kinds of sensors mounted in driveline for the total traction
force estimation, EPB can obtain well performance on drive-off assistance and automatic
parking brake. Furthermore, its AUTOHOLD function can realize automatic parking brake and
ease the driver. However, given that the higher cost and complexity of this traction force
estimation method based on the driveline sensors and its slower response resulted by applying
maximum parking force for safety parking while driving off, a novel automatic parking brake
system without these transmission system sensors, such as clutch position sensor for the cars
with manual transmission, is proposed in this paper, including its control scheme and
application test. Firstly, the indirect judgement method of the appropriate moment to release
the parking brake, which is based on the car pitch moment when it drives off, is introduced
according to the force analysis when the car is ready to go. Then a pragmatic mass estimation
method for proper brake force calculation is proposed for improving the drive-off performance.
In addition, for the convenience and drivability of skillful driver, as well as the system
reliability, a mechanical redundant design to reserve the conventional handbrake lever is also
described. Finally, various simulations based on CarSim software and road tests are performed
to validate its effectiveness.

2.7 MODIFICATION AND IMPLEMENTATION OF AUTOMATIC

HAND BRAKE SYSTEM USING SENSOR

Study takes into account several safety issues and permutations with the hand brake
which are listed below as problem statements. The objective of the project is to develop a smart
handbrake system that resolve all safety issue and also assist the driver while climbing steep
slopes in dense traffic. Study work include the brake effort calculation for given condition of
operation design of all components using theoretical method for strength, 3-D modeling of
components and assembly. The fabrication of the unit is done using suitable process and test
carried out on the unit to prove that the above said four features work in the model.

2.8 DEVELOPMENT OF ELECTRO-HYDRO AUTOMATIC PARKING

BRAKING SYSTEM FOR AUTOMOTIVE SYSTEM

A parking brake is an important tool of any automotive system. Conventional parking brake
systems requires the driver to manually pull the lever if the brakes are to be applied. To some
extent, the vehicle is left without applying the parking brake due to the insensibility, which
could make the vehicle in danger if there any gradient of the road and strong wind. The aim of
this manuscript is to present an automatic electro-hydro parking braking system which brakes
once the vehicle park. This is developed by associating the wheel speed sensors, accelerator
proximity sensors, controller, and a linear actuator. This electro-hydro automatic parking
braking system automatically brakes the vehicle when it parks. It ensures the vehicle to remain

16
stationary when it is parked and prevents vehicle rollaway or any unwanted movement that
might occur. It increases the safety of the vehicle as well as others around it. The linear actuator
displacement is controlled in this study by the auto-clamping system when the vehicle park.
The model has been tested considering the road gradient 2-25%. The automatic parking braking
system requires hydraulic pressure 383.66 kPa to ensure the vehicle park on 25% gradient,
which is 11% less than the vehicle to brake from speed of 35 km/h.

2.9 DESIGN OF EMERGENCY BRAKING ALGORITHM FOR

PEDESTRIAN PROTECTION BASED ON MULTI-SENSOR FUSION

Globally, safety has become an increasingly important issue in the automotive industry.
In an attempt to reduce traffic fatalities, UNECE launched a new EU Road Safety Program
which aims to decrease the number of road deaths by half by 2020. AEB (Autonomous
Emergency Braking) is a very effective active safety system intended to reduce fatalities. This
study involves the design of a multi-sensor data fusion strategy and decision-making algorithm
for AEB pedestrian. Possible collision avoidance scenarios according to the Euro NCAP
protocol are analyzed and a robust pedestrian tracking strategy is proposed. The performance
of the AEB system is enhanced by using a braking model to predict the collision avoidance
time and by designing the system activation zone according to the relative speed and possible
distance required to stop for pedestrians. The AEB activation threshold requires careful
consideration. The test results confirm the advantages of the proposed algorithm, the
performance of which is described in this paper.

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3. METHODOLOGY

3.1 INTRODUCTION

The method will accurately specify the real-time working mechanism and account for the
analysis of this project.

3.2 MATERIALS USED :

The Materials used for Fabrication and the components of this model.

 DC MOTOR
 SHAFT
 METAL FRAME
 METAL STRIP
 BEARING
 BATTERY
 MOTHERBOARD
 RELAY
 HAND BRAKE LEVER

3.3 DC MOTOR

The electrical motor is an instrument, which converts electrical energy into mechanical
energy. According to faraday’s law of Electromagnetic induction, when a current carrying
conductor is placed in a magnetic field, it experiences a mechanical force whose direction is
given by Fleming’s left-hand rule.

