Criticism of the Sociocultural Theory

Maryam Ameri
Faculty of Foreign Languages, Tehran North Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran
[email protected]

Abstract Keywords
Sociocultural theory is an emerging theory in psychology that looks Vygotsky; mediation; sociocultural
at the important contributions that society makes to individual theory
development. This theory stresses the interaction between developing
people and the culture in which they live. Sociocultural theory also
suggests that human learning is largely a social process. Psychology
is one of the newest sciences. Over the years, social scientists have
developed theories or perspectives based off of their observations,
research, and the perspectives of other scientists. Although there is
some overlap, each of the major perspectives of psychology is
unique. As a result, they each have strengths and weaknesses and
explain psychology in a different way. SLA research in the tradition
of sociocultural theory examines the dynamic relationship between
interaction and acquisition, exploring how language, cognition, and
culture are acquired through collaborative interaction. This paper
presents an analysis of The Strengths and Weaknesses of the
Sociocultural Theory and to present a general overview of
Sociocultural Theory (SCT), and its relation to human cognitive
development.

I. Introduction

Sociocultural theory of mind developed by Vygotsky (1896-1934) argued that

learner’s complex forms of thinking have their origins in the learner’s social interactions
[through mediation] rather than in the learner’s private explorations: A learner acquires
new cognitive skills when receiving guidance from teachers or more capable peers (Sams,
n.d.). This external, targeted language assistance, which Vygotsky referred to in his zone of
proximal development (ZPD) was introduced and termed as “scaffolding” by Wood,
Bruner, and Ross (1976, 90).To create an appropriate learning experience (Sams, n.d.)
argued that a scaffolder must gain and keep the learner’s [whether child or novice]
attention, model the best strategy, and adapt the whole process to the learner’s level in his
or her zone of proximal development. In other words, “scaffolding” should be provided
within what the learner can perform independently and what he or she cannot perform in
the absence of this targeted assistance.
According to Vygotsky, the Sociocultural Theory (SCT) is an approach to learning
and mental development through the potential interaction between individuals and their
surrounding environment. Utilizing the existing cultural artifacts within their surrounding
environment, humans develop new cultural artifacts that assist them in directing their
biological and behavioral activities (Lantolf & Thorne, 201).
Sociocultural theory focuses not only how adults and peers influence individual
learning, but also on how cultural beliefs and attitudes affect how learning takes place.
According to Vygotsky, children are born with basic biological constraints on their minds.
Each culture, however, provides "tools of intellectual adaptation." These tools allow
children to use their abilities in a way that is adaptive to the culture in which they live. For