Constructional a dc generator and a dc motor are identical. The same dc machine can be
used as a generator or as a motor. When a generator is in operation, it is driven mechanically
and develops a voltage. The voltage is capable of sending current through the load resistance.
While motor action a torque is developed. The torque can produce mechanical rotation. Motors
are classified as series wound, shunt wound motors.

18
 Figure 3 - DC Motor

3.3.1 SPECIFICATION

• DC Motor capacity : 12V

• Un loading : 130rpm

• Loading : 90rpm

3.3.2 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION

The basic principle of Motor action lies in a sample sketch.

Figure 4 – Principle Operation of DC Motor

19
 The motor run’s according to the principle of Fleming’s left hand rule. When a current
carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field is produced to move the conductor away from
the magnetic field. The conductor carrying current to North and South poles is being removed.

In the above stated two conditions there is no movement of the conductors. Whenever a
current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field. The field due to the current in the
conductor but opposes the main field below the conductor. As a result the flux density below
the conductor. It is found that a force acts on the conductor to push the conductor downwards.
If the current in the conductor is reversed, the strengthening of the flux lines occurs below the
conductor, and the conductor will be pushed upwards

As stated above the coil side A will be forced to move downwards, whereas the coil side
B will be forced to move upwards. The forces acting on the coil sides A and B will be the same
coil magnitudes, but their directions will be opposite to one another. In DC machines coils are
wound on the armature core, which is supported by the bearings, enhances rotation of the
armature. The commentator periodically reverses the direction of current flow through the
armature. Thus the armature rotates continuously.

An electric motor is all about magnets and magnetism: a motor uses magnets to create
motion. If you have ever played with magnets you know about the fundamental law of all
magnets: Opposites attract and likes repel.

So, if you have 2 bar magnets with their ends marked north and south, then the North end
of one magnet will attract the South end of the other. On the other hand, the North end of one
magnet will repel the North end of the other (and similarly south will repel south). Inside an
electric motor these attracting and repelling forces create rotational motion.

In the diagram above and below you can see two magnets in the motor, the armature (or
rotor) is an electromagnet, while the field magnet is a permanent magnet (the field magnet
could be an electromagnet as well, but in most small motors it is not to save power).

A series DC motor connects the armature and field windings in series with a common
D.C. power source. The motor speed varies as a non-linear function of load torque and armature
current; current is common to both the stator and rotor yielding current squared (I^2) behavior.
A series motor has very high starting torque and is commonly used for starting high inertia
loads, such as trains, elevators or hoists.[2] This speed/torque characteristic is useful in

20
applications such as dragline excavators, where the digging tool moves rapidly when unloaded
but slowly when carrying a heavy load.

With no mechanical load on the series motor, the current is low, the counter-EMF
produced by the field winding is weak, and so the armature must turn faster to produce
sufficient counter-EMF to balance the supply voltage. The motor can be damaged by
overspeed. This is called a runaway condition.

Series motors called "universal motors" can be used on alternating current. Since the
armature voltage and the field direction reverse at substantially the same time, torque continues
to be produced in the same direction. Since the speed is not related to the line frequency,
universal motors can develop higher-than-synchronous speeds, making them lighter than
induction motors of the same rated mechanical output. This is a valuable characteristic for
hand-held power tools. Universal motors for commercial power frequency are usually small,
not more than about 1 kW output. However, much larger universal motors were used for electric
locomotives, fed by special low-frequency traction power networks to avoid problems with
commutation under heavy and varying loads.

Figure 5 – Principle Operation of DC Motor

21
3.4 SHAFT

Shaft is a common and important machine element. It is a rotating member, in general,

has a circular cross-section and is used to transmit power. The shaft may be hollow or solid.
The shaft is supported on bearings and it rotates a set of gears or pulleys for the purpose of
power transmission. The shaft is generally acted upon by bending moment, torsion and axial
force. Design of shaft primarily involves in determining stresses at critical point in the shaft
that is arising due to aforementioned loading. Other two similar forms of a shaft are axle and
spindle. Axle is a non-rotating member used for supporting rotating wheels etc. and do not
transmit any torque. Spindle is simply defined as a short shaft. However, design method
remains the same for axle and spindle as that for a shaft. 8.1.2 Standard sizes of Shafts Typical
sizes of solid shaft that are available in the market are, Up to 25 mm 0.5 mm increments 25 to
50 mm 1.0 mm increments 50 to 100 mm 2.0 mm increments 100 to 200 mm 5.0 mm
increments 8.1.3 Material for Shafts The ferrous, non-ferrous materials and non-metals are used
as shaft material depending on the application. Some of the common ferrous materials used for
shaft are discussed below. Hot-rolled plain carbon steel. These materials are least expensive.
Since it is hot rolled, scaling is always present on the surface and machining is required to make
the surface smooth.