_____________________________________________________________
DOI: https://doi.org/10.33258/birci.v3i3.1082 1530
 Budapest International Research and Critics Institute-Journal (BIRCI-Journal)
Volume 3, No 3, August 2020, Page: 1530-1540
e-ISSN: 2615-3076(Online), p-ISSN: 2615-1715(Print)
www.bircu-journal.com/index.php/birci
emails: [email protected]
example, while one culture might emphasize memory strategies such as note-taking, another
might use tools like reminders or rote memorization. Lantolf (n.d.) stated that SCT was
established on a fundamental concept that the humans mind is ‘mediated’: This interpretation
was adapted from the Vygotskian argument that humans do not act directly on the physical
world but rely, instead, on tools and labor activity which promotes humans’ inspiration to
change the circumstances under which they live in the world around them using symbolic
tools, or signs, to mediate and regulate their relationships with others and themselves to
change the nature of these relationships ( 1). Wertsch proposed three major themes in
Vygotsky's writings that elucidate the nature of this interdependence between individual and
social processes in learning and development. The first is that individual development,
including higher mental functioning, has its origins in social sources. From this perspective,
as learners participate in a wide range of joint activities, and internalize the effects of working
together, they acquire new world and culture strategies and knowledge.
This principle has typically been illustrated by examining the interactions between
people with disparate levels of knowledge; for example, children and their caregivers, or
experts and novices. However, as Tudge and Scrimsher (2003) say, Vygotsky was not only
interested in what more experienced others brought to the interaction, but also in what the
child brought into the interiors himself or herself.
The second Vygotskian theme identified by Wertsch (1991) is that human action, on
both the planes of society and individuality are mediated by instruments and signs semiotics.
These are the Semiotics Means: "language; various counting systems; mnemonic techniques;
algebraic symbols; Systems; works of art; composition; schemes, diagrams , maps and
mechanical drawings; Conventional Signals, etc. (Vygotsky, 137).
Additional semiotic means include: computers, calculators, paint brushes and the like,
all of which are useful in representational activity. These semiotic means are both the tools
that facilitate the co-construction of knowledge and the means that are internalized to aid
future independent problem solving activity. Leontiev (1981), a colleague of Vygotsky, used
the term “appropriation” to characterize this process of internalization. Children cannot and
need not reinvent artifacts that have taken millennia to evolve in order to appropriate such
objects into their own system of activity. The child has only to come to an understanding that
it is adequate for using the culturally elaborated object in the novel life circumstances he
encounters. (Qtd. in Newman, Griffin, & Cole, 63).
Sociocultural theory provides a window into language acquisition that is useful in
considering the relationship between social interaction and language development.
For SLA researchers working within a sociocultural theoretical framework second
language acquisition research methodology is based upon the understanding that socialization
and language acquisition cannot be separated from the interactive linguistic contexts in which
they occur. The contradictory nature of language development is that the process of becoming
a language user—by and large, the process of participating in societally determined fixed
verbal intercourse ...—occurs through the child's manifest ability to make meaning,
development progresses through the process of social interaction where the learner is an
active participant in the meaning-making process through which the learner acquires the L2.2
New research in SLA on language play supports the importance of participating in meaning-
making activity.
Mahbobeh Rahmatirad in her article The Effect of Task-Based Syllabus on Iranian EFL
Learners asserted:
Also known as the traditional syllabus, it is organized along grammatical items
giving primacy to language form. The structural syllabus holds the theory that
functionalability arises from structural knowledge. Structural patterns, organized

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 according to such criteria as structural complexity, difficulty, regularity, utility and
frequency, are the basic units of learning. It makes an abundant use of highly controlled,
tightly structured and sequenced pattern practice drills. It deals with Semantics and
sentence types such as statements, questions, interrogatives and grammatically defined
types such as simple, compound and complex sentences are seen. Morphology can also
be found in structural syllabi such as singular, plural marking; determiners, articles,
prepositions, gender markers and so on. (38)

II. Research Methods

Language and thought develop on parallel pathways instead of separate tracks. For
example, a child knows what a ball is before his is able to say the word. A parent may ask the
child to find the ball and the child is able to retrieve the correct item before he is able to
accurately speak the word "ball. “ This is direct opposition to Vygotsky's idea that the spoken
word must be acquired before the thought or concept of ball can develop.
Language theories have a broad outline and are not well drawn out. Rely more on the
ideas of cultural influence, cultural helps develop the individual in language and cognitive
development. According to Vygotsky very little language and development come from
biological factors. Modern psychologists dismiss this idea that cultural influences play a
dominant role in development of language. “Despite the label “Sociocultural” the theory is
not a theory of the social or of the cultural aspects of human existence….it is, rather,…a
theory of mind…that recognizes the central role that social relationships and culturally
constructed artifacts play in organizing uniquely human forms of thinking” (Lantolf, 30-1)
Through SCT, Vygotsky focused on the relationships between individual’s
psychological aspects and the social and culturally produced contexts and artifacts that
transform the individual’s cognitive or mental functions. Main SCT ideas on cognitive
(mental) development are Internalization, Zone of Proximal Development, ZPD),
Scaffolding, Mediation and Dynamic Assessment. ZPD is “…the distance between the actual
development level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential
development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration
with more capable peers.” (Vygotsky, 86)
The zone of proximal development (Vygotsky, 1987; Newman & Holzman, 1993) is
the interactively constituted social and cognitive place where language development occurs
as learners participate in meaning-making activities with others—where language leaning is a
process of discovery-in-use. The ZPD as defined by Vygotsky (1978) is
The difference between the child's developmental level as determined by
independent problem solving and the higher level of potential development as
determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more
capable peers (86).
CLT will have strengths and weaknesses. Until we gain more knowledge about the
mind and behavior, we will not be able to draw precise conclusions on which everyone can
agree. For now, psychologists continue doing research, come up with new perspectives, and
use the relevant information from the current perspectives. In the field of psychology
opinions will always differ.