Since it is cold drawn it has got its inherent characteristics of smooth bright finish.
Amount of machining therefore is minimal. Better yield strength is also obtained. This is widely
used for general purpose transmission shaft.

For the design of shaft following two methods are adopted, Design based on Strength In
this method, design is carried out so that stress at any location of the shaft should not exceed
the material yield stress. However, no consideration for shaft deflection and shaft twist is
included. Design based on Stiffness Basic idea of design in such case depends on the allowable
deflection and twist of the shaft.

22
 Figure 6 – Shaft

3.4.1 SPECIFICATION

Shaft diameter: 12mm

Inner Diameter: 10mm

Length: 26 inches

Material: mild steel

3.5 METAL FRAME

The metal frame is generally made of mild steel bars for machining, suitable for lightly
stressed components including studs, bolts, gears and shafts. It can be case-hardened to
improve wear resistance. They are available in bright rounds, squares and flats, and hot rolled
rounds

Figure 7 – Metal Frame

23
 Suitable machining allowances should therefore be added when ordering. It does not
contain any additions for enhancing mechanical or machining properties. Bright drawn mild
steel is an improved quality material, free of scale, and has been cold worked (drawn or rolled)
to size. It is produced to close dimensional tolerances. Straightness and flatness are better than
black steel. It is more suitable for repetition precision machining. Bright drawn steel has more
consistent hardness, and increased tensile strength. Bright steel can also be obtained in
precision turned or ground form if desired.

3.5.1 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION:

Table No: 1- Chemical Composition of Mild Steel.

Carbon 0.16-0.18%
Silicon 0.40% max
Manganese 0.70-0.90%
Sulphur 0.040% Max
Phosphorus 0.040% Max

3.5.2 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

3.5.2.1 MECHANICAL STRENGTH OF MILD STEEL

Table No: 2- Mechanical Properties of Mild Steel.

Max Stress 400-560 N/mm2 dependent on ruling section

Yield Stress 300-440 N/mm2 Min dependent on ruling section

0.2% Proof Stress 280-420 N/mm2 Min dependent on ruling section

Elongation 10-14% Min dependent on ruling section

24
3.6 METAL STRIP

Metal strip is narrow, thin stock that is usually 3/16 in. (4.76 mm) or less in thickness and
under 24 in. (609.6 mm) in width. Metal strips are formed to precise thicknesses and/or width
requirements.

Metal strip can be designed and manipulated through a large number of processes which
are grouped into categories. They are joining and assembly processes, deformation processes,
material removal processes, heat treating processes, and finishing processes.

Joining and assembly processes include welding, soldering, brazing, fastening, and other
processes that connect parts permanently or semi-permanently to form a new entity.

Deformation processes include bending, curling, punching, rolling, deep drawing, and
ironing. They use plastic deformation, where deformation is induced by external compressive
forces exceeding the yield stress of the material. Hot rolling and cold rolling are the most
common processes for preparing metal strips.

Material removal processes remove extra material from the workpiece in order to achieve
the desired shape. They include machining operations, abrasive machining, and non-traditional
processes utilizing lasers and electron beams.

Heat treating processes include annealing, quenching, tempering, aging, homogenizing,

solution treating, and precipitation hardening. Heat treating modifies the strength, ductility,
hardness, machinability, and formability of the metal stock

Finishing processes engineer the structure of the surface to produce the desired surface
finish, texture, corrosion resistance, and fatigue resistance of metal shapes. Polishing,
burnishing, peening, galvanizing, painting, oiling, waxing, lubricating, plating, and coating are
types of finishing processes.

Selection of metal strip is usually based first on a design’s required size and dimensions,
and then on either material types or grades as certain design specifications or application
constraints require. Substitute materials can be selected and qualified based on the required
material properties. Laboratory, performance, or field testing is used to verify performance in
some cases.

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3.6.1 SPECIFICATION

Length: 50cm

Width: 5cm

Thickness: 4mm

Figure 8 – Metal Strip

3.7 BEARING

A ball bearing is a type of rolling-element bearing that uses balls to maintain the
separation between the bearing races.