2.1. The Core Concept of SCT Theory

Internalization. Internalization is another core concept of SCT during which
cultural artifacts, such as language, take on a psychological function. Internalization is
defined as «a negotiated process that recognizes the relationship of the individual to her or his

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social environment and generally carries it into future performance». The Vygotskian
interpretation of internalization is that «Every psychological function appears twice, first
between people on the interpsychological plane and then within the individual on the
intrapsychological plane». Imitation. Disregarding the typical meaning of ‘imitation’
commonly known as mindless mimicking that often associated with behaviorism in
psychology and the audio-lingual method in language pedagogy, Lantolf & Thorne defined
‘imitation’ differently based on the Vygotskian theory as «it involves goal directed cognitive
activity that can result in transformations of the original model» .

2.2. Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

Lantolf and Thorne argue that ZPD is a model of the developmental process, as well
as a conceptual tool that educators can use by to understand aspects of their students’
emerging capacities that are in early stages of maturation. ZPD is also seen a diagnostic tool,
when used proactively by teachers, can help them create learning conditions for their students
to promote their cognitive development in the future. Self-Regulation Stage: When the
learner reaches this last stage of his or her cognitive development, the learner becomes able to
accomplish the learning activities with minimal or no external support.

III. Discussion

3.1 Critique of Socio-Cultural Theory (SCT)

The sociocultural theory of abnormal psychology focuses on society and family as
causes of mental illness. Strengths of this theory include the fact that it addresses the impact
that society has on individuals, it looks at issues surrounding labeling of people and it has a
high treatment success rate. There are several criticisms to the Vygotsky approach. The Zone
of Proximal Development is unclear in that it does not account for a precise picture of a
child’s learning needs, a child’s present capability level, or a child’s motivational influences.
The ZPD also does not explain the process of development or how development actually
occurs. Vygotsky’s socio-cultural theory disregards the role of the individual, but regards the
collective.
Vygotsky asserted that the mind is not considered separate from the group. That is,
Vygotsky maintained that knowing is relative to the situation in which the knowers find
themselves. In turn, the theory does not recognize that individuals can rise above social
norms based on their ability to bring about personal understanding. Such individuals would
include gifted students or child prodigies. Vygotsky’s socio-cultural theory does not seem to
apply to all social and cultural groups. That is, social groups may not be whole and equal
with all learners being able to gain the same meaning from engagement.
The application of the ZPD in practice is more problematic. Vygotsky failed to provide
much about the effective use of ZPD in classrooms (Shayer, 2002). Piaget (1995, as cited in
Matusov & Hayes, 2000) suggests that in participation in the activity for which a child is not
ready with a more knowledgeable other, leads mainly to imposing the partner’ views and will
not affect the structures of child’s actions (i.e., social constraint). Mitchell & Myles (2004)
claim that most socio-cultural studies of language development within the ZPD have focused
on individual lexical items or morpho syntactic features as found in traditional grammar. The
concept of Zone of proximal development was critiqued by Lambert & Clyde (2000) as
follows: We feel…that Vygotsky’s ZPD presents a restricted view of learning processes and
reduces the learner's role to one of passivity and dependence upon the adult (29). They
actually failed to consider the application of ZPD in language learning. As researchers,
Lambert & Clyde felt restricted view of ZPD. They had rather provide findings to support

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their furnishing idea. Since Vygotsky (1997) argues that the role of teacher in the ZPD is to
shape and fashion the social environment of the child and he/she cannot directly influence the
child in the cognitive development. Vygotsky did not use the word scaffolding in socio
cultural theory.

3.2 Strongpoints of Socio Cultural Perspective Theory

A theory has possibly 'theoretical' advantages or disadvantages given its empirical or
philosophical basis. That’s the reason why theories are falsified and continuously adapted or
even rejected after a serious paradigm shift. However, possible advantages or disadvantages
of use put theory in a different perspective. Further, there is a need to consider sociolinguistic
variables that influence how children of different ages and cultural groups interpret adults'
questions. Similarly, there are developmental and cultural differences re requirements of
politeness markers in different languages. Now, we are appealing to what is commonly called
the performance-learning distinction. One of the strengths of this perspective is that it
recognizes the relationship between cognitive development and a part of an individual's
social, cultural, and historical context (Sigelman, 2009). That explains the historical
differences between cultures. This is an essential idea, since we all note the variations
between the ways of thinking of each person.
Vygotsky gave a good answer himself regarding the advantages of his approach relative
to theories that assume that a child cannot work beyond a given developmental level and
theories that focus on learning alone. Developmental stage theories that assume that a child
cannot do anything «over» their current «level» of development presuppose limitations that
may not exist in practice--with the right support. Learning theories that view development as
simply more «learning» tend to have no way of explaining «development,» which involves a
change in the way learning in some area is occurring. Vygotsky's approach allows a teacher
or tutor to find the ZPD, the «zone» in which a child can perform successfully with
appropriate assistance.
Vygotsky's theory also stressed the importance of play in learning. Teachers and
parents can use this knowledge by providing children plenty of opportunities for play
experiences. Vygotsky believed that through playing and imagining, children were able to
further stretch their conceptual abilities and knowledge of the world. Types of play that can
foster learning include imaginary play, role-playing, games, and reenactments of real events.
Such activities help promote the growth of abstract thought.
Hence it is more positive or constructive than simply saying «You're not ready for that
yet.» It also allows one to understand how a student can understand new relationships that
they did not understand previously, by participating in them with someone else. Simply put,
in today's technological society I cannot see how education can divorces itself from the
culture in which our students are brought up. To not acknowledge and work within the
students' culture seems to be fighting an overwhelming tide. We, in my opinion, need to use
this concept to advance student learning by integrating our knowledge requirements into a
familiar environment of the student. Students need to relevance and application of
knowledge in their daily lives. Vygotsky gave a good answer himself regarding the
advantages of his approach relative to theories that assume that a child cannot work beyond a
given developmental level and theories that focus on learning alone. Developmental stage
theories that assume that a child cannot do anything «over» their current «level» of
development presuppose limitations that may not exist in practice--with the right support.
Learning theories that view development as simply more «learning» tend to have no way of
explaining «development,» which involves a change in the way learning in some area is
occurring. Vygotsky's approach allows a teacher or tutor to find the ZPD, the «zone» in

1534
which a child can perform successfully with appropriate assistance. Vygotsky's theory also
stressed the importance of play in learning. Teachers and parents can use this knowledge by
providing children plenty of opportunities for play experiences. Vygotsky believed that
through playing and imagining, children were able to further stretch their conceptual abilities
and knowledge of the world. Types of play that can foster learning include imaginary play,
role-playing, games, and reenactments of real events. Such activities help promote the growth
of abstract thought.
Sociocultural theory has gained popularity in recent years, particularly in educational
settings. Here's how this theory can be put into practice in the real world. Sociocultural theory
has gained popularity in recent years, particularly in educational settings. Understanding the
zone of proximal development can be helpful for teachers. In classroom settings, teachers
may first assess students to determine their current skill level. Teachers can help promote this
expansion by: Planning and organizing their instruction and lessons: For example, the teacher
might organize the class into groups where less skilled children are paired with students who
have a higher skill level.