The purpose of a ball bearing is to reduce rotational friction and support radial and axial
loads. It achieves this by using at least three races to contain the balls and transmit the loads
through the balls. In most applications, one race is stationary and the other is attached to the
rotating assembly (e.g., a hub or shaft). As one of the bearing races rotates it causes the balls
to rotate as well. Because the balls are rolling they have a much lower coefficient of friction
than if two flat surfaces were sliding against each other.

Ball bearings tend to have lower load capacity for their size than other kinds of rolling-
element bearings due to the smaller contact area between the balls and races. However, they
can tolerate some misalignment of the inner and outer races.

The calculated life for a bearing is based on the load it carries and its operating speed.
The industry standard usable bearing lifespan is inversely proportional to the bearing load
cubed. Nominal maximum load of a bearing, is for a lifespan of 1 million rotations, which at

26
50 Hz (i.e., 3000 RPM) is a lifespan of 5.5 working hours. 90% of bearings of that type have
at least that lifespan, and 50% of bearings have a lifespan at least 5 times as long.

If a bearing is not rotating, maximum load is determined by force that causes plastic
deformation of elements or raceways. The indentations caused by the elements can concentrate
stresses and generate cracks at the components. Maximum load for not or very slowly rotating
bearings is called "static" maximum load.

Also, if a bearing is not rotating, oscillating forces on the bearing can cause impact
damage to the bearing race or the rolling elements, known as brinelling. A second lesser form
called false brinelling occurs if the bearing only rotates across a short arc and pushes lubricant
out away from the rolling elements.

For a rotating bearing, the dynamic load capacity indicates the load to which the bearing
endures 1,000,000 cycles.

If a bearing is rotating, but experiences heavy load that lasts shorter than one revolution,
static max load must be used in computations, since the bearing does not rotate during the
maximum load.

If a sideways torque is applied to a deep groove radial bearing, an uneven force in the
shape of an ellipse is applied on the outer ring by the rolling elements, concentrating in two
regions on opposite sides of the outer ring. If the outer ring is not strong enough, or if it is not
sufficiently braced by the supporting structure, the outer ring will deform into an oval shape
from the sideways torque stress, until the gap is large enough for the rolling elements to escape.
The inner ring then pops out and the bearing structurally collapses.

A sideways torque on a radial bearing also applies pressure to the cage that holds the
rolling elements at equal distances, due to the rolling elements trying to all slide together at the
location of highest sideways torque. If the cage collapses or breaks apart, the rolling elements
group together, the inner ring loses support, and may pop out of the center.

3.7.1 SPECIFICATION

INNER DIA : 12mm

OUTER DIA : 37mm

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 Figure 9 – Ball Bearing

3.8 BATTERY

In isolated systems away from the grid, batteries are used for storage of excess solar
energy converted into electrical energy. The only exceptions are isolated sunshine load such
as irrigation pumps or drinking water supplies for storage. In fact, for small units with output
less than one kilowatt.

Batteries seem to be the only technically and economically available storage means.
Since both the photo-voltaic system and batteries are high in capital costs. It is necessary that
the overall system be optimized with respect to available energy and local demand pattern. To
be economically attractive the storage of solar electricity requires a battery with a particular
combination of properties.

Where high values of load current are necessary, the lead-acid cell is the type most
commonly used. The electrolyte is a dilute solution of sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄). In the application
of battery power to start the engine in an auto mobile, for example, the load current to the starter
motor is typically 200 to 400A. One cell has a nominal output of 2.1V, but lead-acid cells are
often used in a series combination of three for a 6-V battery and six for a 12-V battery.

The lead acid cell type is a secondary cell or storage cell, which can be recharged. The
charge and discharge cycle can be repeated many times to restore the output voltage, as long
as the cell is in good physical condition. However, heat with excessive charge and discharge
currents short ends the useful life to about 3 to 5 years for an automobile battery. Of the
different types of secondary cells, the lead-acid type has the highest output voltage, which
allows fewer cells for a specified battery voltage.

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 Inside a lead-acid battery, the positive and negative electrodes consist of a group of plates
welded to a connecting strap. The plates are immersed in the electrolyte, consisting of 8 parts
of water to 3 parts of concentrated sulfuric acid. Each plate is a grid or framework, made of a
lead-antimony alloy. This construction enables the active material, which is lead oxide, to be
pasted into the grid. In manufacture of the cell, a forming charge produces the positive and
negative electrodes. In the forming process, the active material in the positive plate is changed
to lead peroxide (pbo₂). The negative electrode is spongy lead (pb).