3.3 Piaget vs. Vygotsky: Key Differences

Vygotsky's sociocultural theory differ from Piaget's theory of cognitive development
First, Vygotsky placed a greater emphasis on how social factors influence development.
Another important difference between the two theories is that while Piaget's theory suggests
that development is largely universal, Vygotsky asserts that cognitive development can differ
between different cultures. In his text, «Social and Personality Development,» David R.
Shaffer explains that while Piaget believed that cognitive development was fairly universal,
Vygotsky believed that each culture presents unique differences. Unlike Piaget's notion that
childrens' development must necessarily precede their learning, Vygotsky argued, «learning
is a necessary and universal aspect of the process of developing culturally organized,
specifically human psychological function» . In other words, social learning tends to precede
development. Vygotsky has developed a sociocultural approach to cognitive development.
No single principle can account for development. Individual development cannot be
understood without reference to the social and cultural context within which it is embedded.
Vygotsky places more emphasis on culture affecting cognitive development. Vygotsky places
considerably more emphasis on social factors contributing to cognitive development.
Vygotsky places more (and different) emphasis on the role of language in cognitive
development. According to Vygotsky adults are an important source of cognitive
development. (Vygotsky, L, 37-45)
Eventually, through interaction within the sociocultural environment, these are
developed into more sophisticated and effective mental processes/strategies which he refers
to as 'higher mental functions. Attention, Sensation, Perception and Memory. In our culture,
we learn note-taking to aid memory, but in pre-literate societies, other strategies must be
developed, such as tying knots in a string to remember, or carrying pebbles, or repetition of
the names of ancestors until large numbers can be repeated. The tools of intellectual
adaptation, therefore, vary from culture to culture - as in the memory example.

a. Behaviorism Theory
There are many theories, methods, and research related to the nature of language
acquisition. Thorough understanding of this knowledge can aid teachers in the creation of
learning environment that support the language and literacy development and content area
achievement of English language learners. The theories, approaches, and methods
surrounding language instruction used over the past century have varied tremendously. Many

1535
critics argue that behaviorism is a one-dimensional approach to understanding human
behavior and that behavioral theories do not account for free will and internal influences such
as moods, thoughts and feelings. As my professor told us, behaviourism tends to be
«superficial» or shallow in explaining behavior and learning. As can be inferred from the
theory presented, much of the human behavior and learning abilities were attributed to the
effects of external factors that serve as reinforcers or punishers. It only says that regardless of
what behavior an individual learned in the past through the system of reinforcement, he can
still be able to modify and/or change it when new circumstances offer new information.
Behaviorism in general provided us much influence in the field of education and psychology.
We can never just deny the fact that some of our beliefs and approaches to life are rooted in
this body of knowledge. In the end, I have to say that no any single theory could ever explain
fully how we behave and learn in the context of a changing environment. Other theories were
purposively developed because proponents did find significance. It is now imperative for us,
to go out of the box, incorporate and synthesize the impacts of these many theories. (Skinner,
323-26)

b. Universal Grammar Theory

Proponents of Universal Grammar argue that language is acquired rather than learned,
meaning that the child itself acquires the language on the basis of linguistic structures that are
a biologically innate part of the human mind. When Chomsky first presented his theories in
the 1950s, they were controversial, but since then they have sparked a major debate within
the linguistic community. There are countless proponents on both sides of the issue, some
presenting UG as «the best theory», others completely disagreeing with the seemingly
abstract principles that it represents, instead subscribing to other models. In light of this
continuous debate, this paper wishes to engage with the topic of Universal Grammar with
regards to language acquisition. In the first part of the paper, I will present the motivation
behind the theory of UG. Following this, I will present two main arguments in favor of UG,
and finally, I will engage with two recent arguments against UG in an effort to explore
questions regarding the validity of the argument of UG as «the best theory» in the field of
child language acquisition. Having presented a general outline of the issues regarding the
acquisition of language that Universal Grammar seeks to resolve, I will now go into depth
with some of the more specific arguments for UG. The arguments are connected, with the
first detailing the problem of the productive nature of language and the second looking
specifically at child language acquisition and the argument from the poverty of stimulus, both
seeking to argue the stance that UG is the best theory for explaining the processes behind
language acquisition.( Chomsky N., 33-54)