Automobile batteries are usually shipped dry from the manufacturer. The electrolyte is
put in at the time of installation, and then the battery is charged to from the plates. With
maintenance-free batteries, little or no water need be added in normal service. Some types are
sealed, except for a pressure vent, without provision for adding water.

3.8.1 ADVANTAGES

(1) Low cost

(2) Long life

(3) High reliability

(4) High overall efficiency

(5) Low discharge

(6) Minimum maintenance

(A) Ampere hour efficiency

(B) Watt hour efficiency

3.8.2 SPECIFICATION

Capacity: 12V and 9 Ah,

Rechargeable battery one

Battery type: Lead – acid battery

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 Figure 10 – Battery

3.9 MICROCONTROLLER

The Arduino hardware was very skilfully designed to reduce the complexities arising in
the circuitry. It has an In System Programmer (ISP), which allows users to transfer the software
inside the microcontroller without removing it from the circuit. The basic model of an Arduino
board consists of an 8-bit AVR microcontroller along with some other necessary components
like a 5-volt linear regulator IC, a 16 MHZ crystal, ceramic resonator, output connectors, direct
adaptor input, etc.

Figure 11 – Microcontroller

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3.10 RELAY

A relay is an electrically operated switch. Current flowing through the coil of the relay
creates a magnetic field which attracts a lever and changes the switch contacts. The coil current
can be on or off so relays have two switch positions and they are double throw (changeover)
switches. Relays allow one circuit to switch a second circuit which can be completely separate
from the first.

3.10.1 SPECIFICATION

Normal Voltage is 5V DC

Normal Current is 70mA

Operating time is 10msec

Release time is 5msec

Figure 12 – Relay

3.11 HAND BRAKE LEVER

In road vehicles, the parking brake, also called hand brake, emergency brake, or e-brake,
is used to keep the vehicle stationary and in many cases also perform an emergency stop.
Parking brakes on older vehicles often consist of a cable connected to two-wheel brakes at one
end and the other end to a pulling mechanism which is operated with the driver's hand or foot.

31
The mechanism may be a hand-operated lever, at floor level beside the driver, or a straight pull
handle located near the steering column, or a (foot-operated) pedal located beside the driver’s
leg. In most automobiles the parking brake operates only on the rear wheels, which have
reduced traction while braking. Some automobiles have the parking brake operate on the front
wheels.

Figure 13 – Handbrake Lever

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 DESIGN METHODOLOGY

 We are having the 2D Model for Hand brake lever and create the part model in
Solidworks Software.
 There are Separate Part model can create to drafting and 3D Modelling of Hand brake
lever.
 The frame which will hold the whole system.
 Shaft used to drive the wheels connected with frame using bearings.
 Bearings which will support the shaft ends and support and hold the frame.
 The main electrical circuit component which allows the brake to engage or disengage.

32
4.1.1 2D MODEL

Figure 14 – Handbrake Body Figure 15 – Lever Handle

Figure 16 – Adjuster Figure 17 – Clicker

Figure 18 – Rod

33
4.1.2 3D MODEL

Figure 19 – 3D Assembly Model

4.1.3 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Figure 20 – Circuit Diagram for Handbrake Releasing System

As microcontroller is usually furnished 5V DC and sends the causative signal of vary 0V

to 5V to relay supported the ignition condition of engine. Relay is furnished 12V DC and
switches the motor to rotate either clockwise or anticlockwise. Because the motor rotates, it
produces some electrical noises and high voltage. Thus, to stop microcontroller elements from
harm because of this noise and high voltage, we tend to are mistreatment opto-coupler in
between microcontroller and relay board.

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4.2 FABRICATION PROCESS

Fabrication processes are the steps through which raw materials are transformed into a
final product. The Fabrication process begins with the creation of the materials from which the
design is made. These materials are then modified through Fabrication processes to become
the required part. Fabrication processes can include treating (such as heat treating or coating),
machining, or reshaping the material. The Fabrication process also includes tests and checks
for quality assurance during or after the manufacturing, and planning the production process
prior to manufacturing.

4.2.1 SAWING

Cold saws are saws that make use of a circular saw blade to cut through various types of
metal, including sheet metal. The name of the saw has to do with the action that takes place
during the cutting process, which manages to keep both the metal and the blade from becoming
too hot. A cold saw is powered with electricity and is usually a stationary type of saw machine
rather than a portable type of saw.