c. Input Processing Theory

Input is the raw language data that learners hear or read and entails a specific
communicative intent. Input is the primary data base on which learners build a linguistic
system. Changing the way learners process input and enriching their intake might have an
effect on the developing system that subsequently should have an impact on how learners
produce the target language. Input processing is concerned with those psycholinguistic
strategies and mechanisms by which learners derive intake from input.
In Van-Patten’s theory, when learners attend or notice input and process the message, a
form-meaning connection is made. Developing the learners’ ability to map one form to one
meaning is therefore essential for acquisition. In the interaction hypothesis, input is seen as a
significant element/factor for acquisition without which learners cannot acquire a language.

1536
In the case of non-interactional input, he refers to the kind of input that occurs in the context
of nonreciprocal discourse where learners are not part of an interaction.
In the former case, learners have the advantage of being able to negotiate meaning and
make some conversational adjustments. Overall, language teachers should consider the use of
tasks devised in a way that, on one hand, enhance the grammatical features in the input, and
on the other hand, provide learners with opportunities to focus on meaning. (Piaget, J. 223-
26)

d. Connectivism Theory
In connectivism, the starting point for learning occurs when knowledge is actuated
through the process of a learner connecting to and feeding information into a learning
community. In the connectivist model, a learning community is described as a node, which is
always part of a larger network. Nodes arise out of the connection points that are found on a
network. A network is comprised of two or more nodes linked in order to share resources.
Nodes may be of varying size and strength, depending on the concentration of information
and the number of individuals who are navigating through a particular node. According to
connectivism, knowledge is distributed across an information network and can be stored in a
variety of digital formats. Siemens (2004) states, “A community is the clustering of similar
areas of interest that allows for interaction, sharing, dialoguing, and thinking together.
Learning and knowledge are said to «rest in diversity of opinions». Connectivism stresses
that two important skills that contribute to learning are the ability to seek out current
information, and the ability to filter secondary and extraneous information.
The ability to make decisions on the basis of information that has been acquired is
considered integral to the learning process. The learning process is cyclical, in that learners
will connect to a network to share and find new information, will modify their beliefs on the
basis of new learning, and will then connect to a network to share these realizations and find
new information once more. « Knowledge creation process. Not only knowledge
consumption.» One’s personal learning network is formed on the basis of how one’s
connection to learning communities are organized by a learner. Learners may transverse
networks through multiple knowledge domains. The peripheries of knowledge fields are
porous, allowing for the interdisciplinary connections to be made. Siemens asserts, «The
ability to see connections between fields, ideas, and concepts is a core skill» . The
connectivist metaphor is particularly timely, since the navigation of the Internet and the
means by which information is dispersed on the Internet now provides a reference point for
Siemens’ assertions. Of course the number of learners who have been immersed in these
technologies all their lives will grow, as the young are more predisposed to use the latest
technologies and will displace the learners who have grown up with books and pen and paper
as resources for learning. There is a need for educators to closely follow and influence the
developments and the debates, and seriously research how their institutions can evolve using
the emerging technologies to their and their learners’ advantage. In doing so, they would
ensure that education can secure its role of critical engager, and at the same time make the
best use of technology – that is in making connections with information and knowledgeable
others all over the world to enrich learners lives and the communities in which they live. A
paradigm shift, indeed, may be occurring in educational theory, and a new epistemology may
be emerging, but it does not seem that connectivism’s contributions to the new paradigm
warrant it being treated as a separate learning theory in and of its own right. Connectivism,
however, continues to play an important role in the development and emergence of new
pedagogies, where control is shifting from the tutor to an increasingly more autonomous
learner. (Siemens, para. 6-10)

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e. Constructivism Theory
Typically, this continuum is divided into three broad categories: Cognitive
constructivism based on the work of Jean Piaget, social constructivism based on the work of
Lev Vygotsky, and radical constructivism.
According to the GSI Teaching and Resource Center, Cognitive constructivism states
knowledge is something that is actively constructed by learners based on their existing
cognitive structures. Therefore, learning is relative to their stage of cognitive development.
Cognitivist teaching methods aim to assist students in assimilating new information to
existing knowledge, and enabling them to make the appropriate modifications to their
existing intellectual framework to accommodate that information. (Ernest, 48)
According to social constructivism learning is a collaborative process, and knowledge
develops from individuals' interactions with their culture and society. Social constructivism
was developed by Lev Vygotsky who suggested that, every function in the child's cultural
development appears twice: first, on the social level and, later on, on the individual level;
first, between people and then inside the child.
The teacher makes sure he/she understands the students' preexisting conceptions, and
guides the activity to address them and then build on them. Constructivists believe that there
are no enduring, context-free truths, that researcher bias cannot be eliminated, that multiple,
socially constructed realities can only be studied holistically rather than in pieces, and that the
possibility of generalizing from one research site to another is limited. Learning is seen as
involving reorganization and reconstruction and it is through these processes that people
internalize knowledge and perceive the world. In language teaching, constructivism has led to
a focus on learning strategies, learner beliefs, teacher thinking and other aspects of learning
which stress the individual and personal contributions of learners to learning. A constructivist
view of teaching involves teachers in making their own sense of their classrooms and taking
on the role of a reflective practitioner.
This theory associated with the works of Piaget and Vygotsky and turned back to
1980s, 1990s and early 2000.

Sociocultural Theory Differs From Constructivism

Both constructivism and sociocultural theory, when applied to learning, are concerned
with the activities that children engage in to learn. However, constructivist theory suggests
one should attend to the learning and mental representations of the individual while the
sociocultural theory is more concerned with the ways in which learning is an act of
enculturation.

3.4 The Three levels of Adequacy of Sociocultural Theory

Observational adequacy: It was argued that higher thinking processes needed for
optimal professional practices are inherently social and start at the intermental level between
and among people. Hence, for professional development to get realized, the teacher should
participate in social activities and groups. The program designer of professional development
should identify the needs and goals of the teacher trainees so that the less knowledgeable
trainees can move up through higher stages of ZPD functioning under the supervision of
more knowledgeable trainers. Mentoring and peer coaching are the examples of procedures
through which the novice teachers could experience professional development under a more
significant other’s supervision and collegiality.
Descriptive adequacy: There should be sufficient time for the teacher learner to gain
professional development. The pre-/in-service teachers who aspire to experience professional
development could benefit from a range of options such as diary writing, electronic dialog

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journal, collaborative peers and mentors, TESOL discourse, conferences and workshops, and
technological scaffolding so as to bring about a lifelong professional change in their ZPD.
Explanatory adequacy: The importance of external support or follow-up scaffolding
after experiencing professional development. Like learning, professional development is a
continuous and never-ending process. The teachers need in-service training after they have
gone through professional development and when they are placed in their sociocultural
instructional contexts. The tools in the form of expert guiding and assistance as an external
source of mediation and signs as an internal source of mediation help the teacher extend his
ZPD. Technology has proved to serve as a reliable source of electronic scaffolding and, thus,
a positive change in teacher’s professional development. Internet, computer, and associated
software known as technological artifacts can mediate teacher’s learning. Through sharing
the instructional problems and challenges with each other, the teacher participants are
provided with an opportunity to reach intersubjectivity,

IV. Conclusion

The study concludes with the idea that it was really surprise for researchers with the
idea that socio cultural factors are necessary for the cognitive development of the child in
language learning. His genuine contribution to education, psychology and applied linguistics.
Through the analysis of different findings and studies, it seems meaningful to state that
Vygotsky singled out and studied the dynamic social surroundings which indicate the
connection between teacher and the child. However, he focused on the social, cultural and
historical artifacts which play a pivotal role in the children’s cognitive development as well
as their potential performance. Major concepts discussed aforementioned reveal the
remarkable achievement of socio-cultural theory in learning and teaching processes.

References

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