The circular saw blades used with a cold saw are often constructed of high-speed steel.
Steel blades of this type are resistant to wear even under daily usage. The end result is that it is
possible to complete a number of cutting projects before there is a need to replace the
blade.High speed steel blades are especially useful when the saws are used for cutting through
thicker sections of metal.

Figure 21 – Sawing Cutting Process

35
4.2.2 WELDING

Welding is a process for joining similar metals. Welding joins metals by melting and
fusing 1, the base metals being joined and 2, the filler metal applied. Welding employs
pinpointed, localized heat input. Most welding involves ferrous-based metals such as steel and
stainless steel.Weld joints are usually stronger than or as strong as the base metals being joined.

Figure 22 – Welding Process

4.2.2.1 OPERATION

Several welding processes are based on heating with an electric arc, only a few are
considered here, starting with the oldest, simple arc welding, also known as shielded metal arc
welding (SMAW) or stick welding.

In this process an electrical machine (which may be DC or AC, but nowadays is usually
AC) supplies current to an electrode holder which carries an electrode which is normally coated
with a mixture of chemicals or flux. An earth cable connects the work piece to the welding
machine to provide a return path for the current. The weld is initiated by tapping ('striking') the
tip of the electrode against the work piece which initiates an electric arc. The high temperature
generated (about 6000oC) almost instantly produces a molten pool and the end of the electrode
continuously melts into this pool and forms the joint.

36
 The operator needs to control the gap between the electrode tip and the work piece while
moving the electrode along the joint.

4.2.3 DRILLNG

Drilling is a cutting process that uses a drill bit to cut or enlarge a hole of circular cross-
section in solid materials. The drill bit is a rotary cutting tool, often multipoint. The bit is
pressed against the work piece and rotated at rates from hundreds to thousands of revolutions
per minute. This forces the cutting edge against the work piece, cutting off chips (sward) from
the hole as it is drill.

5. FABRICATED MODEL

Figure 23 – Fabricated Model

5.1 DESIGN CALCULATIONS

5.1.1 HAND BRAKE CALCULATIONS

Now for hand lever, we can assume that the pull force applied on lever during applying
hand brake is approximately 30N.

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 Figure 24 – Handbrake Lever Mechanism

By considering F= 74.556 N From above calculations we will calculate Fhb.

Considering dimensions of Hand lever

la= 25 cm,

lb= 8 cm,

Fc= 93.75 N,

In case of handbrake, generally 60% of Handbrake we use while braking instead of total brake
so force required for handbrake is

60% of total Force.

0.6 x 74.55 = 44.75 N

Now for automatic hand brake system, we have to choose an actuator which produce nearby
45N of force.

But for our calculation and safety, we are assuming that the braking force required is 100N.

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5.2 BRAKING CONDITIONS

MOTOR IGNITION HANDBRAKE

REST ON OR OFF ENGAGE
RUNNING ON DISENGAGE
REST ON DISENGAGE
REST OFF ENGAGE

Table No: 3- Braking Conditions

5.3 ADVANTAGES AND APPLICATIONS

5.3.1 ADVANTAGES
• The cost of this system is much lower than the similar systems used in high end cars
which use electronic controllers which are way more expensive than this system.

• If a driver is not confident on climbing a hill in stop and go conditions then he may use
the system and find it very easy to park as well as start ascending on the hill.

• Push button activation controls the working of this system reduces the cost consumed.

• Manual interaction regarding the handbrake is completely reduced causing almost no

error in operation of the handbrake.

• Very fast disengagement is possible and there is no lag in operation of the handbrake.

5.3.2 APPLICATIONS
• It can be applied for passenger cars and light duty vehicles.

• By increasing the characteristics of electric drive, it can also be implemented in heavy

duty vehicles

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6. CONCLUSION
Automatic hand brake release mechanism is beneficial for operator’s safety by reducing
accident chances as well as disengaging chances of braking. This system can also be used in
commercial cars for ease of operating as well for reducing cost purpose. Along with it, we can
also modify our system by using the spring at the power actuator by using it as reverse purpose.
Thus, our project is still a demonstration of it, no car has yet used such concept on ignition
switch. This project gives a new idea of automatic hand braking system which can be applied
in car manufacturing industries as well as companies. The working is quite simple and doesn’t
require any extra effort to operator or driver. Even though when any driver forgets to pull the
hand brake in regular car, the driver can be in any critical situation but by using the concept of
automatic handbrake system, there is no possibility of risk because by putting the ignition
switch OFF, the hand brake system is automatically gets locked.

40
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